A woman with a sword, from a Medieval manuscript.

The history of women in the military is one that extends over 4000 years into the past, and throughout a vast number of cultures and nations. Women have played many roles in the military, from ancient warrior women, to the women currently serving in the Iraq War. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (560x876, 559 KB) Summary Illustration of a woman wielding a sword in battle, from a Medieval manuscript. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (560x876, 559 KB) Summary Illustration of a woman wielding a sword in battle, from a Medieval manuscript. ... The Middle Ages formed the middle period in a traditional schematic division of European history into three ages: the classical civilization of Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and modern times. ... For other uses, see Iraq war (disambiguation). ...

Although the role of women in the military, particularly in combat, has been a controversial one beginning in the medieval era. Despite various roles in the armies of past societies, it is only recently that women have begun to be given a more prominent role in contemporary armed forces. As increasing numbers of countries begin to expand the role of women in their militaries, the debate continues. A woman with a sword, from a Medieval manuscript. ...

History

Ancient Era

Main article: History of Women in Ancient Warfare

Sarcophagus of Ahhotep Hatshepsut Deborah Tomyris Berenice II Arsinoe III Cleopatra VII of Egypt Agrippina the Younger Statue of Boudica Julia Domna Julia Avita Mamaea Zenobia coin reporting her title, Augusta. ...

Medieval Era (500-1500)

Main article: History of Women in Medieval warfare

A woman with a sword, from a Medieval manuscript. ...

Early Modern Era (1500-1750)

Main article: History of Women in Early Modern Warfare

...

18th century

Main article: Women in 18th century warfare

Drawing purported to be of Nancy Ward Statue of Sybil Ludington Molly Pitcher depicted in 1859 engraving 1754–1763: French and Indian War. ...

19th century

Main article: Women in 19th century warfare

Nadezhda Durova Countess Emilia Plater Drawing of Kuilix in the 1846 battle against the Crow tribe Florence Nightengale Rani Lakshmibai Begum Hazrat Mahal Mary Edwards Walker 1801: Austrian army lieutenant Franziska Scanagatta is discovered to be a woman. ...

20th century

1900-1914

Main article: Women in warfare (1900-1914)

1900: Yaa Asantewaa leads the Ashanti in rebellion against the British. ...

First World War

Main article: Women in the First World War

1914: Dorothy Lawrence disguises herself as man in order to become an English soldier in the First World War. ...

1918-1939

Main article: Women in warfare (1918-1939)

Sabiha Gökçen with Mustafa Kemal Atatürk 1920: During the Turkish Independence War, Kara Fatma and her gang carried out operations against the British, Armenian, French, Italian and Greek soldiers. ...

Second World War

Main article: Female roles in the World Wars

Rosie the Riveter: We Can Do It! - Many women first found economic strength in World War II-era manufacturing jobs. ...

Post World War II

Main article: Women in warfare (1945-1999)

Blanca Canales CW03 Rose Franco General Margaret A. Brewer FMLN Commander Ana Maria Lt. ...

21st Century

Main article: Women in warfare (2000-present)

PFC Jessica Lynch, USA // May: Coral Wong Pietch becomes the first Asian-American woman to reach the rank of Brigadier General in the United States Army. ...

Contemporary Debate on Women's Roles in the Military

The role of women in combat has become a particularly contentious issue in contemporary militaries throughout the world. With the current exclusion of women from many combat roles seen by some as a form of sexual discrimination, an ongoing debate continues to rage. Many on each side of the issue cite the alleged physical and mental differences of the two sexes, the effect of the presence of the opposite sex on the battlefield, and the traditional view of male soldiers as arguments both for and against women being employed as soldiers under combat situations.

Although women are recruited to serve in the military in most countries, only a few countries permit women to fill active combat roles. Countries that allow this include Canada, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Norway and Switzerland. Other nations allow female soldiers to serve in certain Combat Arms positions, such as Israel and Great Britain, which allow women to serve in Artillery roles, while still excluding them from units with a dedicated Infantry role.

The Arguments

Several points of argument have been put forward by those in favour of women serving in combat conditions as well as those against the idea. Many of these arguments are focused on the physical differences between men and women, but also on differing mentalities, and the effects upon one sex by the presence of the other on the battlefield. Since very few countries employ a fully integrated military, there are few references able to prove or disprove the arguments below.

Physical Concerns

One of the most obvious concerns regarding women in combat situations is the fact that, on average, female soldiers do not possess as much physical strength as their male counterparts.^[1] The female skeletal system is also less dense, and more prone to breakages.^[2][3] There is also concern that, in aviation, the female body is not as adept at handling the increased g-forces experienced by combat pilots. Furthermore, health issues regarding women currently prevent the vast majority of submarine services from accepting women, as is explained in more depth below.^[4][5]

However, an article in the Army Times, July 29, 1996, states that some women (albeit a small minority) do possess the physical attributes suitable to become combat soldiers.^[6] is the 210th day of the year (211th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1996 (MCMXCVI) was a leap year starting on Monday (link will display full 1996 Gregorian calendar). ...

Psychological Concerns The disruption of a combat units esprit de corps is cited as another reason for women to be banned from front-line combat situations. Indeed, many soldiers have stated that they could not trust a woman to perform her duties in a place where trusting your fellow soldier would be exceedingly critical.^[7][8] There is a secondary concern that romantic relationships between men and women on the front lines could disrupt a unit's fighting capability and a fear that a high number of women would deliberately become pregnant in order to escape combat duties.^[9][10] In the British Army, which continues to bar women from serving in Infantry-roled units, all recruits joining to fill Infantry vacancies partake in a separate training program called the Combat Infantryman's Course. This all-male course is kept segregated from other training courses in part to maintain the "Boy's Club" culture that has proven effective within such units. Esprit de Corps might refer to: Esprit de Corps - state of mind, Morale. ...

In the American armed forces, the 1994 rules forbidding female involvement in combat units of battalion size or smaller are being bent. Colonel Cheri Provancha, stationed in Iraq, argues that: "This war has proven that we need to revisit the policy, because they are out there doing it.”.^[11] The fact that women already engage in combat in today’s armed forces counters the idea that women do not possess a sufficiently aggressive mentality to kill enemy soldiers.

A second argument against the inclusion of women in combat units is that placing women in combat where they are at risk of being captured and tortured (and possibly sexually assaulted) is unacceptable. It is believed that Private Jessica Lynch survived such treatment as a POW in 2003. Jessica Dawn Lynch (b. ... Geneva Convention definition A prisoner of war (POW) is a soldier, sailor, airman, or marine who is imprisoned by an enemy power during or immediately after an armed conflict. ... Year 2003 (MMIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ...

This point is countered, however, by the fact women who are currently in non-combat roles are still exposed to the risk of capture and sexual abuse, yet are not given the weapons or training to adequately defend themselves through combat. Furthermore, it is argued that women who joined the military in combat roles would almost certainly be aware of the risks and accept them. It is also worth remembering that male soldiers are frequently abused by their captors, and this has on numerous occasions included severe psychological and even sexual abuse. In general, it can be stated that volunteer soldiers are expected to have accepted the risk of such treatment when enlisting regardless of gender.

Sex Discrimination and Tradition

Many view the exclusion of women from military combat jobs as the last bastion of sex discrimination. Some believe that women are forbidden to serve in these roles only as a result of the traditionalist view of soldiering as a profession for men and that the equal opportunity laws should apply to the military. Many point out that there are many historical examples of women achieving much on the battlefield in combat roles.

Tactical Concerns

In On Killing: The Psychological Cost of Learning to Kill in War and Society, Lt. Col. Dave Grossman briefly mentions that female soldiers in the Israel Defense Forces have been officially prohibited from serving in close combat military operations since 1948 (in 2001, subsequent to publication, women began serving in IDF combat units on an experimental basis). The reason for removing female soldiers from the front lines is no reflection of the performance of female soldiers, but that of the enraged male infantryman after witnessing a woman wounded. The IDF saw a complete loss of control over soldiers who apparently experienced an uncontrollable, protective, instinctual aggression which could have resulted in a massacre. Lieutenant Colonel Dave Grossman is an author who has specialized in the study of the psychology of killing. ... Emblem of the IDF The Israel Defense Forces are part of the Israeli Security Forces. ...

Grossman also notes that Islamic militants rarely, if ever, surrender to female soldiers. In modern warfare where intelligence is perhaps more important than enemy casualties every factor reducing combatants' willingness to fight is considered. Similarly, Iraqi and Afghani civilians are often not intimidated by female soldiers. However, in such environments, having female soldiers serving within a combat unit does have the advantage of allowing for searches on female civlians, and in some cases the female areas of segregated mosques, while causing less offense amongst the occupied population. A notable example of this would be the so-called "Lionesses", female US Military personnel who are specially selected to participate in patrols and raids for this purpose.

Melody Kemp mentions that the Australian soldiers have voiced similar concern saying these soldiers "are reluctant to take women on reconnaissance or special operations, as they fear that in the case of combat or discovery, their priority will be to save the women and not to complete the mission. Thus while men might be able to be programmed to kill, it’s is not as easy to program men to neglect women."^[12] Such issues however are also raised within units where members of the same family are present, as is often the case in "regional" units such as those of the United States National Guard. It is often the case that brothers, fathers and sons or other close male relatives may serve in close proximity to one another, and as such may feel more compelled to protect each other at the expense of other priorities than would be the case in a unit which did not have immediate relatives serving together. The United States National Guard is a reserve forces component of the United States Army (the Army National Guard) and the United States Air Force (the Air National Guard). ...

Recent history of changes in women's roles by country

Australia

Wing Commander Linda Corbould, the first woman to command a Royal Australian Air Force flying squadron, training in a USAF C-17 Globemaster III

The first women became involved with the Australian armed forces with the creation of the Army Nursing Service 1899. Currently, women make up 12.8% of the Australian Defence Force (with 15.1% in the Royal Australian Air Force, 14.6% in the Royal Australian Navy and 17.5% in the Australian Army).^[13] However, only 74% of the total number of available roles in the Australian armed forces are available to women. Despite this, using 1998-99 figures, the ADF had the highest percentage of women in its employ in the world.^[14] In 1998 Australia became the second nation in the world to allow women to serve on its submarines. Image File history File linksMetadata 02-corbould. ... Image File history File linksMetadata 02-corbould. ... Wing Commander Linda Corbould (1963 – ) is an officer in the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) and the first woman to command a RAAF flying squadron. ... For the Lockheed aircraft with this designation, see C-17 Super Vega. ... Year 1899 (MDCCCXCIX) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Friday [1] of the 12-day-slower Julian calendar). ... The Australian Defence Force (ADF) is the military organisation responsible for the defence of Australia. ... The Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) is the Air Force branch of the Australian Defence Force. ... The Royal Australian Navy (RAN) is the naval branch of the Australian Defence Force. ... The Australian Army is Australias military land force. ...

Like many other countries, Australia does not permit women to serve in the following military positions involving 'direct combat', as defined by the 1983 Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW):

• Clearance diving teams
• Infantry
• Armour
• Artillery
• Combat Engineers
• Airfield defence guards or ground defence officers

Health and safety reasons also exclude women from surface finishing and electroplating within the Air Force due to the use of embryo-toxic substances. Australia was the second country to permit female crew on submarines, doing so in June 1998 on board Collins Class submarines. Australia's first deployment of female sailors in a combat zone was aboard the HMAS Westralia in the Persian Gulf during the 1991 Gulf War. The second and present HMAS Westralia is the Royal Australian Navys primary oiler and one of only two ships in the RAN capable of underway replenishment. ... Map of the Persian Gulf. ... For other uses, see Iraq war (disambiguation). ...

In 1992, allegations of alleged sexual harassment on board HMAS Swan were investigated, and in 1998 similar allegations arose in the Australian Defence Force Academy. The third HMAS Swan (DE 50) was a River class frigate laid down by the Williamstown Dockyard at Melbourne in Victoria on 16 February 1965, launched on 16 December 1967 and commissioned on 20 January 1970. ... ADFA redirects here, for the Welsh village see Adfa (village). ...

Britain

Women join the British Armed forces in all roles except those whose "primary duty is to close with and kill the enemy"; Infantry, Armour, Commando, Airfield Defence, Special Air Service or Special Boat Service. In addition medical reasons preclude service in the Royal Navy Submarine Service or as Mine Clearance Divers. Infantry of the Royal Irish Rifles during the Battle of the Somme in World War I Infantry or footmen are very highly disciplined and trained soldiers who fight primarily with small arms(rifles), but are trained to use everything from their bare hands to missle systems in order to neutralize... It has been suggested that Mechanized warfare be merged into this article or section. ... The Royal Marines (RM) are the marines and amphibious infantry of the United Kingdom and, along with the Royal Navy and Royal Fleet Auxiliary, form the Naval Service [2]. They are also the United Kingdoms amphibious force and specialists in mountain and Arctic warfare. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... See also Australian Special Air Service Regiment and New Zealand Special Air Service: The Special Air Service Regiment (SAS) is the principal special forces unit of the British Army. ... The Special Boat Service (SBS) is the British Royal Navys special forces unit. ... The Royal Navy Submarine Service - sometimes known as the Silent Service, on account of a submarine being required to operate quietly in order to remain undetected by enemy SONAR (or ASDIC as it was known in the RN pre-1948) - is the collective name given to the submarine element of...

Female personnel currently make up around 9% of the British armed forces.^[15]

Notwithstanding that female combatants can be found throughout Britain’s military history.^[16]

An early example is Queen Boudica, who led warriors of the Iceni tribe against Roman forces occupying Britain around AD 62, her legacy being often quoted in support of arguments calling for the full opening up of the British Armed forces to women. Boudica and Her Daughters near Westminster Pier, London, commissioned by Prince Albert and executed by Thomas Thornycroft Boudica (also spelt Boudicca, formerly better known as Boadicea) (d. ...

During the 1776 American War of Independence, it is estimated that over 5000 women accompanied British forces. Many of these would have been the wives of high ranking officers with a large proportion being the wives of serving soldiers. While as much as possible women were left in the camp, they sometimes accompanied forces in their baggage trains serving as cooks or nurses, and were occasionally caught in combat and killed or taken prisoner. Similarly women accompanied men in ships of the Royal Navy, in combat being employed as powder monkeys or assisting the surgeon. This article is about the navy of the United Kingdom. ... This article is about the medical specialty. ...

During World War I the British Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps was formed; Lieutenant-General H Lawson recommended using it in France in 1917. Sir Neville Macready, the Adjutant-General, supported the idea that women and men should be treated the same at the front. Women served in the British Army during World War One as cooks, medical staff and clerical staff, however women were not permitted to be officers, and there were many disputes over pay. In 1917 the Women's Royal Naval Service (WRNS) was formed, although then disbanded in 1919, providing catering and administrative support, communications and electrician personnel. “The Great War ” redirects here. ... The Womens Royal Naval Service (WRNS, popularly known as Wrens) was a non-combat branch of the United Kingdom Royal Navy that recruited women. ...

Prior to World War II, in 1938 the Auxiliary Territorial Service was created, with 20,000 women serving in non-combat roles during the conflict as well as serving as military police and gun crews. The First Aid Nursing Yeomanry was incorporated into this service. In 1939 the WRNS was reformed with an increased range of shore-based opportunities available. Combatants Allied powers: China France Great Britain Soviet Union United States and others Axis powers: Germany Italy Japan and others Commanders Chiang Kai-shek Charles de Gaulle Winston Churchill Joseph Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Adolf Hitler Benito Mussolini Hideki Tōjō Casualties Military dead: 17,000,000 Civilian dead: 33,000...

In 1949 women were officially recognized as a permanent part of British Armed forces, though full combat roles were still available only to men. In this year, the Women's Royal Army Corps was created to replace the WAAC, and in 1950 the ranks were normalised with the ranks of men serving in the British Army.

In 1991 seagoing opportunities were opened to WRNS personnel leading to the full integration of the WRNS with the Royal Navy in 1993. to date several female personnel have commanded small ships of the RN and the current Commanding Officer of HM Naval Base, Clyde is a former WRNS Officer. Location of Faslane and RNAD Coulport Faslane Naval Base, HMNB Clyde Her Majestys Naval Base (HMNB) Clyde (HMS Neptune), is one of three operating bases for the Royal Navy (the others being HMNB Devonport and HMNB Portsmouth). ...

In 1992 British Army units devoted only to women were disbanded, and women were distributed amongst the same units in which men served.

The seizure of Royal Navy sailor Faye Turney in 2007 by the naval forces of the Iranian Revolutionary Guard led to some media comment on the role of women and mothers in the armed forces.^[17] Map of the Persian Gulf. ... This article is about the navy of the United Kingdom. ... This article is being considered for deletion in accordance with Wikipedias deletion policy. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ...

Canada

During the First World War, over 2300 women served overseas in the Royal Canadian Army Medical Corps. Canadian women were also organised into possible uniformed home guard units, undertaking military training in paramilitary groups. During the Second World War, 5000 women of the Canadian Medical Corps again served overseas, however they were not permitted to serve on combat warships or in combat teams. 45000 Canadian women served as support staff in every theatre of the conflict, driving heavy equipment, rigging parachutes, as well as clerical work, telephone operation and cooking. 5000 women performed similar occupations during Canada’s part in the Korean War of 1950-1953. Paramilitary designates forces whose function and organization are similar to those of a professional military force, but which are not regarded as having the same status. ... Combatants United Nations:  Republic of Korea,  Australia,  Belgium,  Luxembourg,  Canada,  Colombia,  Ethiopia,  France,  Greece,  Luxembourg,  Netherlands,  New Zealand,  Philippines,  South Africa,  Thailand,  Turkey,  United Kingdom,  United States Medical staff:  Denmark,  Australia,  Italy,  Norway,  Sweden Communist states:  Democratic People’s Republic of Korea,  Peoples Republic of China,  Soviet Union Commanders...

The HMCS Iroquois, aboard which served the first female Combat Chief

In 1965 the Canadian government decided to allow a maximum of 1500 women to serve in all three branches of its armed forces, and in 1970 the government created a set of rules for the armed forces designed to encourage equal opportunities. These included the standardisation of enlistment criteria, equal pay and pensions, and allowing women to enroll in all aspects of the Canadian armed forces and making it possible for women to reach any rank. In 1974 the first woman, Major Wendy Clay earned her pilot's wings in the Canadian armed forces, and four years later the first woman qualified for the Canadian skydiving demonstration team, the Skyhawks. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1532x1021, 128 KB)HMCS IROQUOIS  Â©  NOTE: The following conditions may not include terms which restrict usage to educational or not-for-profit purposes. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1532x1021, 128 KB)HMCS IROQUOIS  Â©  NOTE: The following conditions may not include terms which restrict usage to educational or not-for-profit purposes. ... HMCS Iroquois (DDH 280) is a Iroquois class destroyer of the Canadian Navy. ...

Between 1979 and 1985 the role of women expanded further, with military colleges allowing women to enroll. 1981 saw the first female navigator and helicopter pilot, and in 1982 laws were passed ending all discrimination in employment, and combat related roles in the Canadian armed forces were opened for women, with no restrictions in place, with the exception of the submarine service. In 1986 further laws were created to the same effect. The following years saw Canada’s first female infantry soldier, first female gunner, and a female Brigadier-General. Year 1981 (MCMLXXXI) was a common year starting on Thursday (link displays the 1981 Gregorian calendar). ... Brigadier General (sometimes known as a one-star general from the United States insignia) is the lowest rank of general officer in some countries, usually ranking just above Colonel and just below Major General. ...

In 1990 the Ministers Advisory Board on Women in the Canadian Forces was created, and in 1994 a woman was promoted to Major-General. In 2000 Major Micky Colton became the first female to log 10000 flying hours in a C-130 Hercules. Women were permitted to serve on board Canadian submarines in 2002 with the acquisition of the Victoria-class submarine. Master Seaman Colleen Beattie became the first female submariner in 2003. Major General or Major-General is a military rank used in many countries. ... The Lockheed C-130 Hercules is a four-engine turboprop cargo aircraft and the main tactical airlifter for many military forces worldwide. ... The Victoria class consists of four diesel-powered Canadian Navy submarines acquired from the Royal Navy (formerly known as the Upholder class) and replacing the old Oberon-class subs. ...

Canadian women have also become clearance divers, and commanded large infantry units and Canadian warships.

On May 17, 2006 Captain Nichola Goddard became the first Canadian woman killed in combat during operations in Afghanistan. is the 137th day of the year (138th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Captain is a rank or title with various meanings. ... Captain Nichola Kathleen Sarah Goddard MSM (May 2, 1980 – May 17, 2006) was the first female Canadian soldier killed in combat, and the 16th Canadian soldier killed in Canadian operations in Afghanistan. ...

Denmark

Women were employed in the Danish armed forces as early as 1934 with the Ground Observer Corps, Danish Women’s Army Corps and Naval Corps in 1946 and the Women’s Air Force since 1953. In 1962 the Danish parliament passed laws allowing women to volunteer in the regular Danish armed forces as long as they did not serve in units experiencing direct combat. 1971 saw the enlistment of women as non-commissioned officers, with military academies allowing women in 1974. Year 1934 (MCMXXXIV) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display full 1934 calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1971 (MCMLXXI) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display full calendar) of the 1971 Gregorian calendar. ...

In 1978, based on the reports of studies on the topic, women were allowed to enlist in an all areas of the Danish armed forces, with combat trials in the eighties exploring the capabilities of women in combat. In 1998 laws were passed allowing women to sample military life in the same way as conscripted men, however without being completely open to conscription. Women in the Danish military come under the command of the Chief of Defense.^[18]

As of 2002 the highest rank reached by a woman in the Danish armed forces was Lieutenant Colonel, with 5% (862) women in the services, 98 officers, 191 NCOs, and 571 privates[1]. However recent recruitment of women has been low in Denmark due to rising job opportunities elsewhere. NATO reports also indicate that the Danish military does not promote women to positions of leadership.^[19] 2002 is a common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar. ...

As with many nations with women in their armed forces, Denmark has different basic physical requirements for men and women in their armed forces, however the requirements for the more physically demanding jobs do not differ for either sex.

Women who undergo military service face same reserve obligations as men. Of the three reservists training here, the one on the left is female.

Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ...

Finland

Finnish Defense Forces does not conscript women. However, since 1995, the women between 18 and 30 years of age have the possibility of voluntarily undertaking the military service in the Defence Forces or in the Finnish Border Guard. The females serve under the same conditions than men, with the exception that during 45 first days of service they have the option to leave the military without consequences. After that, they must complete the service which lasts 6, 9 or 12 months. After the service, the females face the same reserve obligations as the males who have done the obligatory military service. If the female in national service experiences a conscientious crisis which prevents her from fulfilling her military service or reserve obligations, she is ordered to the alternative civilian service, which lasts 13 months.^[20] The Finnish Defence Forces (Finnish: Puolustusvoimat) consist of 34,700 people in uniform (27,300 army, 3,000 navy, and 4,400 air force). ... The Border Guard (Finnish: Rajavartiolaitos, Swedish: Gränsbevakningsväsendet) of Finland is the Finnish security authority responsible for the border security. ...

All services and units in the Finnish Defence Forces and the Finnish Border Guard accept females. In garrison environment, the females are lodged in separate rooms and are given separate toilet and bath facilities. In exercises and aboard ships, women are lodged with men. The women in national service are given an extra allowance of €0,40 per diem for sanitary articles and smallclothes.^[21] The females in military service are usually well motivated and some 60% of them receive either NCO or reserve officer training. Yearly, some 500 women complete the voluntary military service, while some 30.000 men complete the obligatory conscription.^[22]

Female Red Guard soldier from Finnish Civil War

The women who have completed the voluntary military service are eligible for further military employment. If they have at least NCO training, they can apply for career NCO positions or for officer training. These career paths have been open since 1996, when the first women completed the military service. In 2005, 32 female career officers were in service. The number of female warrant officers was 16 and the number of female specialist officers 7. In comparison, there were a total of 2.584 officers and 894 specialist officers in service. The women made up about 16% of the total career NCO cadre. However, most of these career NCOs were grandfathered former female enlistees who had not undertaken military service.^[23] Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Combatants Whites: White Guards, German Empire, Swedish volunteers Reds: Red Guards, Russian SFSR Commanders C.G.E. Mannerheim Ali Aaltonen, Eero Haapalainen, Eino Rahja, Kullervo Manner Strength 80,000–90,000 Finns, 550 Swedish volunteers, 13,000 Germans[1] 80,000–90,000 Finns, 4,000–10,000 Russians[1...

Members of Lotta Svärd in air control duty during the Continuation War

The history of women in Finnish military is, however, far longer than just since 1995. During the Finnish Civil War, the Reds had several Naiskaarti (Women's Guard) units made of voluntary 16 to 35 year women, who were given rudimentary military training. They fought alongside with men, and were known of their ferociousness, on occasion forcing even German regulars to retreat. After the Civil War the reactions on women in military were ambivalent: on one hand, the fighting women of the Reds were shunned, but also admired and compared to the "amazons of the old".^[24] The Finnish National Guard (Suojeluskunta) founded the female organization, Lotta Svärd in November 1918. While the Lottas were not front line fighting units per sé, as a paramilitary organization they handled several important second-line duties freeing men to the actual fighting service. A voluntary Lotta unit (wo)manned an a searchlight battery of Finnish anti-aircraft artillery in defense of Helsinki 1944.^[25] After the Continuation War, Lotta Svärd was declared a "paramilitary organization" and absolved in 1944.^[26] Image File history File links Metadata No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links Metadata No higher resolution available. ... Combatants  Finland Germany Italy1  Soviet Union  United Kingdom2 Commanders C.G.E. Mannerheim Kirill Meretskov Leonid Govorov Strength 530,000 Finns[1] 220,000 Germans 900,000–1,500,000[2] Casualties 58,715 dead or missing 158,000 wounded 1,500 civilian dead[3] 200,000 dead or missing... Combatants Whites: White Guards, German Empire, Swedish volunteers Reds: Red Guards, Russian SFSR Commanders C.G.E. Mannerheim Ali Aaltonen, Eero Haapalainen, Eino Rahja, Kullervo Manner Strength 80,000–90,000 Finns, 550 Swedish volunteers, 13,000 Germans[1] 80,000–90,000 Finns, 4,000–10,000 Russians[1... The Amazons (in Greek, ) were a mythical ancient nation of all-female warriors. ... The White Guards is one translation of the Finnish term Suojeluskunta (plural: Suojeluskunnat, Finland-Swedish: Skyddskår) that unfortunately has received many different translations to English, for instance: Security Guard, Civil Guard, National Guard, White Militia, Defence Corps, Protection Guard, Protection Corps and Protection Militia. ... The Lotta Svärd emblem designed by Eric Wasström in 1921. ... American troops man an anti-aircraft gun near the Algerian coastline in 1943 Anti-aircraft, or air defense, is any method of combating military aircraft from the ground. ... Combatants  Finland Germany Italy1  Soviet Union  United Kingdom2 Commanders C.G.E. Mannerheim Kirill Meretskov Leonid Govorov Strength 530,000 Finns[1] 220,000 Germans 900,000–1,500,000[2] Casualties 58,715 dead or missing 158,000 wounded 1,500 civilian dead[3] 200,000 dead or missing...

In 1961, the Finnish Defence Forces started to enlist females for second-line duties. The duties available to women were radar operator, sea-control person, and C3 person. Most of the female enlisted served in coastal artillery and Finnish Air Force. The women enlisted all served in the rank of värvätty (enlisted), using a special female uniform.^[27][28] In 1994, the female enlisted were given the same status as military persons as the male enlisted.^[29] At the same time, the women who had undergone the voluntary military service received the possibility to be recruited for all military careers. In the beginning of the year 2007, the term enlisted (värvätty) was changed to NCO (aliupseeri) to better recognize the change in the duties of this personnel group. The female enlistees who had not undertaken military service were grandfathered. They remain in the rank of enlistee unless they complete the conscript NCO course. ^[30][31] The Finnish Air Force (FAF) (Finnish: Ilmavoimat) is one of the branches of the Finnish Defence Forces. ...

The non-combat duties in Finnish Defence Forces peace-keeping operations opened to women in 1991. At first, the women without previous military training experienced rather large problems in the Finnish peace-keeping units, most remarkably in the Republic of Macedonia in mid-1990's. Since the introduction of the voluntary military service, the women have mostly the same training as the men which has lessened the problems. Only a handful of women without military training, mostly nurses or social service personnel, are serving with the Finnish peace-keeping forces. All duties in Finnish foreign operations are open to women, provided they have the necessary military training.^[32][33] Peacekeeping is a way to help countries torn by conflict create conditions for sustainable peace. ... For an explanation of terms related to Macedonia, see Macedonia (terminology). ...

France

A recent study (December 2006^[34]) shows that women represent 19% of all French military personnel. They are allowed to serve in all posts (including combat infantry), except submarines and riot control gendarmerie. However, they still represent a small part of the personnel in the following specialties: combat, security, mechanics, especially within the infantry and marines (only 337 - 1.7% - combat infantry soldiers and 9 - 0.4% - marines are female). A gendarmerie or gendarmery (pronounced ) is a military body charged with police duties among civilian populations. ...

Germany

Germany had employed one of the most conservative gender-policies of any NATO country. During the final months of World War Two, young boys and old men were called up to fight the advancing Soviet forces, however no woman was called upon, despite the country's long history of female fighting figures. Soviet redirects here. ...

In the year 1975 the first women were appointed for the medical service of the German Bundeswehr. In 1994 Verena von Weymarn accomplished the grade "Surgeon General of the Air Force". But it was not until January 2001 that women first joined German combat units, following a court ruling by the European Court of Justice. The change in the law was prompted after a female electronics operative argued her case to the European Court of Justice. The court ruled that preventing women from occupying combat roles in the armed forces was against sexual equality principles. 244 of the first 1,900 women who signed up following the law change were admitted on the first day of the new rules, the majority of them joining the army and air force^[35]. Before the law change 4,400 women only occupied medical or musical roles within the German armed forces. The new legislations initially did not receive full military support. A report on the subject commented that, regarding the older male soldiers, "The way they see themselves as male fighters is shattered. Der Spiegel, a leading German magazine, produced an article taking negative views of the new laws. Like many countries who have accepted women into combat roles, Germany conducts special courses on preventing sexual harassment^[36]. Year 1975 (MCMLXXV) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... The Bundeswehr (German for Federal Defence Force;  ) is the name of the unified armed forces of Germany. ... Verena von Weymarn (born July 16, 1943 in Riga) was a German medical officer and the first woman in German military history ever to be appointed the rank of general. ... Official emblem of the ECJ The Court of Justice of the European Communities, usually called the European Court of Justice (ECJ), is the highest court in the European Union (EU). ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ...

After several years of experience the commotion inside the Bundeswehr has now remarkably decreased. Today women are already being send to foreign deployments^[37]. As of November 2006 about 13,600 female soldiers serve in the Bundeswehr which represents a share of 7 percent of all troops except conscripted soldiers. The German Bundeswehr now expects the percentage of all female personnel to rise to about 15 percent in the middle-term future.^[38]

It was recently released that the first woman in the German air force received her jet fighter licence.^[39]

Israel

Several women transport pilots served in the 1948 war of independence and "Operation Kadesh" in 1956), but later the Air Force closed its ranks to female pilots. There is a draft of both men and women. Most women serve in non-combat positions, and are conscripted for only two years (instead of four for men). However, they were largely barred from combat until a landmark high court appeal in 1994, which forced the Air Force to accept women air cadets. In 2001, Israel's first female combat pilot received her wings. Until 2005, up to 83% of positions in the Israeli army were open to women, and today, they serve in combat positions in the artillery, frontier guards and on Navy ships. Combat duty is voluntary for women. Combatants  Israel Haganah Irgun Lehi Palmach Foreign Volunteers Egypt, Syria, Transjordan,  Lebanon, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Holy War Army, Arab Liberation Army Commanders Yaakov Dori, Yigael Yadin John Bagot Glubb, Abd al-Qadir al-Husayni, Hasan Salama, Fawzi Al-Qawuqji, Ahmed Ali al-Mwawi Strength  Israel: 29,677 initially rising... (Redirected from 1956 Suez War) The Suez Crisis, also known as the Suez War, Suez Campaign or Kadesh Operation was a war fought on Egyptian territory in 1956. ... For other uses, see Artillery (disambiguation). ...

New Zealand

New Zealand has no restrictions on roles for women in its defence force. They are able to serve in the Special Air Service, infantry, armour and artillery. This came into effect in 2001 by subordinate legislation.

Nepal

It is worth noting that Peoples Liberation Army, the armed forces of the Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) have a 30% female participation quota for their combat forces, and frequently claim 40% actual participation.^[40] A proposal of a 40% female combat troop quota in the future Nepal Army has been frequently forwarded publicly by Maoist leaders during their peace negotiations with the current government. The Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) or CPN(M) is a Maoist political party and military organisation founded in 1994 and led by Chairman Prachanda (born Pushpa Kamal Dahal). ...

Norway

Women in Norway have been able to fill military roles since 1938, and during the Second World War both enlisted women and female officers served in all branches of the military. However in 1947 political changes commanded that women only serve in civilian posts., with reservists allowing women to join them in 1959.

Between 1977 and 1984, the Norwegian Parliament passed laws expanding the role of women in the Norwegian Armed Forces, and in 1985 the equal opportunities legislations were applied to the military. Norwegian women are permitted to serve on a voluntary basis, however in the event of national mobilization they will be under the same pressures as men. However, Women who have not undergone military training will not be asked to serve in a military capacity, but rather in a civilian capacity.

In 1995, Norway became the first country to allow women to serve on its military submarines, and to this date there has been at least one female commander of a Norwegian submarine.^[41], the first Solveig Krey in 1995.^[42] USS Los Angeles A submarine is a specialized watercraft that can operate underwater. ... Solveig Krey (born 1963) is the first female commanding officer of a submarine in the world. ...

The Norwegian government has set a target of 15% of their armed forces to consist of women by 2008, from the 2006 value of 6.6%.^[43] This aims are accompanied with efforts to increase the awareness of sexual exploitation and gender issues within the armed forces. All women between 18-20 are given the opportunity to attend national conscription selection.

As of 2006, the number of women having the military as a career - as opposed to women volunteering for military service as conscripts - was as follows^{[citation needed]}:

• Army 132
• Navy 115
• Air force 83
• Home Guard 13
• Logistics 111

The highest rank currently attained by a woman in the Norwegian armed forces is that of Brigadier. Brigadier (IPA pronunciation: ) is a military rank, the meaning of which has a considerable variation. ...

Poland

Women have taken part in the battles for independence against occupiers and invaders since at least the time of the Napoleonic Wars. During the occupation by the Nazis, 1939-1945, several thousand women took part in the resistance movement as members of the Home Army. The Germans were forced to establish special prisoner-of-war camps after the Warsaw Rising in 1944 to accommodate over a thousand women prisoners^[44]. Combatants Austria[a] Portugal Prussia[a] Russia[b] Sicily[c] Sardinia  Spain[d]  Sweden[e] United Kingdom French Empire Holland[f] Italy Etruria[g] Naples[h] Duchy of Warsaw[i] Confederation of the Rhine[j] Bavaria Saxony Westphalia Württemberg Denmark-Norway[k] Commanders Archduke Charles Prince Schwarzenberg Karl Mack... National Socialism redirects here. ... For other meanings of Home Army see: Home Army (disambiguation) The Armia Krajowa or AK (Home Army) functioned as the pre-eminent underground military organization in German-occupied Poland, which functioned in all areas of the country from September 1939 until its disbanding in January 1945. ... A Prisoner-of-war camp is a site for the containment of persons captured by the enemy in time of war. ... The Warsaw Uprising (Powstanie Warszawskie) was an armed struggle during the Second World War by the Polish Home Army (Armia Krajowa) to liberate Warsaw from German occupation and Nazi rule. ...

In April 1938 the law requiring compulsory military serce for men included provisions for voluntary service of women in auxiliary roles, in the medical services, in the anti-aircraft artillery and in communications. In 1939 a Women's Military Training Organization was establiched under the command of Maria Wittek. Maria Wittek codename: Mira, Pani Maria (b. ...

In present Poland a law passed 6 April 2004 requires all women with college nursing or veterinary degrees to register for compulsory service. In addition it allows women to volunteer and serve as professional personnel in all services of the army. As of 30 June 2007 there are 800 women in the army, of which 471 are officers, 308 non-commissioned officers and 21 other ranks, in addition 225 are in military training schools^[45].

Russia

Women have had the legal right to serve in the Russian Armed Forces throughout the post Second World War period, with many all-female units existing as far back as World War One. By the early 1990’s, 100,000 women made up 3% of the Russian Armed Forces, with the current tally standing at around 115,000 to 160,000, representing 10% of Russia’s military strength.

Lyudmila Pavlichenko

During the First World War, heavy defeats led to the loss of millions of Russian soldiers. To psychologically energize morale Alexander Kerensky (leader of Russia after the February Revolution) ordered the creation of the Woman’s Death Battalion in May 1917. After three months of fighting, the size of this all-female unit fell from 2000 to 250.^[46] In November 1917, the Bolsheviks dissolved the unit. Image File history File links LyudmilaPavlichenko1. ... Image File history File links LyudmilaPavlichenko1. ... Alexander Kerensky This article is about the Russian politician. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Bolshevik Party Meeting. ...

During the Second World War, the Soviet Union had a female military strength of over one million women[2] who served as snipers, machine gunners, and tank crew members. Very few of these women, however, were ever promoted to officers.

In 1942 the Soviet Union formed three regiments of women combat pilots to fly night bombing missions over Germany, the 588th Night Bomber Regiment, later called the 46th Taman Guards Night Bomber Aviation Regiment. These women took part in regular harassment bombing against the Germans in Polikarpov Po-2 biplanes, and participated in the final onslaught against Berlin. The regiments, collectively known to the Germans as the "Nachthexen" ("Night Witches"), flew more than 24,000 sorties and won in total 23 Hero of the Soviet Union medals. Some of the most talented women pilots were assigned day fighter duties. "Lily" Litvak and Katya Budanova became fighter aces flying the Soviet Union's best fighter designs alongside men in day attacks. Both were killed in their aircraft. Meanwhile, in the ground combat role Lyudmila Pavlichenko, made 309 confirmed kills including 36 enemy snipers. Pavlichenko was one of the many female snipers of the Soviet Army. Airworthy Po-2 in Soviet markings at the Moscow MAKS air show The Polikarpov U-2 or Po-2 served as a general-purpose Soviet biplane, nicknamed Kukuruznik (Russian: , from Russian kukuruza (кукуруза) for maize)[1]. The reliable, uncomplicated and forgiving aircraft, powered by a 99 hp (74 kW) Shvetsov air... The Night Witches (Nachthexen in German, Ночные Ведмы in Russian) was the nickname of the The World War II Soviet 588th Night Bomber Regiment, later called the 46th Taman Guards Night Bomber Aviation Regiment, a women-only combat regiment formed at the instigation of Marina Raskova and led by Major Yevdokia Bershanskaya. ... Hero of the Soviet Union (Russian: Герой Советского Союза, Geroy Sovyetskovo Soyuza) was the highest honorary title and the superior degree of distinction of the Soviet Union. ... Lydia Litvyak Lydia Vladimirovna Litvyak, (Лидия Владимировна Литвяк, August 18, 1921 – August 1, 1943), also known as Lydia Litvak or Lily Litvak, was a female fighter pilot in the Soviet Air Force during Second World War. ... Yekaterina Budanova Yekaterina Vasylievna Budanova, also known as Katya Budanova (Екатерина Васильевна Буданова, December 7, 1916 - July 19, 1943), was a woman fighter pilot in the Soviet Air Force during the Second World War. ... Lyudmila Pavlichenko. ...

In 1967, the Russian Universal Military Duty Laws concluded that women offered the greater source of available combat soldiers during periods of large scale mobilisation. Thus, several programs during the height of the cold war were set up to encourage women to enlist. Participation in military orientated youth programs and forced participation in the reserves for ex-servicewomen up to the age of 40 are some examples. Universities contained reservist officer training which accompanied a place in the reserves themselves.

Today, the Russian army runs the Miss Russian Army beauty contest for attractive female Russian soldiers. Colonel Gennady Dzyuba, of the Defense Ministry, said of the 2005 contest that "Those who have served, especially in hot spots, know the importance of women in the armed forces.” Miss Russian Army is a beauty contest held by the Russian army in which female soldiers compete for a title of the same name. ... Alternate cover US 1979 and 2002 reissue cover, also known as paint spatter cover For the military meaning, see Armed forces. ...

Sweden

Since 1989 there are no gender restrictions in the Swedish military on access to military training or positions. They are allowed to serve in all parts of the military and in all positions, including combat. ^[47]

Thailand

Thailand has recently begun recruiting and training women to conduct counter-insurgency operations.^[48] A ranger commander said that when women are protesting, "It is better for women to do the talking. Male soldiers look tough and aggressive. When women go and talk, people tend to be more relaxed."

Turkey

Turkey has introduced the first female combat pilot of the world. Sabiha Gökçen (March 22, 1913, Bursa—March 22, 2001, Ankara) was the first Turkish female aviator and the first female combat pilot in the world. She was one of the eight adoptive children of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. Throughout her career in the Turkish Air Force, Gökçen flew 22 different types of aircraft for more than 8000 hours, 32 hours of which were active combat and bombardment missions. She was selected as the only female pilot for the poster of "20 Greatest Aviators in History" published by the United States Air Force in 1996.^[49] Sabiha Gökçen with Mustafa Kemal Atatürk Sabiha Gökçen (March 22, 1913, Bursa—March 22, 2001, Ankara) was the first Turkish female aviator and the first female combat pilot in the world. ... “Mustafa Kemal” redirects here. ...

In 1935, she was enrolled in the Turkish Aviation League's "Turk Kusu" Civilian Aviation School. She was sent to Russia, together with seven male students for advanced training in gliding; and subsequently enrolled at the Military Aviation Academy in Eskisehir in 1936. She also received training at the First Aircraft Regiment in Eskisehir, and flew fighter and bomber planes. In 1938, she carried out a five-day flight around the Balkan countries to great acclaim. Later, she was appointed chief trainer of the Turkish Aviation League's "Turk Kusu" where she served until 1955. Later, she became a member of the Turkish Aviation Executive Board. She flew around the world for a period of 28 years until 1964. ^[50]

United States

Two female American soldiers

The Woman’s Army Auxiliary Corps was established in the United States in 1941. However, political pressures stalled the waylaid attempts to create more roles for women in the American Armed Forces. Women saw combat during World War II, firstly as nurses in the Pearl Harbor attacks on 7 December 1941. The Woman’s Naval Reserve and Marine Corps Women’s Reserve were also created during this conflict. In July 1943 a bill was signed removing ‘auxiliary’ from the Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps, making it an official part of the regular army. In 1944 WAC’s arrived in the Pacific and landed in Normandy on D-Day. During the war, 67 Army nurses and 16 Navy nurses were captured and spent three years as Japanese prisoners of war. There were 350,000 American women who served during World War Two and 16 were killed in action; in total, they gained over 1,500 medals, citations and commendations. Image File history File links Womenincombat. ... Image File history File links Womenincombat. ... WAC Air Controller by Dan V. Smith, 1943. ... Combatants Allied powers: China France Great Britain Soviet Union United States and others Axis powers: Germany Italy Japan and others Commanders Chiang Kai-shek Charles de Gaulle Winston Churchill Joseph Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Adolf Hitler Benito Mussolini Hideki Tōjō Casualties Military dead: 17,000,000 Civilian dead: 33,000... This article is about the harbor in Hawaii. ... is the 341st day of the year (342nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... For other uses, see 1941 (disambiguation). ... A WAVES Photographer 3rd Class The WAVES were a World War II era division of the U.S. Navy that consisted entirely of women. ... The United States Marine Corps Womens Reserve (USMCWR) was established on July 30, 1942 as part of the United States Marine Corps Reserve. ... Land on Normandy In military parlance, D-Day is a term often used to denote the day on which a combat attack or operation is to be initiated. ... Group photograph of the first twenty Navy Nurses, appointed in 1908. ...

After World War Two, demobilization led to the vast majority of serving women being returned to civilian life. Law 625, The Women's Armed Services Act of 1948, was signed by President Truman, allowing women to serve in the armed forces in fully integrated units during peace time, with only the WAC remaining a separate female unit. During the Korean War of 1950–1953 many women served in the Mobile Army Surgical Hospitals, with women serving in Korea numbering 120,000 during the conflict. Womens Armed Services Integration Act, United States law enacted on June 12, 1948, enabled women to serve as permanent, regular members of the armed forces in the Army, Navy, Marine Corps, and the recently formed Air Force. ... For other persons named Harry Truman, see Harry Truman (disambiguation). ... Combatants United Nations:  Republic of Korea,  Australia,  Belgium,  Luxembourg,  Canada,  Colombia,  Ethiopia,  France,  Greece,  Luxembourg,  Netherlands,  New Zealand,  Philippines,  South Africa,  Thailand,  Turkey,  United Kingdom,  United States Medical staff:  Denmark,  Australia,  Italy,  Norway,  Sweden Communist states:  Democratic People’s Republic of Korea,  Peoples Republic of China,  Soviet Union Commanders... The Mobile Army Surgical hospital (MASH) refers to a United States Army medical unit serving as a fully functional hospital in a combat area of operations. ...

Records regarding American women serving in the Vietnam War are vague. However, it is recorded that 600 women served in the country as part of the Air Force, along with 500 members of the WAC, and over 6000 medical personnel and support staff. Combatants Republic of Vietnam United States Republic of Korea Thailand Australia New Zealand The Philippines National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam Democratic Republic of Vietnam People’s Republic of China Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea Strength US 1,000,000 South Korea 300,000 Australia 48,000...

America’s involvement in Grenada in 1983 saw over 200 women serving; however, none of these took part in direct combat. Some women, such as Lt Col Eileen Collins or Lt Celeste Hayes, flew transport aircraft carrying wounded or assault teams, however they were not deemed to have been in direct combat. Several hundred women also took part in operations in Panama in 1989, though again in non-combat roles. Eileen Marie Collins (b. ...

December 20, 1989, Capt Linda L. Bray, 29, became the first woman to command American soldiers in battle, during the invasion of Panama. She was assigned to lead a force of 30 men and women MPs to capture a kennel holding guard dogs that was defended by elements of the Panamanian Defense force. From a command center about a half-mile from the kennel she ordered her troops to fire warning shorts. The Panamanians returned fire until threatened by artillery attack, fleeing into nearby woods. Bray advanced to the kennel to try to stop them, using the cover of a ditch to reach the building. No enemy dead were found, but a cache of weapons was recovered. is the 354th day of the year (355th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1989 (MCMLXXXIX) was a common year starting on Sunday (link displays 1989 Gregorian calendar). ... Combatants Panama United States Commanders Manuel Noriega Maxwell R. Thurman Strength 16,000+ 27,684+ Casualties 100-1,000 killed 24 Killed 325 Wounded 300-3,000 civilians killed Rangers from Charlie Company, 3rd Battalion, 75th Ranger Regiment prepare to take La Comandancia in the El Chorrillo neighborhood of Panama...

The 1991 Gulf War proved to be the pivotal time for the role of women in the American Armed forces to come to the attention of the world media. A senior woman pilot at the time, Colonel Kelly Hamilton, commented that "[t]he conflict was an awakening for the people in the US. They suddenly realised there were a lot of women in the military." Over 40,000 women served in almost every role the armed forces had to offer. However, while many came under fire, they were not permitted to participate in deliberate ground engagements. Despite this, there are many reports of women engaging enemy forces during the conflict [3]. For other uses, see Iraq war (disambiguation). ...

From 2005, the first all female C-130 Hercules crew to serve a combat mission for the U.S. Air Force.^[51]

Today, women can serve on American combat ships, to include command. However women are not permitted to serve on submarines or to participate in special forces programs such as Navy Seals. Women are barred from serving in Infantry, Special Operations, Artillery, Armour, and Forward Air Defence. Women can fly military aircraft, but make up 2% of all pilots in the US military. So far the position closest to combat open to women in the U.S. Army are in the Military Police, where women man machine-guns on armoured Humvees, guarding truck convoys. Although Army regulations bar women from infantry assignments, some female MPs are detailed to accompany male infantry units to handle search and interrogation of Iraqi suspects. Image File history File links C-130_-_First_all_female_crew. ... Image File history File links C-130_-_First_all_female_crew. ... The Lockheed C-130 Hercules is a four-engine turboprop cargo aircraft and the main tactical airlifter for many military forces worldwide. ... “The U.S. Air Force” redirects here. ... SEALs in from the water. ...

Jessica Lynch after being rescued in 2003

The case United States v. Virginia, in which the Supreme Court ordered that the Virginia Military Institute allow women to register as cadets, gave women soldiers a weapon against laws which (quoting J. Ruth Bader Ginsburg) “[deny] to women, simply because they are women, full citizenship stature—equal opportunity to aspire, achieve, participate in and contribute to society.” A combat camera video shows undated footage of U.S. PFC Jessica Lynch on a stretcher during her rescue from Iraq (USCENTCOM photo) This work is copyrighted. ... A combat camera video shows undated footage of U.S. PFC Jessica Lynch on a stretcher during her rescue from Iraq (USCENTCOM photo) This work is copyrighted. ... Jessica Dawn Lynch (b. ... Holding State of Virginias exclusion of women from the Virginia Military Institute violated Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. ...

As of now there are fifty thousand females serving in Afghanistan and Iraq. Females make up about fifteen percent of the army.^{[citation needed]}

In 2003, American soldier Jessica Lynch was captured while serving in Iraq. When surrounded by Iraqi soldiers, she attempted to defend herself, but her M-16 jammed. Jessica Dawn Lynch (b. ... M16 (more formally United States Rifle, Caliber 5. ...

In 2003, Lori Piestewa, a U.S. soldier, died after driving her Humvee through enemy fire in an attempt to escape an ambush, earning a Purple Heart. She had just rescued Jessica Lynch, whose vehicle had crashed. Pfc. ... Jessica Dawn Lynch (b. ...

In a recent scandal, U.S Army Reservists Lynndie England and Sabrina Harman were convicted by court martial of cruelty and maltreatment of prisoners at Abu Ghraib prison. Lynndie Rana England (born November 8, 1982) is a former United States Army reservist who served in the 372nd Military Police Company. ... Charles Graner and Sabrina Harman with naked and hooded prisoners who were forced to form a human pyramid Sabrina D. Harman (born January 5, 1978) is a former U.S. army reservist, one of several soldiers convicted by the U.S. Army in connection with the 2003-2004 Abu Ghraib... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Abu Ghraib prisoner abuse Beginning in 2004, accounts of abuse, torture, rape[1] and homicide[2][3] of prisoners held in the Abu Ghraib prison in Iraq (also known as Baghdad Correctional Facility) came to public attention. ... Abu Ghraib cell block The Abu Ghraib prison (Arabic: سجن أبو غريب; also Abu Ghurayb) is in Abu Ghraib, an Iraqi city 32 km (20 mi) west of Baghdad. ...

Women on submarines

In 1995 the Royal Norwegian Navy became the first navy in the world to appoint a female submarine captain.^{[citation needed]} In 1998, the Royal Australian Navy (RAN) became the second navy to allow women to serve on combat submarines. Canada and Spain followed in permitting women to serve on military submarines with seamen.^[52] The usual reasons for barring women that are given are lack of privacy and "hot bunking" or "hot racking", a common practice on submarines where three sailors share two bunks on a rotating basis to save space. The US Navy, which permits women to serve on almost every other ship in the fleet, only allows three exceptions for women being on board military submarines: (1) Female civilian technicians for a few days at most; (2) Women midshipmen on an overnight during summer training for both Navy ROTC and Naval Academy; (3) Family members for one-day dependent cruises.^{[citation needed]} The US Navy argues it would cost $300,000 per bunk to permit women to serve on submarines versus $4,000 per bunk to allow women to serve on aircraft carriers. However, this calculation is based on the assumption of semi segregation of the female crew, possibly to the extent of structural redesign of the vessel.^[53] No studies of the feasibility of an all-female crew, which would circumvent the US Navy's objections, are known to have been carried out. Image File history File links Emblem-important. ... Ranks Norwegian military ranks The Royal Norwegian Navy (often abbreviated as RNoN) is the branch of the Norwegian Defence Force responsible for naval operations. ... The Royal Australian Navy (RAN) is the naval branch of the Australian Defence Force. ... Seaman can be a generic term for sailor. ... A midshipman is a subordinate officer, or alternatively a commissioned officer of the lowest rank, in the navies of several English-speaking countries. ... The Reserve Officer Training Corps (ROTC) is a training program of the United States armed forces present on college campuses to recruit and educate commissioned officers. ... The United States Naval Academy (USNA) is an institution for the undergraduate education of officers of the United States Navy and Marine Corps and is in Annapolis, Maryland . ...

In popular culture portrayals

Further information: List of women warriors in folklore, literature, and popular culture

There have been a number of significant representations of women warriors in American popular culture. During the 1960s, characters on the television show, The Avengers, such as Cathy Gale and Emma Peel were trademark female action heroes. [4] A list of women warriors in folklore, literature, and popular culture. ... Popular culture, sometimes abbreviated to pop culture, consists of widespread cultural elements in any given society. ... The 1960s decade refers to the years from 1960 to 1969. ... The Avengers is a British 1960s television series featuring secret agents in a fantasy 1960s Britain. ... Fictional television spy played by Honor Blackman on the 1960s British series The Avengers. ... Image:AvengersBook1. ...

During the 1970s, blaxploitation films starring Pam Grier such as Coffy inspired a number of similar characters and works (including Cleopatra Jones, Get Christie Love!). The genre would also come under significant criticism in the decades that followed. [5] The 1970s decade refers to the years from 1970 to 1979, also called The Seventies. ... Shaft (1971) Blaxploitation is a film genre that emerged in the United States in the early 1970s when many exploitation films were made that targeted the urban black audience; the word itself is a portmanteau of the words “black” and “exploitation. ... Pamela Suzette Grier (born May 26, 1949) is an iconic American actress. ... Coffy , Jack Hills 1973 movie about an African American woman vigilante, catapulted Pam Grier to stardom as one of blaxploitations biggest icons. ... The action-adventure movie Cleopatra Jones, starring Tamara Dobson as Cleopatra, was released in 1973. ... Get Christie Love! is a 1974 made-for-television film, starring Teresa Graves as an undercover female police detective who is determined to overthrow a drug ring. ...

From 1979 to the 1990s, Sigourney Weaver created a memorable figure in the form of Lieutenant Ellen Ripley. While Ripley was first introduced in Ridley Scott's 1979 horror film, Alien, it was James Cameron's interpretation in the 1986 sequel, Aliens that immortalized her as a woman warrior.[6] [7][8] For the band, see 1990s (band). ... Sigourney Weaver (born Susan Alexandra Weaver on October 8, 1949 in New York City) is an Oscar-nominated American actress. ... Warrant Officer Ellen Ripley, played by Sigourney Weaver, is the protagonist in the Alien movie series. ... Sir Ridley Scott (born November 30, 1937 in South Shields, South Tyneside) is a British film director and producer. ... This article is about the first film in a series. ... For other persons named James Cameron, see James Cameron (disambiguation). ... Aliens is a 1986 science fiction/action/horror film starring Sigourney Weaver, Michael Biehn, Lance Henriksen, Carrie Henn, Bill Paxton and Paul Reiser. ...

In Hong Kong, actress Michelle Yeoh, is well known for her multiple roles as women warriors. Notable roles include Inspector Jessica Yang in Supercop, Ching/San/Invisible Girl in The Heroic Trio, Yim Wing Chun in Wing Chun, Wai Lin in Tomorrow Never Dies, and Yu Shu-lien in Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon. [9] Dato Michelle Yeoh Choo-Kheng (traditional Chinese: ; simplified Chinese: ; pinyin: ; Cantonese (Yale romanization): yèuhng jí kìhng; born August 6, 1962) is a Chinese Malaysian actress and dancer, well known for performing her own stunts in the action films that brought her to fame in the early 1990s. ... Police Story 3 DVD cover USA DVD cover Police Story 3 or Super Cop (警察故事３超級警察) is a 1992 Hong Kong movie starring Jackie Chan, Michelle Yeoh and Maggie Cheung. ... The Heroic Trio (Dung fong saam hap, TC: 東方三俠, pinyin: dōng fāng sān xiá) is a 1993 Hong Kong action film directed by Johnny To, starring Michelle Yeoh, Anita Mui and Maggie Cheung as the titular trio. ... Wing Chun (Yong Chun) is a wuxia film made in Hong Kong in 1994. ... Wai Lin is a fictional character in the 1997 James Bond film Tomorrow Never Dies, portrayed by Michelle Yeoh. ... Tomorrow Never Dies, released in 1997, is the eighteenth spy film in the James Bond series, and the second to star Pierce Brosnan as MI6 agent James Bond. ... For other uses, see Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon (disambiguation). ...

Notes

is the 88th day of the year (89th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... For other uses, see The Independent (disambiguation). ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 91st day of the year (92nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 94th day of the year (95th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Department of Defense redirects here. ... Year 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 270th day of the year (271st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 183rd day of the year (184th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Naval redirects here. ... is the 223rd day of the year (224th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ...

References

Printed material

• Campbell, D'Ann. Women at War with America: Private Lives in a Patriotic Era (Harvard University Press, 1984). on WW2
• Campbell, D'Ann. "Servicewomen of World War II", Armed Forces and Society (Win 1990) 16: 251-270. statistical study based on interviews
• Campbell, D'Ann. "Women in Combat: The World War Two Experience in the United States, Great Britain, Germany, and the Soviet Union" Journal of Military History (April 1993), 57:301-323. online edition
• Ellis, John. World War II - A statistical survey Facts on File 1993. ISBN 0816029717
• Elshtain, Jean Bethke. Women and War (1995)
• Elshtain Jean, and Sheila Tobias, eds., Women, Militarism, and War (1990),
• Goldman, Nancy. "The Changing Role Of Women In The Armed Forces." American Journal Of Sociology 1973 78(4): 892-911. Issn: 0002-9602 online in Jstor
• Goldstein, Joshua S. . War and Gender: How Gender Shapes the War System and Vice Versa (2003), psychology perspective
• Herbert, Melissa S. Camouflage Isn't Only for Combat: Gender, Sexuality, and Women in the Military New York U. Pr., 1998.
• Holm, Jeanne. Women in the Military: An Unfinished Revolution (1993) on USA.
• Jones, David Women Warriors: A History, Brassey's,1997
• Salmonson, Jessica Amanda (1991). The Encyclopedia of Amazons. Paragon House. ISBN 1-55778-420-5. 
• Skaine, Rosemarie. Women at War: Gender Issues of Americans in Combat. McFarland, 1999.

Websites

• The Joan-of-Arc archive.joan-of-arc.org archive retrieved on March 12, 2007
• Blitzkrieg Baby blitzkriegbaby.de site for Women in the military, retrieved on March 12, 2007
• Women in the Military: A Selected Bibliography from this link, Jacqueline S. Bey, 2005, retrieved on March 12, 2007
• IBC's Oldest American Servicewoman Killed In Combat, retrieved on March 12, 2007
• "Long, hard struggle" for green beretarticle from BBC News Online Scotland, 31 May 2002, retrieved on March 12, 2007
• Superwoman Pip's green beret test BBC news article, BBC News Online Scotland, 31 May 2002, retrieved on March 12, 2007
• MilitaryWoman site, at militarywoman.org, retrieved on March 12, 2007
• post-gazette.com retrieved on March 12, 2007
• Womensenews womensenews.org retrieved on March 12, 2007
• [10] The History of a Hello Girl, retrieved on July 17, 2007

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See also

• List of women warriors in folklore, literature, and popular culture
• Timeline of women in ancient warfare
• Timeline of Women in Medieval warfare