Hop umbel (branched floral structure resembling nested-inverted umbrellas) in a Hallertau hop yard

Hops are a flower used primarily as a flavouring and stability agent in beer, as well as in herbal medicine. The first documented use in beer is from the eleventh century. Hops come from the flowers of Humulus lupulus, originally named by Pliny the Elder in his Naturalis Historia (the premier source of information about the natural world for fifteen hundred years)^[1], and contain several characteristics very favourable to beer: (a) hops contribute a bitterness that balances the sweetness of the malt, (b) hops can contribute aromas that are flowery, citrus, fruity or herbal, and (c) hops have an antibiotic effect that favors the activity of brewer's yeast over less desirable microorganisms. While hop plants are grown by farmers all around the world in many different varieties, there is no major commercial use for hops other than in beer, although hops are an ingredient in Julmust, a carbonated beverage similar to cola soda that is popular in Sweden during December. Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (2560x1920, 1733 KB) Summary en Description: Hop (Humulus Lupulus): Umbel Source: photographed it myself Author: LuckyStarr Location: Hallertau de Beschreibung: Hopfen (Humulus Lupulus): Dolde Quelle: selbst fotografiert Fotograf: LuckyStarr Ort: Hallertau Licensing File links The following pages link to this file... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (2560x1920, 1733 KB) Summary en Description: Hop (Humulus Lupulus): Umbel Source: photographed it myself Author: LuckyStarr Location: Hallertau de Beschreibung: Hopfen (Humulus Lupulus): Dolde Quelle: selbst fotografiert Fotograf: LuckyStarr Ort: Hallertau Licensing File links The following pages link to this file... The Hallertau or Holledau is an area in Bavaria, Germany. ... Leffe, a Belgian beer, served in branded glasses Schlenkerla Rauchbier straight from the cask Beer brewed from wheat. ... Species Humulus lupulus L. Humulus japonicus Siebold & Zucc. ... Pliny the Elder: an imaginative 19th Century portrait. ... Naturalis Historia, 1669 edition, title page. ... The basic tastes are the commonly recognized types of taste sensed by humans. ... Malted barley Malting is a process applied to cereal grains, in which the grains are made to germinate and then are quickly dried before the plant develops. ... Staphylococcus aureus - Antibiotics test plate. ... Typical divisions Ascomycota (sac fungi) Saccharomycotina (true yeasts) Taphrinomycotina Schizosaccharomycetes (fission yeasts) Basidiomycota (club fungi) Urediniomycetes Sporidiales Yeasts are a growth form of eukaryotic microorganisms classified in the kingdom Fungi. ... Species Humulus lupulus L. Humulus japonicus Siebold & Zucc. ... Julmust is a soft drink that is consumed mainly in Sweden at Christmas. ...

Mature hops growing in a hop yard

Image File history File linksMetadata No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File linksMetadata No higher resolution available. ...

History

The first documented instance of hop cultivation was in 736, in the Hallertau region of present-day Germany (which, in 2006, had more hop-growing acreage than any other country in the world)[4], although the first mention of the use of hops in brewing was in 1079.^[2] Hops were introduced to British beers in the early 15th century, and hop cultivation began in the present-day United States in 1629. The Kegon school of Buddhism arrives in Japan via Korea, when Rōben invites the Korean monk Simsang to lecture, and formally founds Japans Kegon tradition in the Tōdaiji temple. ... The Hallertau or Holledau is an area in Bavaria, Germany. ... Events Persian astronomer, Omar Khayyám, computed the length of the year as 365. ... (14th century - 15th century - 16th century - other centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 15th century was that century which lasted from 1401 to 1500. ... Events March 4 - Massachusetts Bay Colony is granted a Royal charter. ...

Until mechanisation (in the late 1960s for the UK), the need for massed labour at harvest time meant hop-growing had a big social impact. Many of those hop picking in Kent were Eastenders, for whom the annual migration meant not just money in the family pocket but a welcome break from the grime and smoke of London. Whole families would come down on special trains and live in hoppers' huts for most of September, even the smallest children helping in the fields.^[3] The Kent coat of arms For other uses, see Kent (disambiguation). ... The East End of London, known locally as the East End, is an area, with no formal authority or boundaries, that spans a number of administative districts of London in England. ...

Today, the principal production centres for the UK are in Kent (which produces Kent Golding hops) and Worcestershire.^{[4] [5]} Other important production areas include the Yakima Valley in the state of Washington and the Willamette Valley in the USA, Belgium, Germany, and the Czech Republic. Worcestershire (pronounced ; abbreviated Worcs) is a county located in the West Midlands region of central England. ... This irrigation ditch receives its water from the Yakima River. ... Official language(s) English Capital Olympia Largest city Seattle Area  Ranked 18th  - Total 71,342 sq mi (184,827 km²)  - Width 240 miles (385 km)  - Length 360 miles (580 km)  - % water 6. ... The Willamette Valley The Willamette Valley The Willamette Valley is the region in northwest Oregon in the United States that surrounds the Willamette River as it proceeds northward from its emergence from mountains near Eugene to its confluence with the Columbia River. ...

Brewing

Early season hop growth in a hop yard in the Yakima Valley, Washington with Mount Adams in the distance.

Hop resins are composed of two main acids: alpha and beta acids. Image File history File linksMetadata Size of this preview: 800 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (1984 × 1488 pixel, file size: 711 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Size of this preview: 800 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (1984 × 1488 pixel, file size: 711 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... This irrigation ditch receives its water from the Yakima River. ... Official language(s) English Capital Olympia Largest city Seattle Area  Ranked 18th  - Total 71,342 sq mi (184,827 km²)  - Width 240 miles (385 km)  - Length 360 miles (580 km)  - % water 6. ... Mt. ... Resin is a hydrocarbon secretion formed in special resin canals of many plants, from many of which (for example, coniferous trees) it is exuded in soft drops from wounds, hardening into solid masses in the air. ... Acidity redirects here. ...

Alpha acids have a mild antibiotic/bacteriostatic effect against Gram-positive bacteria, and favour the exclusive activity of brewing yeast in the fermentation of beer. Staphylococcus aureus - Antibiotics test plate. ... Bacteriostatic antibiotics hamper the growth of bacteria by interfering with bacteria protein production, interfering with bacteria DNA production interfering with bacteria cellular metabolism Bacteriostatic antibiotics inhibit growth and repoduction of the bacteria, though do not kill it, while bactericidal antibiotics kill bacteria. ... Gram-positive bacteria are those that are stained dark blue or violet by gram staining, in contrast to gram-negative bacteria, which are not affected by the stain. ... Phyla/Divisions Actinobacteria Aquificae Bacteroidetes/Chlorobi Chlamydiae/Verrucomicrobia Chloroflexi Chrysiogenetes Cyanobacteria Deferribacteres Deinococcus-Thermus Dictyoglomi Fibrobacteres/Acidobacteria Firmicutes Fusobacteria Gemmatimonadetes Nitrospirae Omnibacteria Planctomycetes Proteobacteria Spirochaetes Thermodesulfobacteria Thermomicrobia Thermotogae Bacteria (singular, bacterium) are a major group of living organisms. ... Brewing yeasts are yeasts used in the brewing Process and which have certain properties, including: The ability to convert certain sugars to alcohol Reduce diacetyl thereby avoiding butterscotch flavours in the beer These fall into two main categories: Saccharomyces carlsbergensis Saccharmoyces cerevisiae To ensure purity of strain, a clean sample...

Beta acids do not isomerise during the boil of wort, and have a negligible effect on beer flavour. Instead they contribute to beer's bitter aroma, and high beta acid hop varieties are often added at the end of the wort boil for aroma. Beta acids oxidize and oxidized beta acids form sulfur compounds such as DMS (dimethyl sulfide) that can give beer off-flavours of rotten vegetables or cooked corn. In chemistry, isomerization is the transformation of a molecule into a different isomer. ... WORT 89. ... Dimethyl sulfide causes that distinctive smell from your St. ...

The flavour imparted by hops varies by type and use: hops boiled with the beer (known as "bittering hops") produce bitterness, while hops added to beer later impart some degree of "hop flavour" (if during the final 10 minutes of boil) or "hop aroma" (if during the final 3 minutes, or less, of boil) and a lesser degree of bitterness. Adding hops after the wort has cooled and the beer has fermented is known as "dry hopping", and adds hop aroma, but no bitterness. The degree of bitterness imparted by hops depends on the degree to which otherwise insoluble alpha acids (AAs) are isomerized during the boil, and the impact of a given amount of hops is specified in International Bitterness Units. Unboiled hops are only mildly bitter. In chemistry, isomers are molecules with the same chemical formula and often with the same kinds of chemical bonds between atoms, but in which the atoms are arranged differently (analogous to a chemical anagram). ... The International Bitterness Units scale, or simply IBU scale, provides a measure of the bitterness of beer, which is provided by the hops used during brewing. ... Human taste sensory organs, called taste buds or gustatory calyculi, and concentrated on the upper surface of the tongue, appear to be receptive to relatively few chemical species as tastes. ...

Flavours and aromas are described appreciatively using terms which include "grassy", "floral", "citrus", "spicy", and "earthy". Most of the common commercial lagers have fairly low hop influence, while true pilseners should have noticeable noble hop aroma and certain ales (particularly the highly-hopped style known as India Pale Ale, or IPA) can have high levels of bitterness. Lager is a well attenuated beer brewed in cool conditions using a slow-acting brewers yeast, known as a bottom-fermenting yeast, and then stored (or lagered) for a period in cool conditions to clear away particles and certain flavour compounds to produce a clean taste. ... A pint of ale Ale is a beer style brewed from barley malt with a top fermenting brewers yeast that ferments quickly, giving a sweet, full body and a fruity, and sometimes a butter-like, taste. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ...

Noble hops

The term Noble hops traditionally refers to four varieties of hop which are low in bitterness and high in aroma. They are the central European cultivars, 'Hallertauer Mittelfrüh', 'Tettnanger', 'Spalter', and 'Saaz'.[5] They are each named for a specific region or city in which they were first grown or primarily grown. They contain high amounts of the hop oil humulene and low amounts of alpha acids cohumulone and adhumulone, as well as lower amounts of the harsher-tasting beta acids lupulone, colupulone, and adlupulone. Odor receptors on the antennae of a Luna moth An odor is the object of perception of the sense of olfaction. ... Central Europe The Alpine Countries and the Visegrád Group (Political map, 2004) Central Europe is the region lying between the variously and vaguely defined areas of Eastern and Western Europe. ... This Osteospermum Pink Whirls is a successful cultivar. ... Humulene, or α-humulene or α-caryophyllene, is a naturally occurring monocyclic sesquiterpene. ...

Their low relative bitterness but strong aroma are often distinguishing characteristics of European-style lager beer, such as Pilsener, Dunkel, and Oktoberfest/Märzen. In beer, they are considered aroma hops (as opposed to bittering hops); see Pilsner Urquell as a classic example of the Pilsener style, which showcases Noble hops. Lager is a well attenuated beer brewed in cool conditions using a slow-acting brewers yeast, known as a bottom-fermenting yeast, and then stored (or lagered) for a period in cool conditions to clear away particles and certain flavour compounds to produce a clean taste. ... Leffe, a Belgian beer, served in branded glasses Schlenkerla Rauchbier straight from the cask Beer brewed from wheat. ... Original Pilsner Urquell Pilsener or pilsner is a pale lager, developed in the 19th century in the city of Pilsen, Bohemia (today Plzeň in the Czech Republic). ... Dunkel (or dunkles) is a style of dark German lager beer. ... Märzen is a traditional bottom fermented Austrian Lager based on the Schwechater Lagerbier developed in 1837 by Anton Dreher. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ...

As with grapes, land where the hops were grown affects the hops' characteristics. Much like Dortmunder beer may only within the EU be labelled "Dortmunder" if it has been brewed in Dortmund, Noble hops may only officially be considered "Noble" if they were grown in the areas for which the hops varieties were named. Dortmund is a city in Germany, located in the Bundesland of North Rhine-Westphalia, in the Ruhr area. ...

'Tettnanger' hops come from Tettnang, a small town in southern Baden-Württemberg in Germany. The region produces significant quantities of hops, and ships them to breweries throughout the world. Location Time zone CET/CEST (UTC+1/+2) Administration Country NUTS Region DE1 Capital Stuttgart Prime Minister Günther Oettinger (CDU) Governing parties CDU / FDP Votes in Bundesrat 6 (from 69) Basic statistics Area  35,752 km² (13,804 sq mi) Population 10,741,000 (11/2006)[1]  - Density 300... The entrance of a brewery. ...

Hop varieties

Particular hop varieties are associated with beer styles, for example pale lagers are usually brewed with European (and often Czech and/or German) hop varieties such as Saaz, Hallertau and Strissel Spalt. English ales use hop varieties such as Fuggle, Golding and Bullion. North American varieties include Cascade, Columbia, and Willamette. (North) American lagers, as defined by the Association of Brewers, are a family of very pale to golden colored beers with light body and low to medium bitterness. ...

List of hop varieties

Noble hops

The term 'Noble Hop' is a traditional designation for hops grown in four areas within Bavaria or Bohemia, something like the French appelleations for grapes & wine. Historically, these regions produced superior quality hops, particularly well suited for continential European style beers. Hops grown outside these regions cannot be 'Noble Hops' but nonetheless may be excellent hops.

Hallertau - The original German lager hop; due to susceptibility to crop disease, it was largely replaced by Hersbrucker in the 1970s and 1980s. (Alpha acid 3.5–5.5% / beta acid 3–4%)

Saaz – Noble hop used extensively in Bohemia to flavor pale Czech lagers such as Pilsner Urquell. Soft aroma and bitterness. (Alpha acid 3–4.5% /Beta acid 3–4.5%) This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ...

Spalt - Traditional German noble hop, with a delicate, spicy aroma. (Alpha acid 4–5% / beta acid 4–5%)

Tettnang – Noble German dual use hop used in European pale lagers, sometimes with Hallertau. Soft bitterness. (Alpha Acid 3.5–5.5% / Beta Acid 3.5–5.5%)

Other hop varieties

Admiral – An English bittering hop used in some English ales. (Alpha acid: 13.5–16%)

Ahtanum – An American aroma-type variety developed by Yakima Chief Ranches, similar to Cascade. (Alpha acid: 5.7–6.3% / beta acid: 5.0–6.5%)

VGX001 (Amarillo®) – Popular American mid-range alpha variety developed by Virgil Gamache Farms in late 20th century. (Alpha acid: 8–11% / beta acid: 6–7% )

Brewer's Gold – British bittering hop developed in 1919. Both Brewer's Gold and Bullion are seedlings of BB1 (found wild in Manitoba). Many modern high alpha hops were developed from Brewer's Gold. (Alpha acid 7.1–11.3% / beta acid 3.3-6.1% / cohumulone 36-45%)

Cascade – Very successful and well-established American aroma hop developed by Oregon State University's breeding program in 1956 from Fuggle and Serebrianker (a Russian variety), but not released for cultivation until 1972. Piney, citrusy, and quite assertive. Aroma of Sierra Nevada Pale. One of the "Three Cs" along with Centennial and Columbus. (Alpha acid: 4.5–6.0% / beta acid: 5.0–7.0% )

Centennial – American aroma-type variety bred in 1974 and released in 1990. Similar to Cascade and Chinook. One of the "Three Cs" along with Cascade and Columbus. (Alpha acid: 9.5–11.5% / beta acid: 4.0–5.0%)

Challenger – English hop with fresh pine notes. Introduced in 1972. (Alpha acid 6.5–8.5% / beta acid 4–4.5%)

Chinook – American cross between Petham Golding and a USDA-selected male. Typical American citric pine hop with notable grapefruit and pineapple flavours. (Alpha acid 12.0–14.0% / beta acid 3.0–4.0%)

Cluster - Originated from mass selection of the Cluster hop, which is an old American cultivar. It is suggested that they arose from hybridization of varieties, imported by Dutch and English settlers and indigenous male hops. (Alpha acid: 5.5–8.5% / beta acid: 4.5–5.5%) Also known as Golden Cluster, used as the sole bittering hop in the iconic Queensland, Australia beer XXXX Gold and XXXX Bitter.

Columbus – A high yielding, high alpha acid American bittering hop. Also known by the trade name Tomahawk. One of the "Three Cs" along with Cascade and Centennial. (Alpha acid 14–17%)

Crystal – An American triploid variety developed in 1993 from Hallertau, Cascade, Brewer's Gold and Early Green. Quite aromatic, fruity. (Alpha acid 3.5–5.5% / beta acid 4.5–6.5%)

Eroica – A strongly flavoured bittering hop used in wheat beers. (Alpha acid 9–12%)

First Gold – English dwarf hop. A cross-pollination of Whitbread Golding variety and a dwarf male. It is like a spicier Golding, with a higher alpha and slightly richer bitterness. (Alpha acid 6.5–8.5% / beta acid 3–4%)

Fuggles - Main English hop developed late 19th century. Considered by some to be less refined than Goldings, others prefer its juicier, more woody character.(Alpha acid 4–5.5% / Beta acid 2–3%)

Galena - American bittering hop developed from Brewer's Gold by open pollination in the state of Idaho. Has a moderate bitterness despite its high alpha content. (Alpha acid 12–14% / beta acid 7–9%)

Glacier - Low-cohumulone American Fuggle descendant. Mild bittering and soft, fruity character with hints of apricot and pear. (Alpha acid 5.5% / beta acid 8.2%)

Goldings - The traditional and very popular English aroma hop. Developed in 1790. Soft, earthy, vaguely farm-like aroma. Widely cultivated. Called East Kent Goldings if grown in East Kent, Kent Goldings if grown in mid-Kent, and Goldings if grown elsewhere. (Alpha acid 4–5.5% / beta acid 2–3.5%)

Greenburg - American Hop found in southern Idaho. Fruity flavor with a touch of woody flavors. Used mainly in microbrews (Alpha acid 5.2% / beta acid 7.2%)

Hersbrucker - Noble hop used in German pale lagers. Noted for grass and hay aroma. (Alpha acid 3–5.5% / beta acid 4–5.5%)

Herald - An English aroma and bittering hop; sister of Pioneer. (Alpha acid 11-13% / Beta acid 4.8-5.5%)

Horizon - American high alpha cross made in Oregon in 1970. Horizon and Nugget share a common parent (#65009). Soft bitterness. (Alpha acid 11–13% / beta acid 6.5–8.5% / cohumulone 17-21%)

Liberty - American cross between Hallertauer Mittlefrüh and downy mildew resistant male, developed in 1983. (Alpha acid 3.0–5.0% / beta acid 3.0–4.0%)

Lublin - The grassy, hay-like signature of Polish lagers. The bitterness is slightly harsher than noble varieties, but the aroma is a little bit softer.

Magnum - A bittering/aroma type cultivar, bred in 1980 at Huell, the German Hop Research Instititute, from the American variety Galena and the German male 75/5/3. (Alpha acid: 10.0–12.6% / beta acid: 5.0–7.0%)

Millennium - Bittering variety, bred from Nugget and with similar characteristics. (Alpha acid 15.5% / beta acid 4.8%)

Mount Hood - Soft American variety developed from Hallertau. Frequently used in styles that require only a subtle hop aroma. (Alpha acid 5.0–8.0% / beta acid 5.0–7.5%)

Nelson Sauvin - A new variety developed in Nelson, New Zealand. Named with more than a nod towards the Sauvignon Blanc grape, this hop produces unique fruity characteristics reminiscent of white wine. (Alpha acid 12-14% / beta acid 7-8%) Sauvignon blanc is a green-skinned grape variety which originates from the Bordeaux region of France. ...

Newport - Recently developed American high-alpha bittering hop. (Alpha acid 10–17%)

Northdown - Dual purpose hop in England developed in 1970s, with a Northern Brewer-like bitterness, and soft aroma. (Alpha acid 7.5–9.5% / beta acid 5–5.5%)

Northern Brewer – Developed in England in 1934 from a cross between a female hop of wild American parentage and an English male. Grown in Europe and America as a dual-purpose hop, but the aroma is mellow, so is mainly used for bittering in combination with other hops. (Alpha acid 8–10% / beta acid 3–5%)

Nugget – Bittering hop. (Alpha acid 12–14% / beta acid 4–6%)

Pacific Gem – High alpha bittering hop from New Zealand. Most are organic. Pleasant woody flavour and berry aroma. . (Alpha acid 14–16% / beta acid 8–8.4%)

Palisade– Fairly recent American cross of Tettnager and open pollenation resulting in a moderate alpha hop with good aroma characteristics. (Alpha acid 6-10% / beta acid 4-7%)

Perle – German dual-purpose hop, with floral, spicy aroma. Often used in combination with other hops. (Alpha acid 7–9.5% / beta acid 4–5%)

Pioneer - English hop; a sister of Herald. A clean, soft and rounded bitterness with a recognisable English aroma. (Alpha acid 8-10% / beta acid 3.5-4%)

Pride of Ringwood - Infamous Australian hop. First used in 1965 when it was the highest alpha acid hop in the world. Used extensively in Australian pale ales and lagers. (Alpha acid 7–10% / beta acid 4–6%)

Progress – Higher alpha English hop developed in the 1960s as a replacement for Fuggles. Often used with Goldings. (Alpha acid 5–7% / beta acid 2–2.5%)

Santiam – American floral aroma hop with mid-range alpha acid. (Alpha acid 5–7% / beta acid 6–8%). Pedigree includes Tettnang (mother), Hallertau Mittelfrüh (grandmother) and Cascade (great grandmother).

Satus - A bittering-type cultivar of recent origin. (Alpha acid: 12.5–14.0% / beta acid: 8.5–9.0%)

Select - German disease-resistant Hallertauer and Spalt pale lager variety developed in early 1990s. (Alpha acid 4–6% / beta acid 3.5–4.5%)

Simcoe - American high alpha variety released in 2000. Distinctive passionfruit flavour and aroma where Simcoe hops are utilised late in the boil (ie, boiled for between 20 and 0 minutes). (Alpha acid 12–14% / beta acid 4–5%)

Sterling - American floral hop released in 1998. A cross between Saaz and Mount Hood in character but easier to grow. (Alpha acid 6–9% / beta acid 4–6%)

Strisselspalt - French aroma hop from Alsace, used mostly in pale lagers. Similar to Herbrucker. (Alpha acid 3–5% / beta acid 3–5.5%)

Styrian Goldings - Slovenian variant of Fuggles. Used in English ales and Belgian strong ales amongst others. (Alpha acid: 4.5–6.0% / beta acid: 2.5–3.5%)

Target - Dusty, earthy English mid-to-high alpha hop bred from Kent Goldings. (Alpha acid 9.5–12.5% / beta acid 5–5.5%)

Tomahawk - Bittering hop. Same as Columbus. (Alpha acid: 14–18% / beta acid: 4.5–5.8%)

Tradition - Bred in 1991 from Hallertau Mittlefrüh by the Hull Hop Research Institute in Germany for resistance to disease. Grassy like Hallertau, but easier to grow. (Alpha acid 5–7% / beta acid 4–5%)

Ultra - A triploid aroma-type cultivar, originated in 1983 from a cross between the colchicine-induced tetraploid Hallertau mf (USDA 21397) and the diploid Saazer-derived male genotype (USDA 21237m). Ultra is the half-sister to Mount Hood, Liberty and Crystal. Its genetic composition is 4/6 Hallertau mf, 1/6 Saazer, and 1/6 unknown. This cultivar was released for commercial production in March, 1995. (Alpha acid: 4.5–5.0% / beta acid: 3.6–4.7%)

Vanguard – American aroma cross developed from Hallertau in 1982. (Alpha acid 5.5%–6% / beta acid 6–7%)

Warrior - New American bittering hop, popular with growers and brewers. (Alpha acid 15–17% / beta acid 4.5–5.5%)

Willamette – Popular American development in 1976 of the English Fuggle. Mild aroma hop, with an herbal, sometimes gently fruity character. (Alpha acid 4.0–6.0% / beta acid 3.0–4.0%)

Zeus – American aromatic high-alpha hop with noticeable bitterness. Similar, if not identical, to Columbus/Tomahawk. (Alpha acid 15.0%)

See also

• Gruit
• Rhamnus prinoides

Gruit (or sometimes grut) is an old fashioned herb mixture used for bittering and flavouring beer, before the extensive use of hops. ... Binomial name Rhamnus prinoides Eschsch. ...

References

1. ^ Secundus, Gaius Plinius (77). Naturalis Historia. Pliny the Elder. Retrieved on 26-Jan-2007.
2. ^ Corran, H.S. (23-Jan-1975). Purchase Used: A History of Brewing. Vermont Canada: David and Charles PLC, 303. ISBN-10:0715367358. 
3. ^ [1]
4. ^ [2]
5. ^ [3]

3. University of Vermont Extension System Department of Plant and Soil Science Growing Hops in New England - COH 27 Leonard P. Perry, Extension Associate Professor

External links

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