Human experimentation involves medical experiments performed on human beings. It is an important part of medical research, and many people volunteer for clinical trials of medical treatments. People also volunteer to be subjects for experiments in basic medical science and biology. See drugs, medication, and pharmacology for substances that are used to treat patients. ... In the scientific method, an experiment (Latin: ex-+-periri, of (or from) trying), is a set of actions concerning phenomena. ... Medical research (or experimental medicine) is basic research and applied research conducted to aid the body of knowledge in the field of medicine. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... In health care, including medicine, a clinical trial (synonyms: clinical studies, research protocols, medical research) is the application of the scientific method to human health. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ...

Some experiments can involve the testing of cosmetic products or ingredients on humans instead of animals. In some notable cases, doctors have performed experiments on themselves, when they have been unwilling to risk the lives of others. This is known as self-experimentation. For other uses, see Cosmetic. ... Self-experimentation refers to the very special case of single-subject scientific experimentation in which the experimenter conducts the Wikipedia:experiment on her- or himself. ...

[edit] History of human experimentation

Human experimentation and research ethics evolved over time. Much of the time, the subjects of human experimentation are prisoners, slaves, family members, or the experimenter him/herself. Research ethics involves the application of fundamental ethical principles to a variety of topics involving scientific research. ... The Buxton Memorial Fountain, celebrating the emancipation of slaves in the British Empire in 1834, London. ...

[edit] Ancient history

Herophilus of Chalcedon was reputed by Celcus, amongst others, to have vivisected prisoners received from the Ptolemaic kings. Etymologically, Vivisection refers to the dissection of, or any cutting or surgery upon, a living organism. ...

[edit] Early modern science

Among the first documented human subject research experiments were vaccination trials in the 1700s. In these early trials, physicians used themselves or their family members as test subjects. Experiments on others were often conducted without informing the subjects of dangers associated with such experiments. In biostatistics or psychological statistics, a research subject is any organism (animal or plant) that is observed for purposes of research. ... Events and trends The Bonneville Slide blocks the Columbia River near the site of present-day Cascade Locks, Oregon with a land bridge 200 feet (60 m) high. ...

A famous example of such research were the Edward Jenner experiments, in which he first tested smallpox vaccines on his son and neighbourhood children. In an instance of self-experimentation, Johann Jorg swallowed 17 drugs in various doses to record their properties. Conversely, the famous scientist Louis Pasteur "agonized over treating humans," though he was confident of previous results obtained through animal trials. He consented to treat a human only when he was convinced that the death of his first test subject, the child Joseph Meister, "appeared inevitable." (Rothman 1993) Categories: Disambiguation | Stub ... Portrait of Edward Jenner Edward Jenner, FRS, (17 May 1749 – 26 January 1823) was an English country doctor who studied nature and his natural surroundings from childhood and practiced medicine in Berkeley, Gloucestershire, England. ... Smallpox (also known by the Latin names Variola or Variola vera) is a highly contagious disease unique to humans. ... A neighbourhood or neighborhood (see spelling differences) is a geographically localised community located within a larger city, town or suburb. ... A male Caucasian toddler child A child (plural: children) is a young human. ... Self-experimentation refers to the very special case of single-subject scientific experimentation in which the experimenter conducts the Wikipedia:experiment on her- or himself. ... Louis Pasteur (December 27, 1822 – September 28, 1895) was a French chemist best known for his remarkable breakthroughs in microbiology. ...

[edit] Early 20th century

In the 1900s, as the progress of medicine began to accelerate, the concept of the various codes of ethics of scientific disciplines changed dramatically, and the treatment of research subjects changed along with it. // Public flight demonstration of an airplane by Alberto Santos-Dumont in Paris, November 12, 1906. ... In the context of a code adopted by a profession or by a governmental or quasi-governmental organ to regulate that profession, an ethical code may be styled as a code of professional responsibility, which may dispense with difficult issues of what behavior is ethical. Some codes of ethics are...

Walter Reed's well-known experiments to develop an inoculation for yellow fever led these advances. Reed's vaccine experiments were carefully scrutinized, however, unlike earlier trials. (Brady 1982) Major Walter Reed, M.D., (September 13, 1851 - November 23, 1902) was a U.S. Army physician who in 1900 led the team which confirmed the theory (first set forth in 1881 by Cuban doctor/scientist Carlos Finlay) that yellow fever is transmitted by mosquitoes, rather than by direct contact. ... Inoculation, originally Variolation, is a method of purposefully infecting a person with smallpox (Variola) in a controlled manner so as to minimise the severity of the infection and also to induce immunity against further infection. ... A vaccine is an antigenic preparation used to establish immunity to a disease. ...

Medical experimentation has also been performed on humans without informed consent, both covertly and under coercion. The pretext of medical experimentation has been used as a justification for some atrocities. From 1932 until the 1970s, in the United States, citizens were experimented upon in the Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis in the Negro Male. An atrocity (from the Latin atrox, atrocious, from Latin ater = matte black (as distinct from niger = shiny black)) is a term used to describe crimes ranging from an act committed against a single person to one committed against a population or ethnic group. ... Year 1932 (MCMXXXII) was a leap year starting on Friday (the link will display full 1932 calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... The 1970s decade refers to the years from 1970 to 1979. ... // The Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis in the Negro Male[1] also known as theThe Tuskegee Syphilis Study, Pelkola Syphilis Study, Public Health Service Syphilis Study or the Tuskegee Experiments was a clinical study, conducted between 1932 and 1972 in Tuskegee, Alabama, in which 399 (plus 200 control group without...

[edit] Second Sino-Japanese War and World War II

In Japan, Unit 731, located near Harbin (Manchukuo), experimented with prisoner vivisection, dismemberment and induced epidemics on a very large scale from 1932 onward the Second Sino-Japanese war. With the expansion of the empire during World War II, many other units were implemented in conquered cities such as Nanking (Unit 1644), Beijing(Unit 1855), Guangzhou (Unit 8604) and Singapore(Unit 9420). After the war, Supreme commander of occupation Douglas MacArthur gave immunity in the name of the United States to all members of the units in exchange for a tiny part of the results, so that in post-war Japan, Shiro Ishii and others continued to hold honoured positions. The United States blocked Soviet access to this information. However, some unit members were judged by the Soviets during the Khabarovsk War Crime Trials. The effects were lasting and China is still working to counteract the effects of buried pathogen caches.^{[citation needed]} Body disposal at Unit 731 Unit 731 was a covert biological warfare research and development unit of the Imperial Japanese Army that undertook lethal human experimentation during the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945) and World War II. It was responsible for some of the most notorious war crimes carried... Harbin on a map of China For other meanings of Harbin, see Harbin (disambiguation). ... Flag Anthem National Anthem of Manchukuo Map of Manchukuo Capital Not specified Government Constitutional monarchy Emperor  - 1932 - 1945 Puyi Prime Minister  - 1932 - 1935 Zheng Xiaoxu  - 1935 - 1945 Zhang Jinghui History  - Established 1932  - Disestablished 1945 Manchukuo (1932–1945, , State of Manchuria) was a former country in Manchuria and eastern Inner Mongolia... Combatants China Japan Commanders Chiang Kai-shek, Chen Cheng, Yan Xishan, Feng Yuxiang, Li Zongren, Xue Yue, Bai Chongxi, Mao Zedong, Peng Dehuai Hirohito, Hideki Tojo, Kotohito Kanin, Matsui Iwane, Hajime Sugiyama, Shunroku Hata, Toshizo Nishio, Yasuji Okamura, Umezu Yoshijiro, Fumimaro Konoe Strength 58,600,000 4,100,000... Combatants Allied powers: China France Great Britain Soviet Union United States and others Axis powers: Germany Italy Japan and others Commanders Chiang Kai-shek Charles de Gaulle Winston Churchill Joseph Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Adolf Hitler Benito Mussolini Hideki Tōjō Casualties Military dead: 17,000,000 Civilian dead: 33,000... Nanjing (南京, Pinyin: Nánjīng, Wade-Giles: Nan-ching; Postal System Pinyin: Nanking, formerly Jinling 金陵, Jiangning 江宁, and Tianjing 天京) is the central city of downstream Yangtze Basin and is a renowned historical and cultural city. ... Unit Ei 1644, also known as Unit 1644 was a medical research unit of the Japanese Imperial Army based in Nanjing, China. ... Beijing (Chinese: 北京; pinyin: BÄ›ijÄ«ng; IPA: ;  ), a metropolis in northern China, is the capital of the Peoples Republic of China (PRC). ... Unit 1855 was a secret Imperial Japanese Army facility that focused on the development of biological weapons during World War II. It was operated by the Kempeitai, the Japanese military police. ... Guangzhou is the capital and the sub-provincial city of Guangdong Province in the southern part of the Peoples Republic of China. ... The introduction to this article provides insufficient context for those unfamiliar with the subject matter. ... Unit 9420 or Oka Unit was formed in 1942 in Singapore by Naito Ryoichi. ... General of the Army Douglas MacArthur KCB (January 26, 1880 – April 5, 1964), was an American general and Field Marshal of the Philippines Army. ... Shiro Ishii Microbiologist Shiro Ishii (石井四郎 Ishii Shirō, June 25, 1892-1959) was the Lieutenant General of Unit 731, a biological-warfare unit of the Imperial Japanese Army during the Sino-Japanese War. ... Khabarovsk War Crime Trials - Wikipedia /**/ @import /skins/monobook/IE50Fixes. ...

During the second World War, Nazi human experimentation occurred in Germany. At the war's conclusion, 23 Nazi doctors and scientists were tried for the murder of concentration camp inmates who were used as research subjects. Of the 23 professionals tried at Nuremberg, 15 were convicted. Seven of them were condemned to death by hanging and eight received prison sentences from 10 years to life. Eight professionals were acquitted. (Mitscherlich 1992) This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... National Socialism redirects here. ...

The result of these proceedings was the Nuremberg Code. It includes the following guidelines, among others, for researchers: The examples and perspective in this article or section may not represent a worldwide view. ...

Informed consent is essential.

Research should be based on prior animal work.

The risks should be justified by the anticipated benefits.

Research must be conducted by qualified scientists.

Physical and mental suffering must be avoided.

Research in which death or disabling injury is expected should not be conducted.

In 1940 in the United States, four hundred prisoners in Chicago were infected with malaria to study the effects of new and experimental drugs for the disease. Beginning in 1942, mustard gas experiments were conducted on 4,000 United States servicemen in order to study the effects on the human nervous system. These tests concluded in 1945. Enos the space chimp before insertion into the Mercury-Atlas 5 capsule in 1961. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... Nickname: Motto: Urbs In Horto (Latin: City in a Garden), I Will Location in the Chicago metro area and Illinois Coordinates: , Country United States State Illinois County Cook & DuPage Settled 1770s Incorporated March 4, 1837 Government  - Mayor Richard M. Daley (D) Area  - City  234. ... Malaria is a vector-borne infectious disease that is widespread in tropical and subtropical regions, including parts of the Americas, Asia, and Africa. ... 1942 (MCMXLII) was a common year starting on Thursday (the link is to a full 1942 calendar). ... Airborne exposure limit 0. ... Year 1945 (MCMXLV) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar). ...

Fort Detrick in Maryland was the headquarters of US biological warfare experiments. Operation Pettycoat involved the injection of infectious agents to observe their effects in human subjects [1].

[edit] Declaration of Helsinki

Main article: Declaration of Helsinki

In 1964, the World Medical Association developed a code of research ethics that came to be known as the Declaration of Helsinki. It was a reinterpretation of the Nuremberg Code, with an eye to medical research with therapeutic intent. Subsequently, journal editors required that research be performed in accordance with the Declaration. This document set the stage for the implementation of the Institutional Review Board (IRB) process. (Shamoo & Irving 1993) The Declaration of Helsinki, developed by the World Medical Association, is a set of ethical principles for the medical community regarding human experimentation. ... 1964 (MCMLXIV) was a leap year starting on Wednesday (the link is to a full 1964 calendar). ... The World Medical Association (WMA), an international organization of physicians, was formally established on 17 September 1947, pursuant to deliberations and decisions taken in the First General Assembly of WMA held in Paris, France. ... The Declaration of Helsinki, developed by the World Medical Association, is a set of ethical principles for the medical community regarding human experimentation. ... An institutional review board/independent ethics committee (IRB/IEC) is an appropriately constituted group that has been formally designated to review and monitor biomedical and behavioral research involving human subjects. ...

[edit] Beecher Article

In 1966, anaesthesiologist Dr. Henry K. Beecher wrote an article, "Ethics and Clinical Research," describing 22 examples of research studies with controversial ethics that had been conducted by reputable researchers and published in major journals. Beecher wrote, "Medicine is sound, and most progress is soundly attained..." He believed, however, that if unethical research were not prohibited it would "do great harm to medicine." Beecher provided estimates of the number of unethical studies and concluded "unethical or questionably ethical procedures are not uncommon." (Beecher 1996) Year 1966 (MCMLXVI) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display full calendar) of the 1966 Gregorian calendar. ... Henry K. Beecher, M.D. was an important figure in the history of anesthesiology and medicine characterized variously as gregarious, imposing and as a genteel but persistent controversialist with contrarian views on a wide range of important issues, including medical science, academic anesthesiology, medical ethics and societys standards regarding...

[edit] Belmont Principles

The Public Health Service Syphilis Study was among the most influential in shaping public perceptions of research involving human subjects. When the press exposed the study, the US Congress appointed a panel that determined that the PHS Syphilis Study should be stopped immediately and that overseeing of human research was inadequate. The panel recommended that federal regulations be designed and implemented to protect human research subjects in the future. Subsequently, federal regulations were enacted, including the National Research Act, 45 Code of Federal Regulations 46, and 21 Code of Federal Regulations 50. The Tuskegee Syphilis Study (1932–1972), also known as the Public Health Service Syphilis Study was a clinical study, conducted around Tuskegee, Alabama, where 400 poor, mostly illiterate African American sharecroppers became part of a study on the treatment and natural history of syphilis. ... The Congress of the United States is the legislative branch of the federal government of the United States of America. ...

In 1974, the United States Congress authorised the formation of the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects in Biomedical and Behavioral Research, known to most people in research ethics as the National Commission. Congress charged the National Commission with the task of identifying the basic ethical principles that affect the decision to use, or to not use, human research subjects. To accomplish this task, the National Commission looked at writings and discussions that had taken place to date and asked, "What are the basic ethical principles that are used to judge the ethics of human subject research?" Congress also asked the National Commission to develop guidelines to assure that human research is conducted in accordance with those principles. A blonde haired, very skilled worker with a 70s look. ...

In 1979, the National Commission met and published the Belmont Report. The Belmont Report is required reading for everyone involved in human experimentation. The Belmont Report identifies three basic ethical principles that underlie human experimentation. These principles are commonly called the Belmont Principles. The Belmont Principles include respect for persons, beneficence, and justice. The Belmont Report is a report created by the former dee dee dee (which was renamed to Health and Human Services) entitled Ethical Principles and Guidelines for the Protection of Human Subjects of Research and is an important historical document in the field of medical ethics. ...

[edit] After World War II

• United States: MKULTRA, Tuskegee syphilis experiment (The Public Health Service Syphilis Study), hepatitis experiments on children at Willowbrook State School, Jewish Chronic Disease Study (1963), San Antonio Contraception Study (1971), Tea Room Trade Study, Obedience to Authority Study (Milgram Study), dermatological experiments on prisoners at Holmesburg Prison in Philadelphia (see Hornblum 1998), and human radiation experiments.
• United Kingdom: (voluntary) human experimentation at Porton Down in the 1950s, leading to the death of Ronald Maddison
• Pharmaceutical giant Pfizer came under fire in 2001 for allegedly testing meningitis drugs on African children. [2]

Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this exact name. ... The Tuskegee Syphilis Study (1932–1972), also known as the Public Health Service Syphilis Study was a clinical study, conducted around Tuskegee, Alabama, where 400 poor, mostly illiterate African American sharecroppers became part of a study on the treatment and natural history of syphilis. ... Hepatitis (plural hepatitides) implies injury to liver characterised by presence of inflammatory cells in the liver tissue. ... Willowbrook State School was a state-supported institution for mentally retarded children located in central Staten Island in New York City. ... The experimenter (E) persuades the participant (S) to give what the participant believes are painful electric shocks to another participant (A), who is actually an actor. ... The experimenter (E) persuades the participant (S) to give what the participant believes are painful electric shocks to another participant (A), who is actually an actor. ... Dermatology (from Greek derma, skin) is a branch of medicine dealing with the skin and its appendages (hair, nails, sweat glands etc). ... Nickname: Motto: Philadelphia maneto - Let brotherly love continue Location in Pennsylvania Coordinates: , Country United States Commonwealth Pennsylvania County Philadelphia Founded October 27, 1682 Incorporated October 25, 1701 Government  - Mayor John F. Street (D) Area  - City 369. ... Since the discovery of ionizing radiation, a number of human radiation experiments have been performed to understand the effects of ionizing radiation and radioactive contamination on the human body. ... Defence Science and Technology Laboratory, Porton Down, or often known more simply as Porton Down, is a United Kingdom government facility for military research, including CBRN defence. ... Leading aircraftman Ronald George Maddison (1933?-6 May 1953) died whilst acting as a volunteer human guinea pig testing nerve agents at Porton Down in Wiltshire. ... Pfizer, Incorporated (NYSE: PFE) (pronounced faɪzəɹ or faɪzÉ™), is the worlds largest pharmaceutical company. ... Meningitis is the inflammation of the protective membranes covering the central nervous system, known collectively as the meninges. ...

[edit] In the United States

The CIA ran an extensive toxicology and chemical/biological warfare program in cooperation with the US military. The Edgewood Arsenal and US Army Medical Research Institute for Infectious Diseases at Fort Detrick in Maryland were the main headquarters for such studies. The CIA developed many of the exotic toxins, incapacitants, mind-altering substances and carcinogens. The CIA attempted to use toxins to assassinate Fidel Castro and other world leaders such as General Abdul Karim Quassim of Iraq and Patrick Lumumba of the Congo who nationalized Congo's mineral mines. Mind-control substances were studied to facilitate interrogation and toxins were used as weapons in assassination. One of the toxins that the CIA studied extensively was derived from red algae called dinoflagellate which produces the red tide. The MK-ULTRA project was a CIA run human experiment program where prisoners and unwitting subjects were administered hallucinogenic drugs in attempt to develop incapacitating substances and chemical mind control agents. The operation was run by Sidney Gottlieb. CIA researchers at the Bien Hua prison conducted human experiments on Vietnamese Communist subjects as a form of torture. The CIA was accused of murdering one of the unwitting subjects of the CIA LSD tests named Frank Olson [3]. The CIA claimed that the man committed suicide as an after-effect of the LSD but the family exhumed the body and a forensic pathologist found evidence of blunt trauma to the head suggesting that he was knocked out before being thrown out of the window of a hotel. This supported the Olsen family's claims that CIA killed had him because he wanted to expose the MK-Ultra program [4]. The Church Investigation revealed some information on this project. Classes Dinophyceae Noctiluciphyceae Syndiniophyceae The dinoflagellates are a large group of flagellate protists. ... A red tide off the coast of La Jolla, California. ... For other uses, see MKULTRA (disambiguation). ... Sidney Gottlieb Sidney Gottlieb (August 3, 1918 – March 7, 1999) was an American chemist probably best-known for his involvement with the Central Intelligence Agency mind control program (MKULTRA). ... Frank Olson (died November 28, 1953) was a U.S. Army scientist at the top secret Special Operations Division at Fort Detrick in Frederick, Maryland, who died under mysterious circumstances in New York City. ...

A Manhattan District Attorney opened up an investigation but did not have enough evidence to prosecute. It is interesting to note that soon after this happened, the former CIA director William Colby drowned and he would have been a key witness. Dr. Sidney Gottlieb requested that William Colby destroy most of the documents on the MK-Ultra program. Some suspect that the trial would produce information that would devastate the reputation of the William Colby and other officials involved in MK Ultra[5].

The CIA also recruited the University of Pennsylvania dermatology professor named Dr. Albert Klingman to run the studies of the Holmsburg Prison. Kligman also conducted human studies on the effects of blistering agents on human skin [6].

[edit] In Pinochet's Chile

Human experimentation was carried on in Colonia Dignidad, headed by ex-Nazi Paul Schäfer and used as a concentration camp by the DINA, Augusto Pinochet's secret police, according to March 2005 declarations by former CIA and DINA agent Michael Townley. These experimentations would have been carried out on detainees, with the cooperation of the DINA, the Bacteriological War Army Laboratory located in Colonia Dignidad, and German occupants of the Colonia Dignidad.^[1] Colonia Dignidad (Dignity Colony, now known as Villa Baviera, Bavaria Village), is a settlement located in an isolated area in the Maule Region of southern Chile, near the village of Parral. ... Ex-Nazis are those who were once Nazis and resigned from the party. ... Paul Schäfer Paul Schäfer Schneider (born December 4, 1921) is the founder and former leader of a sect and agricultural commune of German immigrants called Colonia Dignidad (Dignity Colony)—later renamed Villa Baviera—located in central Chile, about 340 km south of Santiago. ... Dina may refer to: A villBold textge in India where the Zafarnama was written A Sanskrit word meaning day An English spelling variation of Dinah, a Hebrew name. ... Captain General Augusto José Ramón Pinochet Ugarte[1] (Valparaíso November 25, 1915–Santiago of Chile December 10, 2006) was dictator and President of Chile from 1973 to 1990. ... Michael Townley, a U.S. expatriate, first worked for the CIA before working for the DINA, Chilean secret police under Augusto Pinochets dictatorship, where he participated in operation Condor. ... For the use of biological agents by terrorists, see bioterrorism. ...

[edit] Human vivisection

Main article: Vivisection and experimentation debate

Vivisection has long been practised on human beings. Herophilos, the "father of anatomy" and founder of the first medical school in Alexandria, was described by the church leader Tertullian as having vivisected at least 600 live prisoners. In recent times, the wartime programs of Nazi Dr. Josef Mengele and the Japanese military (Unit 731 and Dr. Fukujiro Ishiyama at Kyushu Imperial University Hospital) conducted human vivisections on concentration camp prisoners in their respective countries during WWII. In response to these atrocities, the medical profession internationally adopted the Nuremberg Code as a code of ethics. This code of ethics does not prohibit vivisection on humans. Vivisection and animal experimentation has been controversial since the 19th century with physiologists expressing reservations much earlier. ... Etymologically, Vivisection refers to the dissection of, or any cutting or surgery upon, a living organism. ... Trinomial name Homo sapiens sapiens Linnaeus, 1758 Humans, or human beings, are bipedal primates belonging to the mammalian species Homo sapiens (Latin: wise man or knowing man) in the family Hominidae (the great apes). ... Herophilos, sometimes Latinized Herophilus (335-280 BC), was a Greek physician. ... Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center in Lubbock, Texas, USA. A medical school or faculty of medicine is a tertiary educational institution or part of such an institution that teaches medicine. ... Nickname: Alexandria on the map of Egypt Map of Alexandria Coordinates: , Country Egypt Founded 334 BC Government  - Governor Adel Labib Population (2001)  - City 3,500,000 Time zone EET (UTC+2)  - Summer (DST) EEST (UTC+3) Twin Cities  - Baltimore  United States  - Cleveland  United States  - ConstanÅ£a  Romania  - Durban  South Africa... Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus, anglicised as Tertullian, (ca. ... National Socialism redirects here. ... Josef Mengele Dr. Josef Mengele (March 16, 1911 – February 7, 1979), was a German SS officer and a physician in the Nazi concentration camp Auschwitz-Birkenau. ... Body disposal at Unit 731 Unit 731 was a covert biological warfare research and development unit of the Imperial Japanese Army that undertook lethal human experimentation during the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945) and World War II. It was responsible for some of the most notorious war crimes carried... New Hospital bldg Campus of Maidashi area in prior to Greater East Asia War (This picture exists in Department of Medicine attachment library ) Kyushu University ), abbreviated to Kyudai ), is one of Japans most prestigious national universities and the largest public university on the island of KyÅ«shÅ«. It is... It has been suggested that Internment be merged into this article or section. ... Combatants Allied powers: China France Great Britain Soviet Union United States and others Axis powers: Germany Italy Japan and others Commanders Chiang Kai-shek Charles de Gaulle Winston Churchill Joseph Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Adolf Hitler Benito Mussolini Hideki Tōjō Casualties Military dead: 17,000,000 Civilian dead: 33,000... The examples and perspective in this article or section may not represent a worldwide view. ...

Human volunteers can consent to be subjects for invasive experiments which may involve, for example, the taking of tissue samples (biopsies), or other procedures which require surgery on the volunteer. These procedures must be approved by ethical review, and carried out in an approved manner that minimizes pain and long term health risks to the subject [7]. Despite this, the term is generally recognized as pejorative: one would never refer to life-saving surgery, for example, as "vivisection." The use of the term vivisection when referring to procedures performed on humans almost always implies a lack of consent. A biopsy (in Greek: bios = life and opsy = look/appearance) is a medical test involving the removal of cells or tissues for examination. ...

[edit] Ongoing issues

• North Korea: Alleged North Korean human experimentation

In the last several years, reports of unethical studies including gene transfer, cancer, and psychiatric research have heightened public awareness of issues related to human experimentation.^{[citation needed]} There have been several reports of alleged North Korean human experimentation. ... Transformation is the genetic alteration of a cell resulting from the introduction, uptake and expression of foreign genetic material (DNA or RNA). ... Cancer is a class of diseases or disorders characterized by uncontrolled division of cells and the ability of these to spread, either by direct growth into adjacent tissue through invasion, or by implantation into distant sites by metastasis (where cancer cells are transported through the bloodstream or lymphatic system). ... Psychiatry is a branch of medicine dealing with the prevention, assessment, diagnosis, treatment, and rehabilitation of the mind and mental illness. ...

[edit] Questionable psychological experiments

Several experiments have been conducted on consenting volunteers whose ethical nature is now considered questionable. Following exposure of these experiments, rules regarding informed consent have been tightened. Informed consent is a legal condition whereby a person can be said to have given consent based upon an appreciation and understanding of the facts and implications of an action. ...

• The Milgram experiment, in which many subjects were shown they were capable of inflicting discomfort (by electric shock) on other humans if under orders to do so
• The Stanford prison experiment, in which many participants became violent and abusive of each other

The experimenter (V) orders the subject (L) to give what the subject believes are painful electric shocks to another subject (S), who is actually an actor. ... The Stanford prison experiment was a psychological study of the human response to captivity, in particular to the real world circumstances of prison life and the effects of imposed social roles on behavior. ...

[edit] Endnotes

Radio Cooperativa is a radio station in Chile. ...

[edit] References

• Beecher, Henry K. "Ethics And Clinical Research." The New England Journal of Medicine. Vol 274 No. 24, June 16, 1966, 1354 - 1360
• Brady, Joseph V. and Jonsen, Albert R. "The Evolution of Regulatory Influences on Research with Human Subjects." Human Subjects Research - A Handbook for Institutional Review Boards. Ed. Greenwald, Robert A. et al. New York: Plenum Press, 1982. 3 - 18
• Mitscherlich, Alexander and Mielke, Fred. "Epilogue: Seven Were Hanged." Ed. Annas, George J and Grodin, Michael A. The Nazi Doctors And The Nuremberg Code - Human Rights in Human Experimentation. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992. 105 - 107
• Rothman, David J. "Ethics and Human Experimentation: Henry Beecher Revisited." The New England Journal of Medicine. Vol. 317, No. 19, Nov.5, 1987 - Public Responsibility in Medicine and Research, Boston, April 1 - 2, 1993
• Shamoo, Adil E. and Irving, Dianne N. "Accountability in Research." 1993 in press - Public Responsibility in M

[edit] Further reading

• Goliszek, Andrew. In the Name of Science: A History of Secret Programs, Medical Research, and Human Experimentation, St. Martin's Press 2003, ISBN 0-312-30356-4
• Hornblum, Allen. Acres of Skin: Human Experiments at Holmesburg Prison: A True Story of Abuse and Exploitation in the Name of Medical Science. Routledge, 1998.
• Kevorkian, Jack: A brief history of experimentation on condemned and executed humans. JAMA 77 (1985) pp.215-226
• Lederer, Susan: Subjected to science. Human experimentation in America before the Second World War Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press 1995
• Moreno, Jonathan D. Undue Risk: Secret State Experiments on Humans. W H Freeman 1999, Routledge 2001.
• Welsome, Eileen. The Plutonium Files: America's Secret Medical Experiments in the Cold War. Dell Publishing (Random House), 1999.

[edit] See also

• Animal testing
• Doctors' Trial (Part of the Nuremberg Trials)
• Medical torture
• Nazi human experimentation
• Non-human primate experiments
• Research subject
• Vivisection

Enos the space chimp before insertion into the Mercury-Atlas 5 capsule in 1961. ... Karl Brandt at the Doctors Trial The Doctors Trial (officially United States of America v. ... The Süddeutsche Zeitung announces The Verdict in Nuremberg. ... Medical torture describes the involvement and sometimes active participation of medical professionals in acts of torture, to either to judge what victims can endure, to apply treatments which will enhance torture, or as torturers in their own right. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... Filmed by PETA, Covance primate-testing lab, Vienna, Virginia, 2004-5. ... In biostatistics or psychological statistics, a research subject is any organism (animal or plant) that is observed for purposes of research. ... Etymologically, Vivisection refers to the dissection of, or any cutting or surgery upon, a living organism. ...

[edit] External links

• In Focus "Medical Research involving Minors: Medical, legal and ethical aspects" (German Reference Centre for Ethics in the Life Sciences)
• Alliance for Human Research Protection
• http://www.mja.com.au/public/issues/178_09_050503/letters_050503-10.html
• http://www.ama-assn.org/ama/pub/category/10817.html
• http://www.newscientist.com/opinion/opbooks.jsp?id=ns24356
• Four Docs Busted For Performing Human Experiments On Elderly Patients
• Ethical Practice: Principles and Guidelines for Research with Vulnerable Individuals and Families and ethical protocol for social science research developed by the Centre for Children and Families in the Justice System