A fuel cell is an electrochemical energy conversion device similar to a battery, but differing from the latter in that it is designed for continuous replenishment of the reactants consumed; i.e. it produces electricity from an external supply of fuel and oxygen as opposed to the limited internal energy storage capacity of a battery. Additionally, the electrodes within a battery react and change as a battery is charged, or discharged, whereas a fuel cell's electrodes are catalytic and relatively stable. English chemists John Daniell (left) and Michael Faraday (right), both credited to be founders of electrochemistry as known today. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Fuel is a material with one type of energy which can be transformed into another usable energy. ... General Name, Symbol, Number oxygen, O, 8 Chemical series Nonmetals, chalcogens Group, Period, Block 16, 2, p Appearance colorless Atomic mass 15. ...

Typical reactants used in a fuel cell are hydrogen on the anode side and oxygen on the cathode side (a hydrogen cell). Usually, reactants flow in and reaction products flow out. Virtually continuous long-term operation is feasible as long as these flows are maintained. A reactant or reagent is any substance initially present in a chemical reaction. ... General Name, Symbol, Number hydrogen, H, 1 Chemical series nonmetals Group, Period, Block 1, 1, s Appearance colorless Atomic mass 1. ... Diagram of a zinc anode in a Daniells cell. ... General Name, Symbol, Number oxygen, O, 8 Chemical series Nonmetals, chalcogens Group, Period, Block 16, 2, p Appearance colorless Atomic mass 15. ... Diagram of a copper cathode in a Daniells cell. ...

Technology

Hydrogen fuel cell. The actual fuel cell stack is the layered cubic structure in the center of the image

In the archetypal example of a hydrogen/oxygen proton-exchange membrane (or "polymer electrolyte") fuel cell (PEMFC), a proton-conducting polymer membrane, (the electrolyte), separates the anode and cathode sides. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1115x1418, 413 KB) Methanol Fuel Cell from http://www2. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1115x1418, 413 KB) Methanol Fuel Cell from http://www2. ... General Name, Symbol, Number hydrogen, H, 1 Chemical series nonmetals Group, Period, Block 1, 1, s Appearance colorless Atomic mass 1. ... General Name, Symbol, Number oxygen, O, 8 Chemical series Nonmetals, chalcogens Group, Period, Block 16, 2, p Appearance colorless Atomic mass 15. ... Proton exchange membrane fuel cells, also known as polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFC), are a type of fuel cell being developed for transport applications as well as for stationary and portable applications. ... Properties In physics, the proton (Greek proton = first) is a subatomic particle with an electric charge of one positive fundamental unit (1. ... An electrolyte is a substance that dissociates into free ions when dissolved (or molten), to produce an electrically conductive medium. ... Diagram of a zinc anode in a Daniells cell. ... Diagram of a copper cathode in a Daniells cell. ...

On the anode side, hydrogen diffuses to the anode catalyst where it dissociates into protons and electrons. The protons are conducted through the membrane to the cathode, but the electrons are forced to travel in an external circuit (supplying power) because the membrane is electrically insulating. On the cathode catalyst, oxygen molecules react with the electrons (which have travelled through the external circuit) and protons to form water. In this example, the only waste product is water vapor and/or liquid water. General Name, Symbol, Number hydrogen, H, 1 Chemical series nonmetals Group, Period, Block 1, 1, s Appearance colorless Atomic mass 1. ... Properties The electron is a lightweight fundamental subatomic particle that carries a negative electric charge. ... An electrical network is an interconnection of electrical elements such as resistors, inductors, capacitors, and switches. ... In chemistry, a molecule is an aggregate of at least two atoms in a definite arrangement held together by special forces. ... Water vapor or water vapour, also aqueous vapour, is the gas phase of water. ... Water (from the Old English waeter; c. ...

In addition to pure hydrogen, there are hydrogen-carrying fuels for fuel cells, including diesel, methanol (see DMFC) and chemical hydrides, the waste product with these type of fuels is carbon dioxide. Hydrocarbons are refined at oil refineries and processed at chemical plants In chemistry, a hydrocarbon is any chemical compound that consists only of the elements carbon (C) and hydrogen (H). ... Diesel or Diesel fuel is a specific fractional distillate of fuel oil (mostly petroleum) that is used as fuel in a diesel engine invented by German engineer Rudolf Diesel. ... Methanol, also known as methyl alcohol or wood alcohol, is a chemical compound with chemical formula CH3OH. It is the simplest alcohol, and is a light, volatile, colourless, flammable, poisonous liquid with a very faint odor. ... Direct-methanol fuel cells or DMFCs are a subcategory of Proton-exchange fuel cells where, the fuel, methanol, is not reformed, but fed directly to the fuel cell. ... Carbon dioxide is an atmospheric gas comprised of one carbon and two oxygen atoms. ...

Voltage

A typical fuel cell produces about 0.8 volts, to create enough voltage the cells are layered and combined in series and parallel into the so called "Fuel Cell Stack." The number of cells used is usually greater than 45 and varies with design. International danger high voltage symbol. ... Left: Series / Right: Parallel Arrows indicate direction of current. ... Left: Series / Right: Parallel Arrows indicate direction of current. ...

Materials

The materials used in fuel cells differ by type. See Types of fuel cells. Image File history File links Fuel_cell_still. ... A fuel cell is an electrochemical device similar to a battery, but differing from the latter in that it is designed for continuous replenishment of the reactants consumed; i. ...

1.The electrode/bipolar plates are usually made of metal, nickel or carbon nanotubes, and are coated with a catalyst (like platinum or palladium) for higher efficiency. 2.carbon paper. 3/4.The electrolyte could be ceramic or a membrane. An electrode is a conductor used to make contact with a nonmetallic part of a circuit (e. ... Bipolar can refer to: Bipolar (biology) Bipolar disorder Bipolar junction transistor (electronics) This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... Hot metal work from a blacksmith Look up Metal in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... General Name, Symbol, Number nickel, Ni, 28 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 10, 4, d Appearance lustrous, metallic Atomic mass 58. ... 3D model of three types of single-walled carbon nanotubes. ... A catalyst (Greek: καταλύτης, catalytÄ“s) is a substance that accelerates the rate (speed) or ease of a chemical reaction (see also catalysis) without itself being changed at the end of the chemical reaction . ... General Name, Symbol, Number platinum, Pt, 78 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 10, 6, d Appearance grayish white Atomic mass 195. ... General Name, Symbol, Number palladium, Pd, 46 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 10, 5, d Appearance silvery white metallic Atomic mass 106. ... A sheet of carbon paper, coating side down. ... An electrolyte is a substance that dissociates into free ions when dissolved (or molten), to produce an electrically conductive medium. ... ‹ The template below has been proposed for deletion. ... It has been suggested that Net flux be merged into this article or section. ...

Example: The construction of the Low temperature fuel cell PEMFC: PEMFC = Proton exchange membrane fuel cell REDIRECT Proton-exchange fuel cell ...

1. Bipolarplate as electrode with in-milled gas channel structure, fabricated from conductive plastics (enhanced with carbon nanotubes for more conductivity);
2. Porous carbon papers;
3. Reactive layer, usually on the polymer membrane applied.
4. polymer membrane
5. Same as 3);
6. Same as 2);
7. Same as 1)

Bipolar can refer to: Bipolar (biology) Bipolar disorder Bipolar junction transistor (electronics) This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... An electrode is a conductor used to make contact with a nonmetallic part of a circuit (e. ... A sheet of carbon paper, coating side down. ... An electrolyte is a substance that dissociates into free ions when dissolved (or molten), to produce an electrically conductive medium. ... Polymer is a generic term used to describe a very long molecule consisting of structural units and repeating units connected by covalent chemical bonds. ... It has been suggested that Net flux be merged into this article or section. ... Polymer is a generic term used to describe a very long molecule consisting of structural units and repeating units connected by covalent chemical bonds. ... It has been suggested that Net flux be merged into this article or section. ...

Fuel cell design issues

• Costs. In 2002, typical cells had a catalyst content of USD 1000 per kW of electric power output, which is expected, by 2007, to be reduced to USD 30 per kW [1]. Ballard's success is a catalyst enhanced with carbon silk with a 30% reduction (1 mg/cm2 to 0.7 mg/cm2) of platinum without reduction in performance (2005)[2].

The production costs a.c.a MEA (membrane electrode assembly) of the PEM (proton exchange membrane). The Nafion® membrane, -/+ 400,= Euro/m2, followed by the Toyota PEM and 3M PEM membrane are replaced by the ITM Power membrane, resulting in a price of -/+ 4 Euro/m2 (2004). This new membrane is a Hydrocarbon-polymer. One of the bigger companies is using Solupor® (a porous polyethylene film)[3].

• Water management in (PEMFC's). In this type of fuel cell, the membrane must be hydrated, requiring water to be evaporated at precisely the same rate that it is produced. If water is evaporated too quickly, the membrane dries, resistance across it increases, and eventually it will crack, creating a gas "short circuit" where hydrogen and oxygen combine directly, generating heat that will damage the fuel cell. If the water is evaporated too slowly, the electrodes will flood, preventing the reactants from reaching the catalyst and stopping the reaction. Methods to dispose of the excess water are being developed by fuel cell companies.
• Flow control. Just as in a combustion engine, a steady ratio between the reactant and oxygen is necessary to keep the fuel cell operating efficiently.
• Temperature management. The same temperature must be maintained throughout the cell in order to prevent destruction of the cell through thermal loading. (See Watercooling).
• Durability, lifetime, and special requirements for some type of cells. Stationary applications typically require more than 40,000 hours of reliable operation at a temperature of -35°C to 40°C, while automotive fuel cells require a 5,000 hour lifespan (the equivalent of 150,000 miles) under extreme temperatures. (See: Hydrogen vehicle. Status 2005: lifetime reached.) Automotive engines must also be able to start reliably at -30°C and have a high power to volume ratio (typically 2.5kW per liter).
• Limited CO tolerance of the anode.

For the Cusco album, see 2002 (album). ... A catalyst (Greek: καταλύτης, catalytēs) is a substance that accelerates the rate (speed) or ease of a chemical reaction (see also catalysis) without itself being changed at the end of the chemical reaction . ... 2007 (MMVII) will be a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Template:Diffgggtgerent calendars 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar. ... PEMFC = Proton exchange membrane fuel cell REDIRECT Proton-exchange fuel cell ... Toyota redirects here. ... 3M Company (NYSE: MMM; formerly Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing Company until 2002) is an American corporation with a worldwide presence that produces over 55,000 products, including adhesives, abrasives, laminates, electronic circuits and displays, and pharmaceuticals. ... 2004 (MMIV) was a leap year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Hydrocarbons are refined at oil refineries and processed at chemical plants In chemistry, a hydrocarbon is any chemical compound that consists only of the elements carbon (C) and hydrogen (H). ... Polymer is a generic term used to describe a very long molecule consisting of structural units and repeating units connected by covalent chemical bonds. ... Polyethylene or polyethene is a thermoplastic commodity heavily used in consumer products (over 60M tons are produced worldwide every year). ... PEMFC = Proton exchange membrane fuel cell REDIRECT Proton-exchange fuel cell ... General Name, Symbol, Number hydrogen, H, 1 Chemical series nonmetals Group, Period, Block 1, 1, s Appearance colorless Atomic mass 1. ... General Name, Symbol, Number oxygen, O, 8 Chemical series Nonmetals, chalcogens Group, Period, Block 16, 2, p Appearance colorless Atomic mass 15. ... An electrode is a conductor used to make contact with a nonmetallic part of a circuit (e. ... A reactant or reagent is any substance initially present in a chemical reaction. ... This article is about the atmospheric phenomenon. ... Watercooling is a method of heat removal from components. ... Service life refers to the expected lifetime of a product. ... A fuel cell powered vehicle from GM A hydrogen vehicle is an automobile which uses hydrogen as its primary source of power for locomotion. ... Template:Diffgggtgerent calendars 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Carbon monoxide, chemical formula CO, is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, flammable and highly toxic gas. ... Diagram of a zinc anode in a Daniells cell. ...

Types of fuel cells

An electrolyte is a substance that dissociates into free ions when dissolved (or molten), to produce an electrically conductive medium. ... By nature, all fuel cells - which are devices meant to convert chemical energy into electrical energy - can also be operated backwards. ... Blue energy is the energy retrieved from the difference in the salt concentration between seawater and river water with the use of osmosis or reverse electro dialysis (RED) with ion specific membranes. ... Polyethylene or polyethene is a thermoplastic commodity heavily used in consumer products (over 60M tons are produced worldwide every year). ... It has been suggested that Net flux be merged into this article or section. ... A biological fuel cell is a device in which a chemical, typically glucose, is converted to electric power by means of bacteria on the anode side. ... A biological fuel cell is a device in which a chemical, typically glucose, is converted to electric power by means of bacteria on the anode side. ... A Zinc fuel cell, also called an Air fuel cell, is comprised of a central static replaceable anode cassette made up of a slurry of electrochemically generated zinc particles in a potassium hydroxide solution compacted onto a current collection frame and inserted into a separator envelope, this flanked on two... A Flow Battery is a form of secondary battery in which the electrolytes are not confined to within the power cell its self. ... Diagram of an Alkaline Fuel Cell The alkaline fuel cell (AFC) is one of the most developed fuel cell technologies and is the cell that flew Man to the Moon. ... Diagram of an Alkaline Fuel Cell The alkaline fuel cell (AFC) is one of the most developed fuel cell technologies and is the cell that flew Man to the Moon. ... The common (Arrhenius) definition of a base is a chemical compound that either donates hydroxide ions or absorbs hydrogen ions when dissolved in water. ... Diagram of a PEM fuel cell Proton exchange membrane fuel cells, also known as polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFC), are a type of fuel cell being developed for transport applications as well as for stationary and portable applications. ... Proton exchange membrane fuel cells, also known as polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFC), are a type of fuel cell being developed for transport applications as well as for stationary and portable applications. ... Polymer is a generic term used to describe a very long molecule consisting of structural units and repeating units connected by covalent chemical bonds. ... It has been suggested that Net flux be merged into this article or section. ... An ionomer is a polyelectrolyte that comprises copolymers containing both electrically neutral repeating units and a fraction of ionic units (usually no more than 15%). Categories: Chemistry stubs | Polymers | Plastics ... Direct Borohydride Fuel Cell or DBFCs are a subcategory of Proton-exchange fuel cells where the fuel is a solution of Sodium borohydride. ... Direct Borohydride Fuel Cell or DBFCs are a subcategory of Proton-exchange fuel cells where the fuel is a solution of Sodium borohydride. ... The common (Arrhenius) definition of a base is a chemical compound that either donates hydroxide ions or absorbs hydrogen ions when dissolved in water. ... Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), also known as caustic soda or lye in North America, is a caustic metallic base used in industry (mostly as a strong chemical base) in the manufacture of paper, textiles, and detergents. ... The Formic acid fuel cell is a type of fuel cell that uses formic acid as a fuel. ... The Formic acid fuel cell is a type of fuel cell that uses formic acid as a fuel. ... Formic acid (systematically called methanoic acid) is the simplest carboxylic acid. ... A subcategory of Proton-exchange fuel cells is the DMFC, or direct-methanol fuel cell; here, the methanol is not reformed, but fed directly to the fuel cell. ... Direct-methanol fuel cells or DMFCs are a subcategory of Proton-exchange fuel cells where, the fuel, methanol, is not reformed, but fed directly to the fuel cell. ... Polymer is a generic term used to describe a very long molecule consisting of structural units and repeating units connected by covalent chemical bonds. ... It has been suggested that Net flux be merged into this article or section. ... Definition DEFC uses Ethanol in the fuel cell instead of the toxic methanol. ... Definition DEFC uses Ethanol in the fuel cell instead of the toxic methanol. ... Phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFC) are a type of fuel cell that uses liquid phosphoric acid as an electrolyte. ... Phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFC) are a type of fuel cell that uses liquid phosphoric acid as an electrolyte. ... R-phrases S-phrases , , Supplementary data page Structure and properties n, εr, etc. ... Scheme of a molten-carbonate fuel cell Molten-carbonate fuel cells (MCFCs) are high-temperature fuel cells, in the range of 600ºC. Their main problem is corrosion, and the need to operate a high-temperature liquid rather than a solid as in the solid-oxide fuel cells. ... Molten-carbonate fuel cells (MCFCs) are high-temperature fuel cells, in the range of 600ºC. Their main problem is corrosion, and the need to operate a high-temperature liquid rather than a solid as in the solid-oxide fuel cells. ... The common (Arrhenius) definition of a base is a chemical compound that either donates hydroxide ions or absorbs hydrogen ions when dissolved in water. ... In inorganic chemistry, a carbonate is a salt of carbonic acid. ... This new type of fuel cell is based on a ceramic electrolyte material that exhibits high protonic conductivity at elevated temperatures. ... This new type of fuel cell is based on a ceramic electrolyte material that exhibits high protonic conductivity at elevated temperatures. ... ‹ The template below has been proposed for deletion. ... Solid oxide fuel cells, or SOFC, are intended mainly for stationary applications with an output of 1 kW and larger (power plants). ... Scheme of a solid-oxide fuel cell Solid oxide fuel cells, or SOFC, are intended mainly for stationary applications with an output of 1 kW and larger (power plants). ... An oxide is a chemical compound of oxygen with other chemical elements. ... ‹ The template below has been proposed for deletion. ... An electrolyte is a substance that dissociates into free ions when dissolved (or molten), to produce an electrically conductive medium. ...

Efficiency

Fuel cells are not constrained by the maximum Carnot cycle efficiency as combustion engines are because they do not operate with a thermal cycle. Consequently, they can have very high efficiencies in converting chemical energy to electrical energy. The Carnot heat engine uses a particular thermodynamic cycle studied by Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot in the 1820s and expanded upon by Benoit Paul Émile Clapeyron in the 1830s and 40s. ... In chemistry, a chemical bond is the force which holds together atoms in molecules or crystals. ... Electrical energy or electromagnetic energy is a form of energy present in any electric field or magnetic field, or in any volume containing electromagnetic radiation. ...

Definitions of Efficiency

In physics, there are many definitions of efficiency, and different branches of engineering have their customary definitions. As fuel cells involve many branches of science, it is common to misunderstand the actual meaning of what is termed "efficiency".

Mechanical engineers often use the first-law efficiency, defined as the ratio of useful energy obtained by a certain process divided by the maximum development of heat of that process when no work is extracted (the enthalpy). However, in thermodynamics, the maximum work that can be extracted by a process is the Gibbs free energy: given the standard Gibbs free energy and enthalpy of the reaction, this efficiency would therefore be limited by: The first law of thermodynamics, a generalized expression of the law of the conservation of energy, states: the increase in the internal energy of a system is equal to the amount of energy added to the system by heating, plus the amount added in the form of work done on... Enthalpy (symbolized H, also called heat content) is the sum of the internal energy of matter and the product of its volume multiplied by the pressure. ... Thermodynamics (from the Greek thermos meaning heat and dynamis meaning power) is a branch of physics that studies the effects of changes in temperature, pressure, and volume on physical systems at the macroscopic scale by analyzing the collective motion of their particles using statistics. ... In thermodynamics the Gibbs free energy function is a thermodynamic potential and is therefore a state function of a thermodynamic system. ...

(for water in liquid form)

However, since is larger than work extracted by any real process, that ratio will always be less than about 87%. Since the totality of is physically unattainable, some engineers (such as chemical engineers) and researchers prefer the second-law efficiency, defined as: The second law of thermodynamics (Second Law hereinafter) states that the entropy of any totally isolated system not at thermal equilibrium will tend to increase over time, approaching a maximum value. ...

where is the Gibbs free energy of the reactants in the form they are available in (e.g. gas at high pressure contains more usable energy than at atmospheric pressure; see also exergy). The second-law efficiency has the advantage of giving a meaningful roof for efficiency values, since an ideal process would attain exactly ; however, even in much of the scientific literature, the first-law efficiency is often used. This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ...

Typical values

A fuel cell typically converts the chemical energy of its fuel into electricity with an efficiency of about 50%. The efficiency is however very dependent on the current through the fuel cell: as a general rule, the more current drawn, the lower the efficiency. For a hydrogen cell the second-law efficiency is equal to cell voltage divided by 1.23 volts, when operating at standard conditions. This voltage varies with fuel used, quality and temperature of the cell. A cell running at 0.6V has therefore an efficiency of about 50%, meaning that 50% of the available energy content of the hydrogen is converted into electrical energy; the remaining 50% will be converted into heat. The difference between enthalpy and Gibbs free energy (that cannot be recovered) will also appear as heat. Josephson junction array chip developed by NIST as a standard volt. ...

Plant-to-Wheel

It is also important to take losses due to production, transportation and storage into account. Fuel cell vehicles running on compressed hydrogen may have a power plant to wheel efficiency of 22% if the hydrogen is stored as high-pressure gas, and 17% if it is stored as liquid hydrogen (efficiency of Hydrogen Fuel Cell, Diesel-SOFC-Hybrid and Battery Electric Vehicles).^{[citation needed]} LH2 is an acronym used in the aerospace industry, which stands for Liquid Hydrogen. ... Solid oxide fuel cells, or SOFC, are intended mainly for stationary applications with an ouput of 1 kW and larger (power plants). ...

Round-trip Efficiency

Fuel cells cannot store energy like a battery, but in some applications, such as stand-alone power plants based on discontinuous sources (solar, wind power), they are combined with electrolyzers and storage systems to form an energy storage system. The overall efficiency (electricity to hydrogen and back to electricity) of such plants (known as round-trip efficiency) is between 30 and 50%, depending on conditions.^{[citation needed]} Active solar is a term which refers to the use of solar energy to actively convert the energy in sunlight into other forms. ... Wind farm in Neuenkirchen, Dithmarschen (Germany). ... In chemistry and manufacturing, electrolysis is a method of separating bonded elements and compounds by passing an electric current through them. ...

Whereass a much cheaper lead-acid battery might return about 90 percent, the electrolyser/fuel cell system can store indefinite quantities of hydrogen, and is therefore better suited for long-term storage. A sealed lead acid battery. ...

Combined Heat and Power

In "combined heat and power" applications, a fuel cell is placed in a location where heat is also needed. A lower fuel-to-electricity conversion efficiency is tolerated (typically 15-20%), because most of the energy not converted into electricity is utilized as heat. Some heat is lost with the exhaust gas just as in a normal furnace, so the combined heat and power efficiency is still lower than 100%, typically around 80%. In terms of exergy however, the process is inefficient, and one could do better by maximizing the electricity generated and then using the electricity to drive a heat pump. Micro Combined Heat and Power or MicroCHP is an extension of the now well established idea of Cogeneration to the single/multi family home or small office building. ... This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ... A diagram of a phase change heat pump: 1) condenser coil, 2) expansion valve, 3) evaporator coil, 4) compressor. ...

Fuel cell applications

Fuel cells are very useful as power sources in remote locations, such as spacecraft, remote weather stations, large parks, rural locations, and in certain military applications. A fuel cell system running on hydrogen can be compact, lightweight and has no major moving parts.

A new application is combined heat and power (CHP) for family home, office buildings and factories. This type of system generates constant electric power (selling excess power back to the grid when it is not consumed), and at the same time produce hot air and water from the waste heat. Phosphoric-acid fuel cells (PAFC) comprise the largest segment of existing CHP products worldwide and can provide combined efficiencies close to 80% (45-50% electric + remainder as thermal). The largest manufacturer of PAFC fuel cells is UTC Power, a division of United Technologies Corporation. Molten-carbonate fuel cells have also been installed in these applications, and Solid-oxide fuel cell prototypes exist. Micro Combined Heat and Power or MicroCHP is an extension of the now well established idea of Cogeneration to the single/multi family home or small office building. ... Phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFC) are a type of fuel cell that uses liquid phosphoric acid as an electrolyte. ... United Technologies Corporation (UTC) (NYSE: UTX) is a major multinational corporation based in Hartford, Connecticut. ... United Technologies Corporation (UTC) NYSE: UTX is a major multinational corporation based in Hartford, Connecticut, USA, and is the 22nd largest U.S. manufacturer [1]. UTC is a $37 billion company that researches, develops, and manufacturers products in numerous areas, including aircraft engines, helicopters, heating and cooling, fuel cells, elevators... Molten-carbonate fuel cells (MCFCs) are high-temperature fuel cells, in the range of 600ºC. Their main problem is corrosion, and the need to operate a high-temperature liquid rather than a solid as in the solid-oxide fuel cells. ... Solid oxide fuel cells, or SOFC, are intended mainly for stationary applications with an output of 1 kW and larger (power plants). ...

However, since electrolyzer systems do not store fuel in themselves, but rather rely on external storage units, they can be successfully applied in large-scale energy storage, rural areas being one example. In this application, batteries would have to be largely oversized to meet the storage demand, but fuel cells only need a larger storage unit (typically cheaper than an electrochemical device).

One such pilot program exists on Stuart Island off the State of Washington. There the Stuart Island Energy Initiative has built a complete system by which solar panels generate the current to run several electrolyzers whose hydrogen is stored in a 500 gallon tank at 150-200 PSI. The hydrogen is then used to run a 48V ReliOn hydrogen fuel cell that provides full electric back-up to the residential site on this off the grid island (see external link to SIEI.ORG).

Protium, a rock band originating at Ponaganset High School in Glocester, RI was the world's first hydrogen fuel cell powered band. The band was powered by a 1kw Airgen Fuelcell from Ballard Power systems. The band has played at a number of fuel cell advocasy events inluding the Connecticut CEP, and the 2003 Fuel Cell Seminar in Miami beach, FL.

Plug Power Inc. is a major player in the design, development and manufacture of PEM fuel cells for stationary applications, including products aimed at telecommunication, prime power, and combined heat and power (CHP) applications. BlackBerry 7100t Telecommunication refers to the communication of information at a distance. ... Cogeneration (also combined heat and power or CHP) is the use of a power station to simultaneously generate both heat and electricity. ...

Suggested applications

• Base load power plants
• Electric and hybrid vehicles.
• Auxiliary power
• Off-grid power supply

A base load power plant is one that provides a steady flow of power regardless of total power demand by the grid. ... General Motors EV1 // An electric vehicle, or EV, is a vehicle propelled by electric motors. ... It has been suggested that Gas-electric hybrid engine be merged into this article or section. ... Auxiliary power: Electric power that is provided by an alternate source and that serves as backup for the primary power source at the station main bus or prescribed sub-bus. ... Transmission lines in Lund, Sweden Electric power transmission is one process in the delivery of electricity to consumers. ...

Hydrogen vehicles, boats and refuelling

Toyota FCHV PEM FC fuel cell vehicle

For more details on this topic, see Hydrogen vehicle. and Hydrogen highway.

The first hydrogen refueling station was opened in Reykjavík, Iceland in April 2003. This station serves three buses built by DaimlerChrysler that are in service in the public transport net of Reykjavík. The station produces the hydrogen it needs by itself, with an electrolyzing unit (produced by Norsk Hydro), and does not need refilling: all that enters is electricity and water. Shell is also a partner in the project. The station has no roof, in order to allow any leaked hydrogen to escape to the atmosphere. Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (1957x1536, 2342 KB) Description: Toyota FCHV fuel cell vehicle Source: The photograph was taken by Kjkolb. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (1957x1536, 2342 KB) Description: Toyota FCHV fuel cell vehicle Source: The photograph was taken by Kjkolb. ... Proton exchange membrane fuel cells, also known as polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFC), are a type of fuel cell being developed for transport applications as well as for stationary and portable applications. ... A fuel cell powered vehicle from GM A hydrogen vehicle is an automobile which uses hydrogen as its primary source of power for locomotion. ... Proposed hydrogen highways are chains of hydrogen-equipped filling stations and other infrastructure which allow hydrogen powered cars to travel long distances. ... Reykjavík (pronounced (♫) in Icelandic) is the capital of Iceland, its largest city and the worlds most northern national capital. ... 2003 (MMIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... DaimlerChrysler AG (FWB:DCX, NYSE: DCX, TYO: 7663 ), headquartered in Stuttgart, Baden-Württemberg and Auburn Hills, Michigan, is a prominent automobile and truck manufacturer and financial services provider (through DaimlerChrysler Services). ... Skytrain Bangkok. ... Norsk Hydro ASA is a Norwegian oil and energy and integrated aluminium company, headquartered in Oslo. ... Royal Dutch Shell plc/Koninklijke Nederlandse Shell NV is a major Anglo-Dutch energy company, one of the four largest Super Majors (vertically integrated private-sector oil, natural gas, and petrol companies) in the world, along with BP, ExxonMobil, and Total. ...

There are numerous prototype or production cars and buses based on fuel cell technology being researched or manufactured. Research is ongoing at companies like DaimlerChrysler, Ballard Power Systems, Ford, Volvo, Mazda, General Motors, Honda, BMW, Hyundai, and Nissan, among many others. A practical commercial fuel cell automobile is not expected until at least 2010 according to the industry. DaimlerChrysler AG (FWB:DCX, NYSE: DCX, TYO: 7663 ), headquartered in Stuttgart, Baden-Württemberg and Auburn Hills, Michigan, is a prominent automobile and truck manufacturer and financial services provider (through DaimlerChrysler Services). ... Ballard Power Systems TSX: BLD NASDAQ: BLDP, located in Burnaby, British Columbia, a suburb of Vancouver, is a company that designs, develops, and manufactures zero-emission proton-exchange-membrane fuel cells. ... The Ford Motor Company (usually called Ford; sometimes called FoMoCo), (NYSE: F) is a multinational corporation that manufactures automobiles. ... AB Volvo (or Aktiebolaget Volvo) is a world-leading Swedish manufacturer of commercial vehicles, buses and construction equipment, drive systems for marine and industrial applications, aerospace components and services. ... Mazda Motor Corporation ) (TYO: 7261 ) is a Japanese automobile maker based in Hiroshima, Japan. ... General Motors Corporation (NYSE: GM), also known as GM, is an American automobile maker with worldwide operations and brands including Buick, Cadillac, Chevrolet, GMC, Holden, Hummer, Opel, Pontiac, Saturn, Saab and Vauxhall. ... For other uses, see Honda (disambiguation). ... BMW AG (an abbreviation of Bayerische Motoren Werke AG, or in English, Bavarian Motor Works), is a German company and manufacturer of automobiles and motorcycles. ... The Hyundai Group (meaning modernity in Korean) was founded by Chung Ju-yung in 1947 as a construction company and was once South Koreas biggest conglomerate (chaebol). ... Nissan Motor Co. ... A fuel cell powered vehicle from GM A hydrogen vehicle is an automobile which uses hydrogen as its primary source of power for locomotion. ...

Currently, a team of college students called Energy-Quest is planning to take a hydrogen fuel cell powered boat around the world (as well as other projects using efficient or renewable fuels). Their venture is called the Triton. Energy-Quest Logo Energy-Quest (formerly The Hydrogen Expedition) is an organization that seeks to educate the public about the risks of an impending energy crisis due to the current worldwide dependence on fossil fuels and the benefits of energy conservation and the use of renewable energy sources. ...

Type 212 submarines use fuel cells to remain submerged for weeks without the need to surface. Typ 212 Typ 212 The German Type 212 is an advanced design of non-nuclear submarine developed by Howaldtswerke-Deutsche Werft AG (HDW). ...

Economy & Environment

For more details on this topic, see Hydrogen economy. and environmental concerns

Fuel cells are often considered to be very attractive in modern applications for their high efficiency and ideally emission-free (see renewable energy) use, in contrast to currently more common fuels such as methane or natural gas that generate carbon dioxide. However roughly 50% of all electricity produced in the United States comes from coal. The problem is that coal is a relatively dirty energy source. If electrolysis (a process that uses electricity) is used to create hydrogen using energy from power plants, it is essentially creating hydrogen fuel from coal. Though the fuel cell itself will only emit heat and water as waste, the problem of pollution is still present at power plants. A hydrogen economy is a hypothetical future economy in which the primary form of stored energy for mobile applications and load balancing is hydrogen (H2). ... A hydrogen economy is a hypothetical future economy in which the primary form of stored energy for mobile applications and load balancing is hydrogen (H2). ... Renewable energy (sources) or RES capture their energy from existing flows of energy, from on-going natural processes, such as sunshine, wind, flowing water (hydropower), biological processes, and geothermal heat flows. ... The simplest hydrocarbon, methane, is a gas with a chemical formula of CH4. ... Many stoves use natural gas. ... Carbon dioxide is an atmospheric gas comprised of one carbon and two oxygen atoms. ... Lightning strikes during a night-time thunderstorm. ... // Overview of Coal Sector in India 2005 This comprehensive review of the Indian coal sector analyses the prevailing scenario in the Indian coal sector alongwith existing policy & regulatory framework. ... In chemistry and manufacturing, electrolysis is a method of separating bonded elements and compounds by passing an electric current through them. ... General Name, Symbol, Number hydrogen, H, 1 Chemical series nonmetals Group, Period, Block 1, 1, s Appearance colorless Atomic mass 1. ...

An holistic approach has to take into consideration the impacts of an extended hydrogen scenario. This refers to the production, the use and the disposal of infrastructure and energy converters. Nowadays fuel cell stacks consist of catalysts to a very high amount. This is caused by the fact that poisoning reduces activity and thus the catalyst has to be over-dimensioned[4]. Limited reserves of platinum quicken the synthesis of an inorganic complex very similar to the catalytic iron-sulfur core of bacterial hydrogenase[5] to step in. The world reserves of platinum are insufficient (in fact, only one fourth) to support a mass conversion of all vehicles to fuel cells: a significant introduction of vehicles with present technology would therefore make the market value of platinum soar. General Name, Symbol, Number platinum, Pt, 78 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 10, 6, d Appearance grayish white Atomic mass 195. ... General Name, Symbol, Number platinum, Pt, 78 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 10, 6, d Appearance grayish white Atomic mass 195. ...

History

The principle of the fuel cell was discovered by Swiss scientist Christian Friedrich Schönbein in 1838 and published in the January 1839 edition of the "Philosophical Magazine" [6]. Based on this work, the first fuel cell was developed by Welsh scientist Sir William Grove. A sketch was published in 1843,and he created the first fuel cell. The fuel cell he made used similar materials to today's Phosphoric-acid fuel cell. It wasn't until 1959 that British engineer Francis Thomas Bacon successfully developed a 5 kW stationary fuel cell. In 1959, a team led by Harry Ihrig built a 15 kW fuel cell tractor for Allis-Chalmers that was demonstrated across the US at state fairs. This system used potassium hydroxide as the electrolyte and compressed hydrogen and oxygen as the reactants. Later, in 1959, Bacon and his colleagues demonstrated a practical five-kilowatt unit capable of powering a welding machine, which led, in the 1960s to Bacon's patents being licensed by Pratt and Whitney from the U.S. where the concepts were used in the U.S. space program to supply electricity and drinking water (hydrogen and oxygen being readily available from the spacecraft tanks). Christian Friedrich Schönbein (October 18, 1799 – August 29, 1868) was a German-Swiss chemist who is most well-known for his discovery of guncotton. ... | Jöns Jakob Berzelius, discoverer of protein 1838 was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar). ... 1839 was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ... Sir William Robert Grove (1811 – 1896) was a British chemist. ... 1843 was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... Phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFC) are a type of fuel cell that uses liquid phosphoric acid as an electrolyte. ... 1959 (MCMLIX) was a common year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Francis Thomas Bacon (December 21, 1904 - 1992), born at Ramsden Hall, Billericay, Essex, UK was a British Engineer. ... 1959 (MCMLIX) was a common year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ...

Parallel with Pratt & Whitney Aircraft, General Electric developed the first proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) for the Gemini space missions in the early 1960s. The first mission to utilize PEFCs was Gemini V. However, the Apollo space missions and subsequent Apollo-Soyuz, Skylab and Space Shuttle missions utilized fuel cells based on Bacon's design, developed by Pratt & Whitney Aircraft. Pratt & Whitney is an American owned aircraft engine manufacturer whose products are widely used in both civil and military aircraft. ... GE redirects here; for other uses, see GE (disambiguation). ... Proton exchange membrane fuel cells, also known as polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFC), are a type of fuel cell being developed for transport applications as well as for stationary and portable applications. ... Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this exact name. ... Gemini 5 (officially Gemini V) was a 1965 manned spaceflight in NASAs Gemini program. ... Description Role: Earth and Lunar Orbit Crew: 3; CDR, CM pilot, LM pilot Dimensions Height: 36. ... The Apollo-Soyuz Test Project was the first joint flight of the US and Soviet space programs. ... Drawing of Skylab with components labelled Skylab was the first space station the United States launched into orbit. ... The Space Shuttle Columbia seconds after engine ignition, 1981 (NASA). ...

UTX's UTC Power subsidiary [7] was the first company to manufacture and commercialize a large, stationary fuel cell system for use as a co-generation power plant in hospitals, universities, and large office buildings. UTC Power continues to market this fuel cell as the PureCell 200 [8], a 200 kW system. UTC Power continues to be the sole supplier of fuel cells to NASA for use in space vehicles, having supplied the Apollo missions and currently the space shuttle, and is developing fuel cells for automobiles, buses, and cell phone towers. UTC Power claims to be "the global leader in the development and production of fuel cell technology" for both transportation and on-site power markets. In the automotive fuel cell market, UTC Power demonstrated the first fuel cell capable of starting under freezing conditions with its proton exchange membrane (PEM) automotive fuel cell. Note: UTC Power also uses the UTC Fuel Cells [9] name when referring to fuel cell products. Cogeneration (also combined heat and power or CHP) is the use of a power station to simultaneously generate both heat and electricity. ... A physician visiting the sick in a hospital. ... A university is an institution of higher education and of research, which grants academic degrees. ... This article is about traditional meanings of the word office. ... Description Role: Earth and Lunar Orbit Crew: 3; CDR, CM pilot, LM pilot Dimensions Height: 36. ... The Space Shuttle Columbia seconds after engine ignition, 1981 (NASA). ... Karl Benzs Velo model (1894) - entered into the first automobile race An automobile is a wheeled passenger vehicle that carries its own motor. ... Proton-exchange fuel cells, also known as Polymer Electrolyte (Membrane) Fuel Cells (PEM or PEMFC) are low temperature fuel cells which are being developed for transport applications as well as for stationary applications. ...

Extremely expensive materials were used and the fuel cells required very pure hydrogen and oxygen. Early fuel cells tended to require inconveniently high operating temperatures that were a problem in many applications. However, fuel cells were seen to be desirable due to the large amounts of fuel available (hydrogen & oxygen). Fuel is a material with one type of energy which can be transformed into another usable energy. ...

Despite their success in space programs, fuel cell systems were limited to space missions and other special applications, where high cost could be tolerated. It was not until the late 1980s and early 1990s that fuel cells became a real option for wider application base. Several pivotal innovations, e.g. low platinum catalyst loading and thin film electrodes drove the cost of fuel cells down, making development of PEMFC systems such as automobiles more or less realistic. (See vehicle) General Name, Symbol, Number platinum, Pt, 78 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 10, 6, d Appearance grayish white Atomic mass 195. ... A catalyst (Greek: καταλύτης, catalytēs) is a substance that accelerates the rate (speed) or ease of a chemical reaction (see also catalysis) without itself being changed at the end of the chemical reaction . ... An electrode is a conductor used to make contact with a nonmetallic part of a circuit (e. ... Proton exchange membrane fuel cells, also known as polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFC), are a type of fuel cell being developed for transport applications as well as for stationary and portable applications. ... Karl Benzs Velo model (1894) - entered into the first automobile race An automobile is a wheeled passenger vehicle that carries its own motor. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ...

In late 2004, Mechanical Technology Inc.'s subsidiary, MTI MicroFuel Cells debuted its first Direct Methanol Fuel Cell (DMFC)[10] for commercial use. MTI's Mobion™ cord-free rechargeable power pack technology consists of a fuel cell which runs on 100% (neat) Methanol. MTI's Mobion line is being released in industrial, consumer, and military markets as a low-cost replacement for lithium-ion batteries.

In 2006 Staxon [11]introduced an inexpensive OEM fuel cell module for system integration. In 2006 Angstrom Power[12], a British Columbia based company, began commercial sales of portable devices using proprietary hydrogen fuel cell technology, trademarked as "micro hydrogen."

Related

• Distributed generation
• Electrolysis
• Future energy development
• High-temperature electrolysis
• Hydrogen reformer
• Renewable energy
• Water splitting

Distributed generation is a new trend in electric power generation. ... In chemistry and manufacturing, electrolysis is a method of separating bonded elements and compounds by passing an electric current through them. ... // Energy development is the ongoing effort to provide abundant and accessible energy, through knowledge, skills and constructions. ... High-temperature electrolysis is a method currently being investigated for the production of hydrogen from water with oxygen as a by-product. ... A hydrogen reformer is a device that extracts the hydrogen contained in other fuels. ... Renewable energy (sources) or RES capture their energy from existing flows of energy, from on-going natural processes, such as sunshine, wind, flowing water (hydropower), biological processes, and geothermal heat flows. ... Water splitting is the general term for a chemical reaction in which water is converted into oxygen and hydrogen. ...

References

External links

• Fuel Cells 2000
• BIGS: Fuel Cell Animation
• EERE: Fuel Cell Types
• EERE: Hydrogen, Fuel Cells and Infrastructure Technologies Program
• How Stuff Works: Fuel Cells
• PhysicsWorld: Fuel Cells