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The ruins of Machu Picchu.

The Inca civilization began as a tribe in the Cusco area, where the legendary first Sapa Inca, Manco Capac founded the Kingdom of Cusco around 1200.^[1] Under the leadership of the descendants of Manco Capac, the state grew as it absorbed other Andean communities at that time. It was in 1442, when the Incas began a far reaching expansion under the command of Pachacutec, whose name literally meant earth-shaker. He formed the Inca empire (Tawantinsuyu), that would become the largest empire in pre-Columbian America.^[2] Image File history File links Acap. ... For the a general view of Inca civilisation, people and culture, see Incas. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Size of this preview: 800 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (2048 × 1536 pixel, file size: 1. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Size of this preview: 800 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (2048 × 1536 pixel, file size: 1. ... Machu Picchu (Quechua: , Old mountain) is a pre-Columbian Inca site located 2,400 meters (7,875 ft) above sea level[1]. It is situated on a mountain ridge above the Urubamba Valley in Peru, which is 80 km (50 mi) northwest of Cusco. ... This article is the city in Peru. ... The ruler of the Inca Empire (quechua: Inka Qhapaq) used the title of Sapa (the only one) and Apu (divinity). ... Categories: Historical stubs | Inca emperors ... Map of the Kigdom of Cusco. ... Pachacuti as drawn by Guaman Poma Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui (or Pachacutec; Quechua Pachakutiq, literally world-turner, i. ... For the a general view of Inca civilisation, people and culture, see Incas. ... The pre-Columbian era incorporates all period subdivisions in the history and prehistory of the Americas before the appearance of significant European influences on the American continents. ...

After the civil war in the Incan empire between the brothers Huascar and Atahualpa, the Spanish conquerors led by Francisco Pizarro conquered the Inca territory in 1533.^[3] In the following years the conquistadors managed to consolidate their power over the whole Andean region, repressing successive Inca rebellions until the establishment of the Viceroyalty of Perú in 1542 and the fall of the resistance of the last Incas of Vilcabamba in 1572. The Inca civilization ends at that time, but some cultural traditions remain in some ethnic groups as Quechuas and Aymara people. Combatants Inca Empire apart from northern territories, allied city-state Tumebamba, conservatives Confederate Northern Inca Empire (1527-1532), separatists Commanders Huascar, Inca emperor and claimant to the northern regions Atahualpa, Northern Inca emperor (legitimate) Strength ~200,000, with another 2 million reservists +50,000, later expanded up to 250,000... Alternate meaning: Huáscar (warship) Huascar, in full Inti Cusi Huallpa Huáscar (“Sun of Joy”) (died 1532). ... Lifetime portrait of Atahuallpa, the last sovereign Inca emperor Atahualpa or Atawallpa (c. ... Francisco Pizarro Francisco Pizarro González should not be confused with another Francisco Pizarro who joined Hernán Cortés to conquer the Aztecs. ... A Conquistador (Spanish: []) (English: Conqueror) was a Spanish soldier, explorer and adventurer who took part in the gradual invasion and conquering of much of the Americas and Asia Pacific, bringing them under Spanish colonial rule between the 15th and 19th centuries. ... Created in 1542, the Viceroyalty of Peru (in Spanish, Virreinato del Perú) contained most of Spanish-ruled South America until the creation of the separate viceroyalties of New Granada (now Colombia, Ecuador, Panamá and Venezuela, the last-named previously in the Viceroyalty of New Spain) in 1717 and River Plate... Vilcabamba a city founded by Manco Inca in 1539 and was the last refuge of the Inca Empire until it fell to the Spaniards in 1572, signalling the end of Inca resistance to Spanish rule. ... Quechua (Standard Quechua, Runasimi Language of People) is an Native American language of South America. ... The Aymara are a native ethnic group in the Andes region of South America; about 2. ...

[edit] History

Main article: History of the Incas

The Inca Empire was an empire centered in what is now Peru from AD 1438 to AD 1533. ...

[edit] Origin myths

Manco Capac was the founder of the Inca Dynasty in Peru and the Cuzco Dynasty at Cuzco. The legends and history surrounding this mythical figure are very jumbled, especially those concerning his rule at Cuzco and his birth/rising. In one legend, he was the son of Tici Viracocha. In another, he was brought up from the depths of Lake Titicaca by the sun god Inti. However, commoners were not allowed to speak the name of Inca Viracocha, which is possibly an explanation for the need for three foundation legends rather than just the first. Categories: Historical stubs | Inca emperors ... Apu Qun Tiqsi Wiraqutra In Inca mythology, Apu Qun Tiqsi Wiraqutra, commonly known today as Con-Tici Viracocha or simply Viracocha, was the creator of civilization, and one of the most important deities in the Inca canon. ... Lake Titicaca sits 3,812 m (12,507 feet) above sea level making it the highest commercially navigable lake in the world. ... Inti or Sun of May of the flag of Argentina, 1818 In Inca mythology, Inti was the sun god, as well a patron deity of Tahuantinsuyu. ...

There were also several myths about Manco Capac and his coming to power. In one myth, Manco Capac and his brother Pachacamac were sons of the sun god Inti. Manco Capac, himself, was worshiped as a fire and sun god. According to this Inti legend, Manco Capac and his siblings were sent up to the earth by the sun god and emerged from the cave of Pacaritambo carrying a golden staff called ‘tapac-yauri’. They were instructed to create a Temple of the Sun in the spot where the staff sank into the earth to honor the sun god Inti, their father. To get to Cuzco, where they built the temple, they traveled via underground caves. During the journey, one of Manco’s brothers, and possibly a sister, were turned to stone (huaca). In another version of this legend, instead of emerging from a cave in Cuzco, the siblings emerged from the waters of Lake Titicaca. Categories: Historical stubs | Inca emperors ... The complex and extensive site (an estimated 5 km2 including a ca. ... Inti or Sun of May of the flag of Argentina, 1818 In Inca mythology, Inti was the sun god, as well a patron deity of Tahuantinsuyu. ... This page is a candidate for speedy deletion, because: nonsense If you disagree with its speedy deletion, please explain why on its talk page or at Wikipedia:Speedy deletions. ... In Quechua, a Native American language of South America, a huaca or waka is an object that represents something revered, typically a monument of some kind. ... Lake Titicaca sits 3,812 m (12,507 feet) above sea level making it the highest commercially navigable lake in the world. ...

In the Inca Virachocha legend, Manco Capac was the son of Inca Viracocha of Pacari-Tampu, today known as Pacaritambo, which is 25 km (16 mi) south of Cuzco. He and his brothers (Ayar Anca, Ayar Cachi, and Ayar Uchu); and sisters (Mama Ocllo, Mama Huaco, Mama Raua, and Mama Cura) lived near Cuzco at Paccari-Tampu, and uniting their people and the ten ayllu they encountered in their travels to conquer the tribes of the Cuzco Valley. This legend also incorporates the golden staff, which is thought to have been given to Manco Capac by his father. Accounts vary, but according to some versions of the legend, the young Manco jealously betrayed his older brothers, killed them, and then became the sole ruler of Cuzco. Å… Apu Qun Tiqsi Wiraqutra In Inca mythology, Apu Qun Tiqsi Wiraqutra, commonly known today as Con-Tici Viracocha or simply Viracocha, was the creator of everything in the world civilization, and one of the most important deities in the Inca canon. ... This page is a candidate for speedy deletion, because: nonsense If you disagree with its speedy deletion, please explain why on its talk page or at Wikipedia:Speedy deletions. ... In Inca mythology, Mama Ocllo was deified as a mother and fertility goddess. ... This article is the city in Peru. ... Ayllu were the basic political unit of pre-Inca and Inca life. ...

[edit] Emergence and expansion

Inca expansion (1438-1527 AD)

The Inca people began as a tribe of the Killke culture in the Cuzco area around the 12th century AD. Under the leadership of Manco Capac, they formed the small city-state of Cuzco (Quechua Qosqo), shown in red on the map. Image File history File links Size of this preview: 324 × 599 pixelsFull resolution‎ (1,730 × 3,200 pixels, file size: 304 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File historyClick on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 324 × 599 pixelsFull resolution‎ (1,730 × 3,200 pixels, file size: 304 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File historyClick on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. ... Categories: Historical stubs | Inca emperors ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Quechuan languages. ...

In 1438 AD, under the command of Sapa Inca (paramount leader) Pachacuti, whose name literally meant "land-shaker", they conquered much of modern day southern Peru. He then rebuilt Cuzco as major city, and capital of an empire. The ruler of the Inca Empire (quechua: Inka Qhapaq) used the title of Sapa (the only one) and Apu (divinity). ... Pachacuti as drawn by Guaman Poma Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui (or Pachacutec; Quechua Pachakutiq, literally world-turner, i. ...

Pachacuti reorganized the kingdom of Cuzco into an empire, the Tahuantinsuyu, a federalist system which consisted of a central government with the Inca at its head and four provincial governments with strong leaders: Chinchasuyu (NW), Antisuyu (NE), Contisuyu (SW), and Collasuyu (SE). Pachacuti is also thought to have built Machu Picchu, either as a family home or as a Camp David-like retreat This article is about federal states. ... Chinchasuyu was the northwestern provincial region of the Tahuantinsuyu, or Inca Empire. ... Antisuyu was the southeastern provincial region of the Tahuantinsuyu, or Inca Empire. ... Contisuyu was the southwestern provincial region of the Tahuantinsuyu, or Inca Empire. ... Collasuyu was the southwestern provincial region of the Tahuantinsuyu, or Inca Empire. ... Machu Picchu (Quechua: , Old mountain) is a pre-Columbian Inca site located 2,400 meters (7,875 ft) above sea level[1]. It is situated on a mountain ridge above the Urubamba Valley in Peru, which is 80 km (50 mi) northwest of Cusco. ... The West Wing, see NSF Thurmont (The West Wing). ...

Pachacuti would send spies to regions he wanted in his empire who would report back on their political organization, military might and wealth. He would then send messages to the leaders of these lands extolling the benefits of joining his empire, offering them presents of luxury goods such as high quality textiles, and promising that they would be materially richer as subject rulers of the Inca. Most accepted the rule of the Inca as a fait accompli and acquiesced peacefully. The ruler's children would then be brought to Cuzco to be taught about Inca administration systems, then return to rule their native lands. This allowed the Inca to indoctrinate the former ruler's children into the Inca nobility, and, with luck, marry their daughters into families at various corners of the empire. Here are some examples of French words and phrases used by English speakers. ...

It was traditional for the Inca's son to lead the army; Pachacuti's son Túpac Inca began conquests to the north in 1463, and continued them as Inca after Pachucuti's death in 1471. His most important conquest was the Kingdom of Chimor, the Inca's only serious rival for the coast of Peru. Túpac Inca's empire stretched north into modern day Ecuador and Colombia. Drawing of Tupac Inca Yupanqui by Guaman Poma (1615 CE) Tupac Inca Yupanqui was head of the Inca army from 1463 CE through 1471 CE and became the second Inca of Tahuantinsuyu after his fathers death in 1471 CE. He ruled the Inca empire until his death in 1493... Late Intermediate Period Cultures Chimu Piece - Imperial Epoch, 1300 A.D. to 1532 A.D.Larco Museum Collection Chimor (also Kingdom of Chimor) was the political grouping of the Chimú culture that ruled the northern coast of Peru, beginning around 850 AD and ending around 1470 AD. Chimor was the...

Túpac Inca's son Huayna Cápac added significant territory to the south. At its height, Tahuantinsuyu included Peru and Bolivia, most of what is now Ecuador, a large portion of modern-day Chile, and extended into corners of Argentina and Colombia. Huayna Capac (1493 - 1527) was an Inca emperor. ...

Tahuantinsuyu was a patchwork of languages, cultures and peoples. The components of the empire were not all uniformly loyal, nor were the local cultures all fully integrated. For instance, the Chimú used money in their commerce, while the Inca empire as a whole had an economy based on exchange and taxation of luxury goods and labour (it is said that Inca tax collectors would take the head lice of the lame and old as a symbolic tribute). The portions of the Chachapoya that had been conquered were almost openly hostile to the Inca, and the Inca nobles rejected an offer of refuge in their kingdom after their troubles with the Spanish. They were conquered by the group of Francisco Pizarro. The Chimú were the residents of Chimor with its capital at the city of Chan Chan in the Moche valley of Peru. ... Disabled redirects here. ... This article is about the pre-Columbian Chachapoyas civilization. ...

[edit] Spanish conquest and Vilcabamba

Main article: Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire

Spanish conquistadors led by Francisco Pizarro explored south from Panama, reaching Inca territory by 1526. It was clear that they had reached a wealthy land with prospects of great treasure, and after one more expedition (1529), Pizarro traveled to Spain and received royal approval to conquer the region and become its Viceroy. The Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire was a process through which a group of Spaniards led by Francisco Pizarro succeeded in toppling the Inca Empire in the early 16th-century. ... Conquistador (Spanish: kōn-kē-stŏ-dōr) (meaning Conqueror in the Spanish language) is the term used to refer to the soldiers, explorers, and adventurers who brought much of the Americas and Asia Pacific under Spanish colonial rule between the 15th and 17th centuries, starting with the 1492 settlement... Francisco Pizarro Francisco Pizarro González should not be confused with another Francisco Pizarro who joined Hernán Cortés to conquer the Aztecs. ...

At the time they returned to Peru, in 1532, a war of succession between Huayna Capac's son Huascar and half brother Atahualpa and unrest among newly-conquered territories-- and also smallpox, which had spread from Central America-- had considerably weakened the empire. Alternate meaning: Huáscar (warship) Huascar, in full Inti Cusi Huallpa Huáscar (“Sun of Joy”) (died 1532). ... Lifetime portrait of Atahuallpa, the last sovereign Inca emperor Atahualpa or Atawallpa (c. ... Smallpox (also known by the Latin names Variola or Variola vera) is a contagious disease unique to humans. ...

Pizarro did not have a formidable force. With just 180 men, 27 horses and 1 cannon, he often used able diplomacy to talk his way out of potential confrontations that could have easily ended in defeat. Their first engagement was the Battle of Puná,near present-day Guayaquil, Ecuador where his force rapidly overcame the indigineous warriors of Puna island. Pizarro then founded the city of Piura in July 1532. Hernando de Soto was sent inland to explore the interior, and returned with an invitation to meet the Inca, Atahualpa, who had defeated his nephew in the civil war and was resting at Cajamarca with his army of 80,000 troops. The Battle of Puná, a peripheral engagement of Francisco Pizarros conquest of Peru, was fought in April 1531 on the island of Puná (in the Gulf of Guayaquil). ... This article is about the city of Guayaquil. ... Piura: Plaza de Armas Piura is a city in northwestern Peru. ... Hernando de Soto is a: Spanish explorer. ... This article is about the city of Cajamarca. ...

Pizarro met with the Inca, who had brought only a small retinue, and through interpreters asked that he convert to Christianity. A disputed legend claims that Atahualpa was handed a Bible and threw it on the floor, the Spanish supposedly interpreted this action as reason for war. Though some chroniclers suggest that Atahualpa simply didn't understand the notion of a book, others portray Atahualpa as being genuinely curious and inquisitive in the situation. Regardless, the Spanish attacked the Inca's retinue (see Battle of Cajamarca), capturing Atahualpa. Combatants Aragon and Castille Inca Empire Commanders Francisco Pizarro Atahualpa Strength 106 infantry 62 cavalry 3 guns 80,000 soldiers of Atahualpas personal army Casualties 5 dead[1], 2 wounded 7,000 The Battle of Cajamarca was a surprise attack on the Inca royal entourage orchestrated by Francisco Pizarro. ...

Atahualpa offered the Spaniards enough gold to fill the room he was imprisoned in, and twice that amount of silver, in order to be freed. The Incas fulfilled this ransom, but Pizarro refused to release the Inca. During Atahualpa's imprisonment Huascar was assassinated. The Spanish maintained that this was at Atahualpa's orders; this was one of the charges used against Atahualpa when the Spanish finally decided to put him to death, in August 1533.

The Spanish installed his brother Manco Inca Yupanqui in power; for some time Manco cooperated with the Spanish, while the Spanish fought to put down resistance in the north. Meanwhile an associate of Pizarro's, Diego de Almagro, attempted to claim Cusco for himself. Manco tried to use this intra-Spanish feud to his advantage, recapturing Cusco (1536), but the Spanish retook the city. Manco Inca Yupanqui (b. ... Diego de Almagro Diego de Almagro (b. ... This article is the city in Peru. ...

Manco Inca then retreated to the mountains of Vilcabamba, where he and his successors ruled for another 36 years, sometimes raiding the Spanish or inciting revolts against them. In 1572 the last Inca stronghold was discovered, and the last ruler, Túpac Amaru, Manco's son, was captured and executed, bringing the Inca empire to an end. Last refuge of the Inca Empire, Vilcabamba was founded by Manco Inca in 1539 and fell to the Spaniards in 1572, signalling the end of Inca resistance to Spanish rule. ... For other uses, see Tupac Amaru (disambiguation). ...

[edit] Society

Main article: Inca society

Representation of an Incan quipu

It has been suggested that Women and clothing in Incan Society be merged into this article or section. ... Image File history File links From Meyers Konversationslexikon of 1888 - Public Domain This image is from the 4th edition of the Meyers Konversationslexikon. ... Image File history File links From Meyers Konversationslexikon of 1888 - Public Domain This image is from the 4th edition of the Meyers Konversationslexikon. ...

[edit] Social structure

Incas were separated into three distinct "castes": Upper Class (Nobles), Lower Class, and Slaves (Yanas). Slaves included prisoners of war and the children of slaves as well. Most lower class men were farmers. If a remarkable militarian or artisan was outstanding in some specific activity, the Inca rewarded him with the privilege of becoming Noble (Privileged Nobility) for one year or until someone else did something even more worthy. An other way of becoming a Privileged Noble was being a Curaca (Leader of a village) who willingly decided to join the empire. His subordinates became the Incas' but in exchange he conserved his position. But the Privileged Nobility could never expect to be treated as equal with the Royal Nobility (Known as Blood Nobility), so they never married between them.

The Incas were very strict in this point and never allowed it. There is a legend that talks about this specific matter known as the Ollantay.

Ollantay's Myth

It refers to a princess called Cusi Coyllur (Inca Pachacutec's daughter) who married in secret a remarkable General called Ollantay (Privileged Noble). Time passed and Ollantay dared to ask for Cusi Coyllur (Happy Star in Quechua) hand. Inca Pachacutec in response locked his daughter away in the Acllawasi (similar to a Convent) to prevent Ollantay from being close to his daughter, because he did not consider him worthy of being Cusi Coyllur's husband due to his origin.

In response, Ollantay took all his followers and lead them to a fortress later known as Ollantay Tambo, located in the Urubamba Valley in order to oppose the Inca. When Pachacutec knew about this, he sent Rumi Ñahui (Stone Eye in Quechua) to defeat him, but he couldn't do it due to Ollantay's fierce resistance that lasted almost ten years. Meanwhile Cusi Coyllur gave birth to Ollantay's daughter called Imac Sumac.

Time continued to pass and Pachacutec died. Rumi Ñahui realized that he has been beaten so he thought of a plan. He pretended that he had been degraded and ordered to be punished for his continuing lack of success, so when the Inti Raymi festivities arrived he asked an overconfident Ollantay for help. During this celebration Ollantay was taken prisoner because his soldiers were drunk.

Ollantay was taken to new inca Tupac Yupanqui, who listened to this story involving his sister and his father. Suddenly Ima Sumac appeared and interceded for her mother. After having listened to those arguments Tupac Yupanqui allowed Cusi Coyllur to be married to Ollantay.

[edit] Education

Main article: Inca education

The Inca used quipu or bunches of knotted strings, for accounting and census purposes. Much of the information on the surviving quipus has been shown to be numeric data; some numbers seem to have been used as mnemonic labels, and the color, spacing, and structure of the quipu carried information as well. Since it isn't known how to interpret the coded or non-numeric data, some scholars still hope to find that the quipu recorded language. Amauta Inca education during the time of the Inca Empire was divided into two principal spheres: education for the upper classes and education for the general population. ... Inca Quipu. ...

The Inca depended largely on oral transmission as a means of maintaining the preservation of their culture. Inca education was divided into two distinct categories: vocational education for common Inca and formalized training for the nobility.

[edit] Religion

Main article: Inca religion

The belief system of the Incas was polytheistic. Inti, the Sun God, was the godhead, which the Incas believed was the direct ancestor of the Sapa Inca, the title of the hereditary rulers of the empire. The belief system of the Incas was polytheistic. ...

[edit] Arts and technology

Inca tunic

Coca leaves

Download high resolution version (800x944, 1796 KB)Tupa Inca tunic held at Dumbarton Oaks library[1] The two-dimensional work of art depicted in this image is in the public domain in the United States and in those countries with a copyright term of life of the author plus 100... Download high resolution version (800x944, 1796 KB)Tupa Inca tunic held at Dumbarton Oaks library[1] The two-dimensional work of art depicted in this image is in the public domain in the United States and in those countries with a copyright term of life of the author plus 100... This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... For other uses, see Coca (disambiguation). ...

[edit] Monumental architecture

Architecture was by far the most important of the Inca arts, with pottery and textiles reflecting motifs that were at their height in architecture. The main example is the capital city of Cuzco itself. The breathtaking site of Machu Picchu was constructed by Inca engineers. The stone temples constructed by the Inca used a mortarless construction that fit together so well that you couldn't fit a knife through the stonework. This was a process first used on a large scale by the Pucara (ca. 300 BC – AD 300) peoples to the south in Lake Titicaca, and later in the great city of Tiwanaku (ca. AD 400–1100) in present day Bolivia. The Inca imported the stoneworkers of the Tiwanaku region to Cuzco when they conquered the lands south of Lake Titicaca^{[citation needed]}. The rocks used in construction were sculpted to fit together exactly by repeatedly lowering a rock onto another and carving away any sections on the lower rock where the dust was compressed. The tight fit and the concavity on the lower rocks made them extraordinarily stable. This article is about building architecture. ... Machu Picchu (Quechua: , Old mountain) is a pre-Columbian Inca site located 2,400 meters (7,875 ft) above sea level[1]. It is situated on a mountain ridge above the Urubamba Valley in Peru, which is 80 km (50 mi) northwest of Cusco. ... Inca redirects here. ... Area of the Middle Horizon The Gate of the Sun Tiwanaku (Spanish spellings: Tiahuanaco and Tiahuanacu) is an important Pre-Columbian archaeological site in Bolivia. ...

[edit] Ceramics, precious metal work, and textiles

Almost all of the gold and silver work of the empire was melted down by the conquistadors. Ceramics were painted in numerous motifs including birds, waves, felines, and geometric patterns. The most distinctive Inca ceramic objects are the Cusco bottles or ¨aryballos¨. ^[4] Many of these pieces are on display in Lima in the Larco Archaeological Museum and the National Museum of Archaeology, Anthropology and History. The Larco Museum (Spanish: ) is located in the Pueblo Libre District in Lima, Peru. ...

[edit] Agriculture

The Inca lived in mountainous terrain, which is not good for farming. To resolve this problem, they cut terraces (broad, flat platforms) into steep slopes -known as andenes- so they could plant crops. They grew maize, quinoa, squash, tomatoes, peanuts, chili peppers, melons, cotton, and potatoes. They also used another method of farming called irrigation. Terraced vineyards near Lausanne The Incan terraces at Písac are still used today. ... Irrigation is the artificial application of water to the soil usually for assisting in growing crops. ...

[edit] Discoveries

[edit] Mathematics and astronomy

An important Inca technology was the Quipu, which were assemblages of knotted strings used to record information, the exact nature of which is no longer known. Originally it was thought that Quipu were used only as mnemonic devices or to record numerical data. Recent discoveries, however, have led to the theory that these devices were instead a form of writing in their own right^{[citation needed]}. Inca Quipu. ...

The Inca made many discoveries in medicine. They performed successful skull surgery, which involved cutting holes in the skull to release pressure from head wounds^{[citation needed]}. Coca leaves were used to lessen hunger and pain, as they still are in the Andes. The Chasqui (messengers) chewed coca leaves for extra energy to carry on their tasks as runners delivering messages throughout the empire. 18th century French illustration of trepanation Trepanation (also known as trepanning, trephination, trephining or burr hole) is a form of surgery in which a hole is drilled or scraped into the skull, thus exposing the dura mater in order to treat health problems related to intracranial diseases, though in the... For other uses, see Coca (disambiguation). ... This article is about the mountain range in South America. ... Representation of a Chasqui The Chasquis were agile and highly trained runners who delivered messages and royal delicacies throughout the Inca Empire, principally serving the Sapa Inca. ...

[edit] Metallurgy

The Incas had no iron or steel, but they had developed an alloy of bronze superior to that of their enemies and contemporary Mesoamericans. The Andean nations prior to the Incas used arsenical bronze at best. The Incas introduced to South America the tin / copper alloy which is today commonly associated with "bronze age" metallurgy.^[5] Arsenical bronze (or arsenical copper) is an alloy in which arsenic is added to copper as opposed to, or in addition to other constituent metals. ...

[edit] Weapons, armor and warfare

A detail of an Inca stone work

The Incas used weapons and had wars with other civilizations in the area. The Inca army was the most powerful in the area at that time, because they could turn an ordinary villager or farmer into a soldier, ready for battle. This is because every male Inca had to take part in war at least once so as to be prepared for warfare again when needed. Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ...

They went into battle with the beating of drums and the blowing of trumpets. The armor used by the Incas included:

• Helmets made of wood, cane or animal skin
• Round or square shields made from wood or hide
• Cloth tunics padded with cotton and small wooden planks to protect the spine.

The Inca weaponry included:

• Bronze or bone-tipped spears
• Two-handed wooden swords with serrated edges (notched with teeth, like a saw)
• Clubs with stone and spiked metal heads
• Wooden slings and stones
• Stone or copper headed battle-axes
• Stones fastened to lengths of cord (bola).

Roads allowed very quick movement for the Inca army, and shelters called quolla were built one day's distance in traveling from each other, so that an army on campaign could always be fed and rested when tired. The Inca road system also allowed runners to carry messages long distances every day, allowing for a fast message system. Runners would carry the message to another runner who would then take the message to another one until the message reached is destination. A message could travel up to 240 kilometers every day. Major highways of the Inca Empire Among the many roads and trails constructed in pre-Columbian South America, the Inca road system (El Camino Inca) of Peru was the most extensive. ...

[edit] See also

• Peruvian Ancient Cultures
• Cultural periods of Peru
• History of Peru
• War of the two brothers
• Inca Garcilaso de la Vega
• Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala
• Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire
• Smallpox Epidemics in the New World
• Population history of Amerindians
• Spanish Empire
• Inca cuisine
• Tumi
• Amazonas before the Inca Empire

The actual territory of Peru was not only the main center of the Tahuantinsuyo, but also the center of the powerful Inca Empire, and after the Spanish conquer, the biggest Spanish Viceroyalty in America. ... This is a chart of the Peruvian cultural periods used by archaeologist studying the area. ... The history of Peru spans several millennia. ... Combatants Inca Empire apart from northern territories, allied city-state Tumebamba, conservatives Confederate Northern Inca Empire (1527-1532), separatists Commanders Huascar, Inca emperor and claimant to the northern regions Atahualpa, Northern Inca emperor (legitimate) Strength ~200,000, with another 2 million reservists +50,000, later expanded up to 250,000... Garcilaso de la Vega, (b. ... Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala, best known as Guaman Poma, (c. ... The Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire was a process through which a group of Spaniards led by Francisco Pizarro succeeded in toppling the Inca Empire in the early 16th-century. ... Smallpox (also known by the Latin names Variola or Variola vera) is a contagious disease unique to humans. ... Natives of North America. ... An anachronous map of the overseas Spanish Empire (1492-1898) in red, and the Spanish Habsburg realms in Europe (1516-1714) in orange. ... Pachamanca, a traditional dish consisting of food prepared in a huatia. ... The Tumi Logo Tumi is a manufacturer of suitcases and bags for travel. ... The fortress of Cochabamba, in the province of Leimebamba, Amazonas. ...

[edit] Notes

The Larco Museum (Spanish: ) is located in the Pueblo Libre District in Lima, Peru. ...

[edit] Further reading

• Dobyns, Henry F. and Doughty, Paul L. Peru: A Cultural History. New York: Oxford University Press, 1976.
• Eeckhout, Peter. "Ancient Peru's Power Elite." National Geographic Reasearch and Exploration. March 2005. Pp. 52-56.
• Frost, Peter. "Lost Outpost of the Inca." National Geographic. February 2004. Pp. 66-69.
• MacQuarrie, Kim. The Last Days of the Incas. Simon & Schuster, 2007. ISBN 978-0743260497.
• Mancall, Peter C. (ed.). Travel Narratives from the Age of Discovery. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006.
• Mann, Charles. C (2005). 1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus. Knopf. 
• Prescott, William H. "Conquest of Peru." The Book League of America. New York: 1976.
• Prescott, William H. History of the Conquest of Mexico & History of the Conquest of Peru. New York: Cooper Square Press, 2000.

Charles C. Mann (fl. ... Alfred A. Knopf ( September 12, 1892 – August 11, 1984) was a leading American publisher of the 20th century. ...

[edit] External links

• A Map and Timeline of events mentioned in this article