An indentured servant is a laborer under contract of an employer for some period of time, usually three to seven years, in exchange for their transportation, food, drink, clothing, lodging and other necessities. A contract is a legally binding exchange of promises or agreement between parties that the law will enforce. ... Employment is a contract between two parties, one being the employer and the other being the employee. ...

Unlike a slave, an indentured servant was required to work only for a limited term specified in a signed contract. Slave redirects here. ...

A major problem with the system of indentured servitude was that in many cases, an indentured servant would become indebted to their employer, who would forgive the debt in exchange for an extension to the period of their indenture, which could thereby continue indefinitely. In other cases, indentured servants were subject to violence at the hands of their employers in the homes or fields in which they worked. Debt bondage or bonded labor is a means of paying off a familys loans via the labor of family members or heirs. ... For other uses, see Violence (disambiguation). ...

The labor-intensive cash crop of tobacco was farmed in the American South by indentured laborers in the 17th and 18th centuries.^[1] Indentured servitude was not the same as the apprenticeship system by which skilled trades were taught, but similarities do exist between the two mechanisms, in that both require a set period of work. Shredded tobacco leaf for pipe smoking Tobacco can also be pressed into plugs and sliced into flakes Tobacco is an agricultural product processed from the fresh leaves of plants in the genus Nicotiana. ... The U.S. Southern states or The South, known during the American Civil War era as Dixie, is a distinctive region of the United States with its own unique historical perspective, customs, musical styles, and cuisine. ... Apprenticeship is a system of training a new generation of skilled crafts practitioners, which is still popular in some countries. ...

America

In addition to African slaves, Europeans, mostly Irish,^[2] Scottish,^[3] English, and Germans, were brought over in substantial numbers as indentured servants,^[4] particularly in the British Thirteen Colonies.^[5] Over half of all white immigrants to the English colonies of North America during the 17th and 18th centuries consisted of indentured servants.^[6] This article is about the Scottish people as an ethnic group. ... This article is about the English as an ethnic group and nation. ... In 1775, the British claimed authority over the red and pink areas on this map and Spain ruled the orange. ... (16th century - 17th century - 18th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 17th century was that century which lasted from 1601-1700. ... (17th century - 18th century - 19th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 18th century refers to the century that lasted from 1701 through 1800. ...

Indenture certificate signed with an X by Henry Meyer in 1738

An indenture was a legal contract enforced by the courts. One indenture reads as follows: ^[7]

This INDENTURE Witnesseth that James Best a Laborer doth Voluntarily put himself Servant to Captain
Stephen Jones Master of the Snow Sally to serve the said Stephen Jones and his Assigns, for and during the full
Space, Time and Term of three Years from the first Day of the said James’s arrival in Philadelphia in AMERICA,
during which Time or Term the said Master or his Assigns shall and will find and supply the said James with
sufficient Meat, Drink, Apparel, Lodging and all other necessaries befitting such a Servant, and at the end and
expiration of said Term, the said James to be made Free, and receive according to the Custom of the Country.
Provided nevertheless, and these Presents are on this Condition, that if the said James shall pay the said Stephen
Jones or his Assigns 15 Pounds British in twenty one Days after his arrival he shall be Free, and the above
Indenture and every Clause therein, absolutely Void and of no Effect. In Witness whereof the said Parties have
hereunto interchangeably put their Hands and Seals the 6th Day of July in the Year of our Lord, One Thousand
Seven Hundred and Seventy Three in the Presence of the Right Worshipful Mayor of the City of London. (signatures)

When the ship arrived, the captain would often advertise in a newspaper that indentured servants (redemptioners) were for sale: ^[8]

Just imported, on board the Snow Sally, Captain Stephen Jones, Master, from England,
A number of healthy, stout English and Welsh Servants and Redemptioners, and a
few Palatines [Germans], amongst whom are the following tradesmen, viz. Blacksmiths,
watch-makers, coppersmiths, taylors, shoemakers, ship-carpenters and caulkers, weavers,
cabinet-makers, ship-joiners, nailers, engravers, copperplate printers, plasterers, bricklayers,
sawyers and painters. Also schoolmasters, clerks and book-keepers, farmers and labourers,
and some lively smart boys, fit for various other employments, whose times are to be disposed of.
Enquire of the Captain on board the vessel, off Walnut-street wharff, or of MEASE and CALDWELL.

When a buyer was found, the sale would be recorded at the city court. The Philadelphia Mayor’s Court Indenture Book, page 742, for September 18, 1773 has the following entry: ^[9]

James Best.
Who was under Indenture of Redemption to Captain
Stephen Jones now cancelled in consideration of £ 15,
paid for his Passage from London bound a servant
to David Rittenhouse of the City of Philadelphia
& assigns three years to befound all necessaries.

The law provided for punishments for runaway indentured servants. In 1638, for example, several lashes were the punishment for running away. In the following year, the punishment was extended to hanging the runaway. By 1641 the law was changed such that death would be the punishment unless the servant requested that his or her service be extended after the expiration of the contract. The service could be extended up to twice the time absent, not to exceed seven years.

On the journey to America, people aboard the ship sailing were given a portion of food set to last 2 weeks, with no opportunity for more, and no care as to the lives of those who finished their rations early. Many passengers did not survive the trip to the new land. Some died of starvation, disease, or suicide. In Colonial North America, employers usually paid for European workers' passage across the Atlantic Ocean, reimbursing the shipowner who held their papers of indenture. In the process many families were broken apart. During the time living with their masters, their fellow indentured servants took the role of family. In return, laborers agreed to work for a specified number of years. This article is about the colonial history of the United States. ...

The agreement could also be an exchange for professional training: after being the indentured servant of a blacksmith for several years, one would expect to work as a blacksmith on one's own account after the period of indenture was over. During the 17th century, most of the white labourers in Virginia came from England this way. Their masters were bound to feed, clothe, and lodge them. Ideally, an indentured servant's lot in the establishment would be no harder than that of a contemporary apprentice, who was similarly bound by contract and owed hard, unpaid labour while "serving his time." At the end of the allotted time, an indentured servant was to be given a new suit of clothes, tools, or money, and freed. For other uses, see Blacksmith (disambiguation). ... This article is about the U.S. state. ... For other uses, see England (disambiguation). ... Apprenticeship is a system of training a new generation of skilled crafts practitioners, which is still popular in some countries. ...

On the other hand, this ideal was not always a reality for indentured servants. Both male and female laborers could be subject to violence, occasionally even resulting in death. Female indentured servants in particular might be raped and/or sexually abused by their masters. Cases of successful prosecution for these crimes were very uncommon, as indentured servants were unlikely to have access to a magistrate, and social pressure to avoid such brutality could vary by geography and cultural norm. The situation was particularly difficult for indentured women, because in both low social class and sex, they were believed to be particularly prone to vice, making legal redress unusual.

Indentured servitude was a method of increasing the number of colonists, especially in the British colonies. Voluntary migration and Convict labor only provided so many people, and since the journey across the Atlantic was dangerous, other means of encouraging settlement were necessary. Contract-laborers became an important group of people and so numerous that the United States Constitution counted them specifically in appointing representatives: Wikisource has original text related to this article: The United States Constitution The United States Constitution is the supreme law of the United States of America. ...

Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective Numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons, including those bound to Service for a Term of Years....^[10]

Most indentured servants were recruited from the growing number of unemployed poor people in urban areas of England. Displaced from their land and unable to find work in the cities, many of these people signed contracts of indenture and took passage to the Americas. In Massachusetts, religious instruction in the Puritan way of life was often part of the condition of indenture, and people tended to live in towns. In the north, indentured servants were more likely to be integrated with the community to some extent, with more household chores and town-oriented trade skills associated with their work. What was often great mental stress and suppression in combination with hard work and the possibility of physical abuse took its toll on many indentured servants, particularly women, who were subject to even stricter social mores than their male counterparts. Historians have speculated that these conditions might have produced symptoms of "possession" that young women attributed to witches.^{[citation needed]} For the record label, see Puritan Records. ...

By contrast, in Virginia, the majority of the population did not live in individual towns, and indentured servants were more likely to work on isolated farms. The majority of Virginians were Anglican, not Puritan, and while religion did play a large role in everyday lives, the culture was more commercially based. In the Upper South, where tobacco was the main cash crop, the majority of labor that indentured servants performed was related to field work. In this situation, social isolation could increase the possibilities for both direct and indirect abuse, as could lengthy, demanding labor in the tobacco fields.

Indentured servants rebelled in Virginia in response to poor work conditions and the hardships they faced after they were freed, which could include a lack of land, poverty, taxes, militia duty, and forced labor on county projects. Nathaniel Bacon's Rebellion found its support among white, disillusioned laborers in Virginia and slaves. Bacons Rebellion or the Virginia Rebellion was an uprising in 1676 in the Virginia Colony, led by Nathaniel Bacon. ...

Indentured servants differed from slavery. There was a continuum between the designations "free" and "unfree" in the colonial period. In this sense, the development of racial thinking to separate and privilege the mainly white laborers from black slaves solidified the institution of slavery even as it opened, at least in name, opportunities for lower-class whites. Ultimately, Slavery persisted until 1865 in the South, but indentured servitude did not.

The system was still widely practiced in the 1780s, picking up immediately after a hiatus during the American Revolution. Fernand Braudel (The Perspective of the World 1984, pp 405f) instances a 1783 report on "the import trade from Ireland" and its large profits to a ship owner or a captain, who: Fernand Braudel (August 24, 1902–November 27, 1985) was a French historian. ...

"puts his conditions to the emigrants in Dublin or some other Irish port. Those who can pay for their passage—usually about 100 or 80 [livres tournois]—arrive in America free to take any engagement that suits them. Those who cannot pay are carried at the expense of the shipowner, who in order to recoup his money, advertises on arrival that he has imported artisans, laborers and domestic servants and that he has agreed with them on his own account to hire their services for a period normally of three, four, or five years for men and women and 6 or 7 years for children." For other uses, see Dublin (disambiguation). ...

In modern terms, the shipowner was acting as an contractor, hiring out his laborers. Such circumstances affected the treatment a captain gave his valuable human cargo. After indentures were forbidden, the passage had to be prepaid, giving rise to the inhumane conditions of Irish "coffin ships" in the second half of the 19th century. An independent contractor is a person or business which provides goods or services to another entity under terms specified in a contract. ... A coffin ship was the name given to the ships that carried Irish emmigrants escaping the effects of the potato famine. ...

Indentured servitude was also used by the Hudson's Bay Company, in what is now Canada, to staff the coal mines around Nanaimo well into the late 1800s. Hbc redirects here. ... Nanaimo (2004 pop. ...

Modern indentured servitude takes the form of illegal immigrants paying their passage by long work-hours in harsh conditions, often at subsistence pay rates to support themselves. Such activity is not uncommon in America and Europe as well.

Article 4 of the United Nation's Universal Declaration of Human Rights (passed in 1948) declares such servitude as illegal. But, only national legislation can implement that illegality. In America, the Trafficking Victims Protection Act (TVPA) of 2000 extended servitude to cover Peonage as well as Involuntary Servitude. The word peon, derived from the Spanish peón, in its root connoting a person who is on foot rather than mounted (see caballero), and the derivation peonage are English words which have a variety of related meanings: In Spanish-speaking countries, especially those in Latin America, where the hacienda...

See also: Black Codes in the USA

The Black Codes were laws passed on the state and local level in the United States to restrict the civil rights and civil liberties of Black People, particularly former slaves. ...

The Caribbean

European settlers who came to the Caribbean islands during the 16th and 17th centuries did so as indentured servants. Commoners, most of whom were young men, with dreams of owning their land or striking it rich quick would essentially sell years of their freedom in exchange for passage to the islands. The landowners on the islands would pay for a servant’s passage and then provide them with food and shelter during the term of their service. The servant would then be required to work in the landowner’s (master) field for a term of bondage (usually four to seven years). During this term of bondage the servant was considered the property of the master. He could be sold or given away by his master and he was not allowed to marry without the master’s permission. An indentured servant was normally not allowed to buy or sell goods although, unlike an African slave, he could own personal property. He could also go to a local magistrate if he was treated badly by his master. After the servant’s term of bondage was complete he was freed and paid “freedom dues”. These payments could take the form of land or sugar, which would give the servant the opportunity to become an independent farmer or a free laborer. For other uses, see Europe (disambiguation). ... A family of Russian settlers in the Caucasus region, ca. ... This is a list of inhabited islands in the Caribbean. ... A commoner, in British law, is someone who is neither the Sovereign nor a noble. ... For other uses, see Freedom. ... Matrimony redirects here. ... This article discusses the history of the slave trade of Africa, and its effect upon the continent. ... A magistrate is a judicial officer. ... This article is about sugar as food and as an important and widely-traded commodity. ...

Indentured servitude was a common part of the landscape in England and Ireland during the 1600s. During the 1600s, many Irish were also kidnapped and taken to Barbados. Many indentured servants were captured by the English during Cromwell’s expeditions to Ireland and Scotland, who were forcibly brought over between 1649 and 1655. For other uses, see England (disambiguation). ... Oliver Cromwell (25 April 1599 – 3 September 1658) was an English military and political leader best known for his involvement in making England into a republican Commonwealth and for his later role as Lord Protector of England, Scotland and Ireland. ... This article is about the country. ...

Many white Irish slaves were taken to Montserrat during the slave trade: it is the only territory in the world, other than the Republic of Ireland, to have a public holiday for St Patrick Day.

After 1660, the Caribbean saw fewer indentured servants coming over from Europe. On most of the islands African slaves now did all the hard fieldwork. Newly freed servant farmers that were given a few acres of land would not be able to make a living because sugar plantations had to be spread over hundreds of acres in order to be profitable. The landowners’ reputation as cruel masters in dealing with the large slave populations became a deterrence to the potential indentured servant. Even the islands themselves had become deadly disease death traps for the white servants. Africans, on the other hand, were excellent workers: they often had experience of agriculture and keeping cattle, they were used to a tropical climate, resistant to tropical diseases, and they could be "worked very hard" on plantations or in mines. Yellow fever, malaria and the diseases that Europeans had brought over contributed to the fact that during the 17th century between 33 to 50 percent of the indentured servants died before they were freed. Species Ref: ITIS 42058 as of 2004-05-05 Sugarcane is one of six species of a tall tropical southeast Asian grass (Family Poaceae) having stout fibrous jointed stalks whose sap at one time was the primary source of sugar. ... This article is about the medical term. ... Malaria is a vector-borne infectious disease caused by protozoan parasites. ...

When slavery ended in the British Empire in 1838, plantation owners turned to indentured servitude for inexpensive labor. These servants emigrated from a variety of places, including China and Portugal, though a majority came from India. This system was pioneered at Aapravasi Ghat in Mauritius and was not abolished until 1917. As a result, today Indo-Caribbeans form a majority in Guyana, a plurality in Trinidad and Tobago and Suriname, and a substantial minority in Jamaica, Grenada, Barbados, and other Caribbean islands. The Immigration Depot in Mauritius (Hindi: Aapravasi Ghat) is a dilapidated complex of buildings in Port Louis, which contains scarce remains of the islands first facility to receive indentured labourers from India. ... An Indo-Caribbean is a person of South Asian origin who lives in the Caribbean, or the descendant of such a person. ...

Australia and the Pacific

In the article on the history of Vanuatu, it states that, "During the 1860s, planters in Australia, Fiji, New Caledonia, and the Samoa Islands, in need of laborers, encouraged a long-term indentured labor trade called "blackbirding." At the height of the labor trade, more than one-half the adult male population of several of the Islands worked abroad." The history of Vanuatu begins obscurely. ... Blackbirding refers to the recruitment of people through trickery and kidnappings to work on plantations, particularly the sugar cane plantations of Queensland (Australia) and Fiji[1] , as well as in the early days of the pearling industry in Broome. ...

Over a period of 40 years, from the mid-19th century to the early 20th century, labor for the sugar cane fields of Queensland, Australia included an element of coercive recruitment and indentured servitude, of the 62,000 South Sea Islanders (from Melanesia, mainly the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu, with a small number from the Polynesian and Micronesian islands such as Samoa, Kiribati and Tuvalu). Slogan or Nickname: Sunshine State, Smart State Motto(s): Audax at Fidelis (Bold but Faithful) Other Australian states and territories Capital Brisbane Government Constitutional monarchy Governor Quentin Bryce Premier Anna Bligh (ALP) Federal representation  - House seats 28  - Senate seats 12 Gross State Product (2004-05)  - Product ($m)  $158,506 (3rd... The Australian label South Sea Islanders refers to people from the more than 80 islands in the Western Pacific: Melanesia: mainly the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu (formerly New Hebrides) Polynesia and Micronesia: the Loyalty Islands, Samoa, Kiribati and Tuvalu) who were recruited (some by kidnapping or blackbirding) to labour in... map of Melanesia Melanesia (from Greek: μέλας black, νῆσος island) is a subregion of Oceania extending from the western side of the West Pacific to the Arafura Sea, north and northeast of Australia. ... Carving from the ridgepole of a Māori house, ca 1840 Polynesia (from Greek: πολύς many, νῆσος island) is a large grouping of over 1,000 islands scattered over the central and southern Pacific Ocean. ...

The question of how many Islanders were kidnapped (or blackbirded) is unknown and remains controversial. The question of whether Islanders were legally recruited, persuaded, deceived, coerced or forced to leave their homes and travel by ship to Queensland is difficult. Official documents and accounts from the period often conflict with the oral tradition passed down to the descendants of workers. Stories of blatantly violent kidnapping tended to relate to the first 10–15 years of the trade. Blackbirding refers to the recruitment of people through trickery and kidnappings to work on plantations, particularly the sugar cane plantations of Queensland (Australia) and Fiji[1] , as well as in the early days of the pearling industry in Broome. ... Oral tradition or oral culture is a way of transmitting history, literature or law from one generation to the next in a civilization without a writing system. ...

Australia repatriated many of these people to their places of origin in the period 1906-1908 under the provisions of the Pacific Island Labourers Act 1901 ([1]). The Pacific Island Labourers Act 1901 was an Act of the Parliament of Australia which was designed to facilitate the mass deportation of nearly all the Pacific Islanders working in Australia. ...

The Australian colonies of Papua and New Guinea (joined after the Second World War to form Papua New Guinea) were the last jurisdictions in the world to use indentured servitude. Mushroom cloud from the nuclear explosion over Nagasaki rising 18 km into the air. ...

The Indian Ocean

This section does not cite any references or sources. (May 2007) Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unverifiable material may be challenged and removed.

The islands of the Indian Ocean, especially Mauritius, specialized in sugar cane plantations, badly needed this intensive labor cheaper than the emancipated workforce negotiating for higher wages.

Mauritius was to act as a plaque tournante for this coolie or indentured population, dispatching hundreds of thousands of coolies to Africa and the Indies. Coolie labourer circa 1900 in Zhenjiang, China. ...

Between 1845 and 1917, 140,000+ Indians work contracted to work the plantations of the island of Trinidad.

Mauritius can be called the country of coolitude as the 'Great Experiment' leading to the widespread recourse to indentured labour started there. It hosts the Aapravasi ghat and has given rise to many books on this special page in the history of human migrations. The Immigration Depot in Mauritius (Hindi: Aapravasi Ghat) is a dilapidated complex of buildings in Port Louis, which contains scarce remains of the islands first facility to receive indentured labourers from India. ... Migration occurs when living things move from one biome to another. ...

Notes

See also

• Indenture (document)
• Coolie
• History of Guyana
• Involuntary servitude
• Shanghai (verb)
• Trafficking in human beings
• Wage slavery
• White slavery
• Penal labor
• Prison labor
• Sexual slavery
• Bracero Program
• German Forced Labour Compensation Programme
• Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution
• Raphael Confiant
• Robert Cormier (Colonist)
• David Dabydeen
• Khal Torabully
• Statare

An Indentured servant is an unfree labourer under contract to work (for a specified amount of time) for another person, often without any pay, but in exchange for accommodation, food, other essentials and/or free passage to a new country. ... Coolie labourer circa 1900 in Zhenjiang, China. ... Guyana had been peopled for thousands of years before Europeans became aware of the area some five hundred years ago. ... Involuntary servitude is the condition of a person laboring to benefit another against his will due to coercive influence directed toward him. ... To say a man had been shanghaied in the late 19th century, did not mean he had undertaken upon a journey to Shanghai in China, although he might be at sea for as long as a journey to that seaport might require. ... For other uses, see Human trafficking (disambiguation). ... Wage slavery is a term first coined by the Lowell Mill Girls in 1836[4], though articulated in concept as early as 1763 [5] and elaborated on by various subsequent thinkers. ... White slavery is a term that is currently used to refer to sexual slavery. ... Penal labour is a form of the unfree labour. ... Penal labour is a form of the unfree labour. ... Sexual slavery is a special case of slavery which includes various different practices: forced prostitution single-owner sexual slavery ritual slavery, sometimes associated with traditional religious practices slavery for primarily non-sexual purposes where sex is common or permissible In general, the nature of slavery means that the slave is... The Bracero Program, (from the Spanish word brazo, meaning arm), was a temporary contract labor program initiated by an August 1942 exchange of diplomatic notes between the United States and Mexico. ... The German Forced Labour Compensation Programme is a program to pay compensation to people forced by Nazi Germany to work as slaves during World War II. Payments may also be made to their heirs. ... Amendment XIII in the National Archives The Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution officially abolished, and continues to prohibit slavery and, with limited exceptions (those convicted of a crime), prohibits involuntary servitude. ... David Dabydeen (Born December 9, 1955) is a Guyanese critic, writer and novelist. ... Khal Torabully, a Mauritian and French poet, is closely associated to his concept of coolitude. ...

Further reading

• Immigrant Servants Database
• Morgan, Edmund S. American Slavery, American Freedom: The Ordeal of Colonial Virginia. New York: Norton, 1975.
• Salinger, Sharon V. 'To serve well and faithfully': Labor and Indentured Servants in Pennsylvania, 1682-1800. New
• Khal Torabully and Marina Carter, Coolitude: An Anthology of the Indian Labour Diaspora Anthem Press, London, 2002, ISBN 1843310031
• Saxton, Martha. Being Good: Women's Moral Values in Early America New York: Hill and Wang, 2003.
• Brown, Kathleen. Goodwives, Nasty Wenches & Anxious Patriachs: gender, race and power in Colonial Virginia, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996.
• Jernegan, Marcus Wilson Laboring and Dependent Classes in Colonial America, 1607-1783 Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1980
• Frethorne, Richard. The Experiences of an Indentured Servant in Virginia (1623)

External links

• GUIANA 1838 - a film about indentured labourers