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The astronomy and the astrology of Ancient India (Jyotisha) is based upon sidereal calculations. The sidereal astronomy is based upon the stars and the sidereal period is the time that it takes the object to make one full orbit around the Sun, relative to the stars. This is considered to be an object's true orbital period. Image File history File links Broom_icon. ... A giant Hubble mosaic of the Crab Nebula, a supernova remnant Astronomy is the science of celestial objects (such as stars, planets, comets, and galaxies) and phenomena that originate outside the Earths atmosphere (such as auroras and cosmic background radiation). ... Ancient India may refer to: the ancient History of India, which generally includes the ancient history of the whole Indian subcontinent the legendary Kingdoms of Ancient India in Sanskrit literature the Iron Age Mahajanapadas the Middle kingdoms of India of Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages Category: ... Jyotisha (, in Hindi and English usage Jyotish; sometimes called Hindu astrology, Indian astrology, and/or Vedic astrology) is the Hindu system of astrology, one of the six disciplines of Vedanga, and regarded as one of the oldest schools of ancient astrology to have had an independent origin, affecting all other... The orbital period is the time it takes a planet (or another object) to make one full orbit. ... For alternate meanings see star (disambiguation) Hundreds of stars are visible in this image taken by the Hubble Space Telescope of the Sagittarius Star Cloud in the Milky Way Galaxy. ... m. ... The Sun is the star at the center of the Solar System. ... For alternate meanings see star (disambiguation) Hundreds of stars are visible in this image taken by the Hubble Space Telescope of the Sagittarius Star Cloud in the Milky Way Galaxy. ...

Coordinate system

In Hindu Astronomy, the vernal equinox (the First Point of Aries) is often calculated at 23° from 0° Aries (1950 CE), i.e. about 7° Pisces.^[1] The constellation that marks this vernal equinox is the Uttarabhadra. Illumination of Earth by Sun on the day of equinox The vernal equinox (or spring equinox) marks the beginning of astronomical spring. ... The First Point of Aries, also called the vernal equinox point, is one of the two points on the celestial sphere where the celestial equator intersects the ecliptic. ... Aries (IPA: , Latin: , symbol , ) is one of the constellations of the zodiac. ... For other uses, see Pisces. ... Illumination of the Earth by the Sun on the day of equinox, (ignoring twilight). ...

In the time of the Puranas, the vernal equinox was marked by the Ashwini constellation (beginning of Aries), which gives a date of about 300-500 CE. The Vishnu Purana (2.8.63) states that the equinoxes occur when the Sun enters Aries] and Libra, and that when the sun enters Capricorn, his northern course (from winter to summer solstice) commences, and the southern course when he enters Cancer.The Brahmanas place the Equinox in Krittika (Pleidas) and the Rig Veda in Mrigasira (Orion). These would indicate a time of around 1900 BCE and 4000 BCE, respectively. This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... The Vishnu Purana is one of the oldest of the Puranas (dating to maybe the 5th century), containing some 23,000 shlokas, presented as a dialogue between Parasara with his disciple Maitreya. ... Libra (IPA: , Latin: , symbol , Unicode ) is a constellation of the zodiac. ... Capricorn may refer to: The constellation Capricornus, one of the constellations of the zodiac The astrological sign Capricorn represented by this constellation The Tropic of Capricorn Tropic of Capricorn is also the name of a novel by Henry Miller Capricorn, a character and villain of the Ink trilogy by Cornelia... A solstice is either of the two events of the year when the sun is at its greatest distance from the equatorial plane. ... Cancer is a class of diseases or disorders characterized by uncontrolled division of cells and the ability of these to spread, either by direct growth into adjacent tissue through invasion, or by implantation into distant sites by metastasis (where cancer cells are transported through the bloodstream or lymphatic system). ...

In the Surya Siddhanta, the rate of precession is set at 54" (it actually is 50.3"), which is much more accurate than the number calculated by the Greeks.^[2] The Surya Siddhanta is the first Indian astronomical treatise where rules were laid down to determine the true motions of the luminaries, which conforms to their actual positions in the sky. ... Precession of a gyroscope Precession refers to a change in the direction of the axis of a rotating object. ...

The Hindus use a system of 27 or 28 Nakshatras (lunar constellations) to calculate a month. Each month can be divided into 30 lunar tithis (days). There are usually 360 or 366 days in a year. A nakshatra (Devanagari: नक्षत्र) or lunar mansion is one of the 27 or 28 divisions of the sky, identified by the prominent star(s) in them, that the Moon passes through during its monthly cycle, as used in Hindu astronomy and astrology. ... In Astrology the lunar mansions are a division of the Ecliptic similar to the Zodiac. ... Look up Month in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... In vedic timekeeping, a tithi (also spelled thithi) is a lunar day, or the time it takes for the longitudinal angle between the moon and the sun to increase by 12°. Tithis begin at varying times of day and vary in duration from approximately 19 to approximately 26 hours. ...

It has been argued that Nilakantha Somayaji's (1444-1550) work shows a better equation of the center for Mercury and Venus "than was available either in the earlier Indian works or in the Islamic or European traditions of astronomy till the work of Kepler, which was to come more than a hundred years later."^[3]

Heliocentrism

The earliest traces of a counter-intuitive idea that it is the Earth that is actually moving and the Sun that is at the centre of the solar system (hence the concept of heliocentrism) is found in several Vedic Sanskrit texts written in ancient India. The Shatapatha Brahmana (c. 9th–8th century BC) places Sun at "the centre of the spheres" (8.7.3.10): "The sun strings these worlds - the earth, the planets, the atmosphere - to himself on a thread." Something is counter-intuitive if it does not seem likely to be true using the tool of human intuition or gut-feeling to perceive reality. ... Vedic Sanskrit is the language of the Vedas, which are the earliest sacred texts of India,. The Vedas were first passed down orally and therefore have no known date. ... The archaeological record in India (encompassing the territory of the modern nations of the Republic of India, Pakistan and Bangladesh) shows first traces of Homo sapiens from ca. ... Shatapatha Brahmana (Brahmana of one-hundred paths) is one of the prose texts describing the Vedic ritual. ... (10th century BC - 9th century BC - 8th century BC - other centuries) (900s BC - 890s BC - 880s BC - 870s BC - 860s BC - 850s BC - 840s BC - 830s BC - 820s BC - 810s BC - 800s BC - other decades) (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium AD) Events Kingdom of Kush (900 BC... (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium) Ruins of the training grounds at Olympia, Greece. ...

The Aitareya Brahmana (c. 9th–8th century BC) also states: "The Sun never sets nor rises thats right. When people think the sun is setting, it is not so; they are mistaken." (2.7) This indicates that the Sun is stationary (hence the Earth is moving around it), which is elaborated in a later commentary Vishnu Purana (2.8) (c. 1st century), which states: "The sun is stationed for all time, in the middle of the day. [...] Of the sun, which is always in one and the same place, there is neither setting nor rising." The Aitareya Brahmana is the Brahmana associated with the Rigveda in the Shakala school. ... The Vishnu Purana is one of the oldest of the Puranas (dating to maybe the 5th century), containing some 23,000 shlokas, presented as a dialogue between Parasara with his disciple Maitreya. ... The 1st century was that century which lasted from 1 to 100 according the Gregorian calendar. ...

The 5th century scholar Aryabhata in his Aryabhatiya propounded a heliocentric model in which the Earth was taken to be spinning on its axis and the periods of the planets were given with respect to a stationary Sun. He was also the first to discover that the light from the Moon and the planets was reflected from the Sun, and that the planets follow an elliptical orbit around the Sun, and thus propounded an eccentric elliptical model of the planets, on which he accurately calculated many astronomical constants, such as the times of the solar and lunar eclipses, and the instantaneous motion of the Moon (expressed as a differential equation). Statue of Aryabhata on the grounds of IUCAA, Pune. ... Āryabhatīya, an astronomical treastise, is the Magnum Opus and only extant work of the 5th century Indian Mathematician, Aryabhatta. ... For other uses, see Ellipse (disambiguation). ... (This page refers to eccentricity in mathematics. ... Photo taken during the 1999 eclipse. ... Time lapse movie of the 3 March 2007 lunar eclipse A lunar eclipse occurs whenever the Moon passes through some portion of the Earths shadow. ... Total eclipse redirects here. ... An illustration of a differential equation. ...

Bhaskara (1114–1185) expanded on Aryabhata's heliocentric model in his astronomical treatise Siddhanta-Shiromani, where he mentioned the law of gravity, discovered that the planets don't orbit the Sun at a uniform velocity, and accurately calculated many astronomical constants based on this model, such as the solar and lunar eclipses, and the velocities and instantaneous motions of the planets. Arabic translations of Aryabhata's Aryabhatiya were available from the 8th century, while Latin translations were available from the 13th century, before Copernicus had written De revolutionibus orbium coelestium, so it's quite likely that Aryabhata's work had an influence on Copernicus' ideas. Bhaskara (1114-1185), also known as Bhaskara II and Bhaskara Achārya (Bhaskara the teacher), was an Indian mathematician-astronomer. ... Events January 7 - Matilda, daughter of Henry I of England, marries Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor Births Deaths Categories: 1114 ... Events April 25 - Genpei War - Naval battle of Dan-no-ura leads to Minamoto victory in Japan Templars settle in London and begin the building of New Temple Church End of the Heian Period and beginning of the Kamakura period in Japan. ... Gravity is a force of attraction that acts between bodies that have mass. ... The velocity of an object is its speed in a particular direction. ... Arabic can mean: From or related to Arabia From or related to the Arabs The Arabic language; see also Arabic grammar The Arabic alphabet, used for expressing the languages of Arabic, Persian, Malay ( Jawi), Kurdish, Panjabi, Pashto, Sindhi and Urdu, among others. ... (7th century — 8th century — 9th century — other centuries) Events The Iberian peninsula is taken by Arab and Berber Muslims, thus ending the Visigothic rule, and starting almost 8 centuries of Muslim presence there. ... Latin is an ancient Indo-European language originally spoken in Latium, the region immediately surrounding Rome. ... (12th century - 13th century - 14th century - other centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 13th century was that century which lasted from 1201 to 1300. ...

Calendars

The beginning of the Saptarsi^[4] calendar, which is still used in parts of India, is often placed at 3076 BCE,^[5] but references by Greek historians (Pliny and Arrian)^[6] could possibly indicate an earlier beginning of the calendar at 6776 BCE.^[7] These Greek historians wrote that 153 or 154 kings passed between between Dionysos and Chandragupta, and according to the Puranas there were about 143 kings during this period.^[8] The Satapatha Brahmana says that the rsis and the Krittikas were married, and the Puranas says that the rsis are 100 years in each naksatra, which would amount to a cycle (cakra) of 2700 years. In some texts, Sravana is the first naksatra (which could be placed at the "Greek date" of 6676 BCE), and the Mahabharata War occurred with the Saptarsi in the Magha, or 2700 years later.^[9] It was argued by Cunningham that during Pliny's and Arrians time, Asvini marked the beginning of the naksatras, as is the case in Surya Siddhanta 8.9. Thus one could calculate a date of 3976 BCE for the beginning of the cakra, or 2700 years after 6676 BCE.^[10]

In the Vedanga Jyotisa, the year begins with the winter solstice.^[11] The Hindu calendars know several year beginnings, and this might also have been the case in the Vedic period.^[12]

Greco-Roman contributions

Main article: Greek astronomy

Greek equatorial sun dial, Ai-Khanoum, Afghanistan 3rd-2nd century BCE.

Greek astronomy is known to have been practiced at the doorstep of India in the Greco-Bactrian city of Ai-Khanoum from the 3rd century BCE. Various sun-dials, including an equatorial sundial adjusted to the latitude of Ujjain have been found in archaeological excavations there.^[13] Numerous interactions with the Mauryan Empire, and the later expansion of the Indo-Greeks into India suggest that some transmission may have happened during that period^[14] Greek astronomy is the astronomy of those who spoke Greek in classical antiquity. ... Image File history File linksMetadata No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File linksMetadata No higher resolution available. ... Sun Dial (occasionally spelled Sundial) is a British psychedelic rock band formed in 1990 by Gary Ramon. ... Hellenistic foot fragment of a giant statue, from Ai-Khanoum, 2nd century BCE. Ai-Khanoum or Ay Khanum (lit. ... Approximate extent of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom circa 220 BCE. The Greco-Bactrians were a dynasty of Greek kings who controlled Bactria and Sogdiana, an area comprising todays northern Afghanistan and parts of Central Asia, the easternmost area of the Hellenistic world, from 250 to 125 BCE. Their expansion... Hellenistic foot fragment of a giant statue, from Ai-Khanoum, 2nd century BCE. Ai-Khanoum or Ay Khanum (lit. ... (4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - other centuries) (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium AD) Events The first two Punic Wars between Carthage and Rome over dominance in western Mediterranean Rome conquers Spain Great Wall of China begun Indian traders regularly visited Arabia Scythians occupy... Ujjain   (Hindi:उज्जैन) (also known as Ujain, Ujjayini, Avanti, Avantikapuri) is an ancient city of central India, in the Malwa region of the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh, on the eastern bank of the Kshipra River. ... The Mauryan empire (321 to 185 BCE), at its largest extent around 230 BCE. The Lion Capital of Asoka, erected around 250 BCE. It is the emblem of India. ... Maximum extent of Indo-Greek territory circa 175 BCE. The Indo-Greeks (or sometimes Greco-Indians) designate a series of Greek kings, who invaded and controlled parts of northwest and northern India from 180 BCE to around 10 BCE. They are the continuation of the Greco-Bactrian dynasty of Greek...

Various Greco-Roman astrological treatises are also known to have been imported into India during the first few centuries of our era. The Yavanajataka ("Sayings of the Greeks") was translated from Greek to Sanskrit by Yavanesvara during the 2nd century CE, under the patronage of the Western Satrap Saka king Rudradaman I. The Yavanajataka (Sanskrit for Saying (Jataka) of the Greeks (Yavanas)) is the earliest writing of Indian astrology. ... The Western Satraps, or Western Kshatrapas (35-405) were Saka rulers of the western and central part of India (Saurashtra and Malwa: modern Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh states). ... The Sakas were Iranian people stock who lived in what is now Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan and parts of Iran, Ukraine, and Altay Mountains and Siberia in Russia, in the centuries before 300 AD. They are considered to be a branch of Scythians by most scholars. ... Rudradaman I was the Saka (Scythian) ruler of Malwa circa 50 BC. He was the grandson of the celebrated Scythian king Chastana. ...

Later in the 6th century, the Romaka Siddhanta ("Doctrine of the Romans"), and the Paulisa Siddhanta ("Doctrine of Paul") were considered as two of the five main astrological treatises, which were compiled by Varahamihira in his Pañca-siddhāntikā ("Five Treatises").^[15] Varahamihira wrote in the Brihat-Samhita: "The Greeks, though impure, must be honored since they were trained in sciences and therein, excelled others....."^[16] Paulus Alexandrinus was an astrological author from the late Roman Empire. ... Varahamihira (505 – 587) was an Indian astronomer, mathematician, and astrologer born in Ujjain. ... This volume of Varahamihira is an encyclopedia of wide ranging subjects of human interest, including astrology, planetary movements, eclipses, rainfall, clouds, architecture, growth of crops, manufacture of perfume, matrimony, domestic relations, gems, pearls, and rituals. ...

The Garga Samhita also says: "The Yavanas are barbarians, yet the science of astronomy originated with them and for this they must be reverenced like gods". Garga Samhita (The narrations of Garga) is a book written by the sage Garga and deals with the life of Krishna. ... ...

Terminology

Look up Altar in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... In Hindu mythology, Aja is the son of king Raghu, and thus a scion of the Ikshavaku dynasty, who claimed descent from the sun-God Surya. ... The Sun is the star at the center of the Solar System. ... Capricorn may refer to: The constellation Capricornus, one of the constellations of the zodiac The astrological sign Capricorn represented by this constellation The Tropic of Capricorn Tropic of Capricorn is also the name of a novel by Henry Miller Capricorn, a character and villain of the Ink trilogy by Cornelia... Composite image of the Moon as taken by the Galileo spacecraft on 7 December 1992. ... The lunar phase depends on the Moons position in orbit around Earth. ... Asva is a term for horse used in Vedic literature. ... Punarvasu is a Nakshatra in Hindu astronomy, that refers to the two brightest stars in the constellation of Gemini: Castor and Pollux. ... Castor (α Gem / α Geminorum / Alpha Geminorum) is the second brightest star in the constellation Gemini and one of the brightest stars in the nighttime sky. ... Pollux (β Gem / β Geminorum / Beta Geminorum) is one of the brightest star in the constellation Gemini and one of the brightest stars in the nighttime sky. ... Binomial name Bos taurus Linnaeus, 1758 Rainbow arching over a paddock of cattle Cattle are domesticated ungulates, a member of the subfamily Bovinae of the family Bovidae. ... Intercalation is the insertion of an extra day, week or month into some calendar years to make the calendar follow the seasons. ... Cassiopeia (IPA: ) is a northern constellation which Greek mythology considered to represent a vain queen who boasted about her unrivaled beauty. ... The Five Maha-vratas The Jain monks observe five great vows (vratas): Non-violence (Ahimsa) Truth (Satya) Non-stealing (Achaurya) Chastity (Brahmacharya) Non-possession/Non-attachment (Aparigraha) The vows for the Jain monks, as prescribed by the ancient texts like Acharanga, are quite strict, and have come down to our... A solstice is either of the two events of the year when the sun is at its greatest distance from the equatorial plane. ... Orion (IPA: ), a constellation often referred to as The Hunter, is a prominent constellation, one of the largest and perhaps the best-known and most conspicuous in the sky. ... For information on Sirius satellite radio, see Sirius Satellite Radio. ... A giant Hubble mosaic of the Crab Nebula, a supernova remnant Astronomy is the science of celestial objects (such as stars, planets, comets, and galaxies) and phenomena that originate outside the Earths atmosphere (such as auroras and cosmic background radiation). ... Lotus has many definitions. ... The Sun is the star at the center of the Solar System. ... Gemini may refer to In astronomy: Gemini (constellation), one of the constellations of the zodiac Gemini (astrology), the astrological sign Project Gemini, the second US manned spaceflight program Gemini Observatory, northern and southern hemisphere twin large telescopes In film and television: Gemini (2002 film), a Tamil film starring Vikram and... // Description The Bears are an experimental music band from Corsham in Wiltshire. ... Apparent magnitude: up to -12. ... For information on Sirius satellite radio, see Sirius Satellite Radio. ... The constellation Argo Navis drawn by Johannes Hevelius in 1690 Argo Navis (or simply Argo) was a large southern constellation representing the Argo, the ship used by Jason and the Argonauts in Greek mythology. ... Uttarāyana (उत्तरायण) is the six month period between Makar Sankranti around (January 14) and Karka Sankranti around (July 14), when the Sun travels towards north on the celestial sphere. ... In astronomy, the vernal equinox (spring equinox, March equinox, or northward equinox) is the equinox at the beginning of spring in the northern hemisphere: the moment when the sun appears to cross the celestial equator, heading northward. ...

Seasons

• madhu, madhava in vasanta: spring
• sukra, suci in grisma: summer
• nabha, nabhasya in varsa: rains
• isa, urja in sarada: autumn
• saha, sahasya in hemanta: winter
• tapa, tapasya in sisira: freeze

Dating claims based on archaeoastronomy

In discussions of Hindu astronomy, it should be cleanly disambiguated whether actual ancient astronomical (or astrological, a distinction that did not exist in pre-modern India any more than in pre-modern Europe) treatises are discussed, or if archaeoastronomical claims are distilled from alleged codes or statements taken from the Vedas. Hand-coloured version of the anonymous Flammarion woodcut. ... The sun rising over Stonehenge at the 2005 Summer Solstice. ... The Vedas are part of the Hindu Shruti; these religious scriptures form part of the core of the Brahminical and Vedic traditions within Hinduism and are the inspirational, metaphysical and mythological foundation for later Vedanta, Yoga, Tantra and even Bhakti forms of Hinduism. ...

The chronology of Indian history and literature prior to the Middle Ages is notoriously uncertain, and attempts to employ archaeoastronomy go back to William Jones who tried to show, based on information gathered from Varaha Mihira, that Parasara Muni lived at 1181 BCE.^[20] Jacobi (1909) has argued that in the Rigveda and Atharvaveda the sun was in Phalguni, and in the Sankhayana and Gobhila Grhyasutra the Full moon was in Bhadrapada during the summer solstice, which would have occurred at 4500-2500 BCE.^[21] Jacobi and Tilak have both noted that the terms of the naksatras Mula (root), Vicrtau (dividers) and Jyestha (oldest) suggest that these names originated from a time when Mula marked the beginning of the year, i.e. about 4500-2500 BCE.^[22] Tilak has also noted that the two week long pitrs period after the full moon in Bhadrapada occurred at the beginning of the pitryana, which would have been true at about 4500-2500 BCE.^[23]. Such methods are generally rejected by mainstream scholarship, but since the 1980s have come to play a significant role in ideologically motivated literature in connection with Hindutva propaganda. Subhash Kak in his Astronomical Code of the Rgveda^[24] dates the Rigveda to "4000-2000 BCE"; Kak's results have been criticized by Plofker^[25] as having "no statistical significance whatsoever", even if overlooking their being based on the structure of the Iron Age shakha (recension) of Shakala rather than the content of the actual Rigvedic texts. William Jones is a common name, especially in Wales, and there have been several well-known individuals of this name, including: // Academics and authors William Jones (historian) (1860–1932) Sir William Jones (mathematician) (~1675–1749), father of Sir William Jones (philologist) Sir William Jones (philologist) (1746–1794) son of Sir... Varahamihira (505 – 587) was an Indian astronomer, mathematician, and astrologer born in Ujjain. ... Sutra (सूत्र) in Sanskrit is derived from the verb √siv, meaning to sew. ... Subhash Kak (सुभाष काक) (born March 26, 1947, Srinagar, Kashmir) is Delaune Distinguished Professor of Electrical Engineering and Professor in the Asian Studies and Cognitive Science Programs at Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge. ... Shakha (IAST ), literally branch or limb, is the Sanskrit term for a recension or version of Vedic texts according to a particular school. ... The Rigveda (Sanskrit: , a tatpurusha compound of praise, verse and knowledge) is a collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns dedicated to the gods. ...

Rigveda

The samvatsara year in the Rigveda has 360 days and 12 months.^[26] The Rigveda names the planets Jupiter (Brhaspati) and Venus (Shukra). It also mentions 34 lights, probably the sun, moon, the 27 naksatras and the five planets, and has references to "sapta suryah" (seven suns).^[27] In RV 5.40.5-9, a solar eclipse is described. In Hinduism, Brihaspati is the god of magic and prayer. ... Shukra is the Sanskrit Name for Venus. ... The fifth Mandala of the Rigveda has 87 hymns. ...

Yajurveda

The sky altar and the sun are described as four-cornered in the Yajurveda 38.20., which could refer to the two solstices and two equinoxes.^[28]

The Taittiriya Samhita situates 13 1/2 devanaksatras in the northern hemisphere, and 13 1/2 yamanaksatras in the southern hemisphere. According to Kak, this would point to a date of about 2300 BCE.^[29] The Yajurveda (Sanskrit , a tatpurusha compound of sacrifice + veda knowledge) is one of the four Hindu Vedas. ...

Brahmanas

The visuvant (summer solstice) period is 21 days in Aitreya Br. and 7 days in Pancavimsa Br., the summer solstice being in the middle of the period.^[30]

The gavam ayana ritual in SB 4.6.2. is based on the motion of the sun.^[31] In Aitreya Br. 2.7., is probably a reference to the rotation of the earth.^[32]

In the Brahmanas, the two solstices divide the year into two times 180 days, and probably into 181 (winter to summer solstice) and 184/5 days.^[33] Subhash Kak has argued that the periods for the solstices described in the Brahmanas would suggest that the perihelion occurred before the summer solstice, and that as a consequence the Brahmanas should be dated to 2000-1000 BCE, taking into account that "the measurements in those times were not very accurate".^[34]

The positions of the winter and summer solstice in the Maitrayaniya Brahmana Upanisad (6.14) would correspond to 1660 BCE.^[35]

Aiyar has argued that in the Maitrayana Brahmana Upanishad the sun was in the Magha during the Summer solstice, which would correspond to the same period when the sun was in the Krittika during the Vernal Equinox.^[36] According to Tilak, the Taittiriya Samhita (7.4.8) has the full moon in the Magha during the winter solstice, which would also be the case at about 2000 - 1000 BCE.^[37] The Yajurveda (Sanskrit , a tatpurusha compound of sacrifice + veda knowledge) is one of the four Hindu Vedas. ...

Krittika constellation

rising of the Pleiades (M45) as seen from Delhi in 800 BC and 2000 BC (click to enlarge).

Still earlier Hindu calendars begin with the Krittikas, thus suggesting that the vernal equinox was in the Krittika constellation at this time.^[38] There are additionally references to the summer solstice in the Magha constellation. This could indicate a date around 2000 BCE. The Shatapatha Brahmana has the Krttikas (the Pleiades) "do not swerve from the east".^[39][40] This would have been the case with precision at 2950 BCE^[41] and was true also about 2000 BCE,^[42] but was still true to within 8-13 degrees (viz., East by north) around 800 BC, the assumed date of the text's composition.^[43] Image File history File links Vedic_pleiades. ... Image File history File links Vedic_pleiades. ... The nakshatra corresponding to the open star cluster Pleiades is known as Krittika in Indian Astrology. ... Shatapatha Brahmana (Brahmana of one-hundred paths) is one of the prose texts describing the Vedic ritual. ... The nakshatra corresponding to the open star cluster Pleiades is known as Krittika in Indian astrology. ... The Pleiades are an open cluster dominated by hot blue stars surrounded by reflection nebulosity A shorter exposure shows less nebulosity. ... A modern compass card. ...

Grhya Sutras

Jacobi (1909) has noted that the Gryha Sutras mention the dhruva (Polestar), and the Maitrayana Brahamana Upanishad says that even the polestar moves (over a long period of time).^[44] Jacobi argued that these instances preserve memories from ancient times. This article is in need of attention. ...

Vedanga Jyotisa

The positions of the solstices and equinoxes in the Vedanga Jyotisa would correspond to about 1370 BCE,^[45],^[46][47] although most of the text in its present form is from a later date.^[48] In this text, the sun is very close to the Krittika at the Vernal Equinox.^[49]

It is probable that the Vedanga Jyotisha was written at a latitude of 34 degrees, which would correspond e.g. to Northern India.^[50] It was also speculated on similar calculations that the Rigvedic hymns could had been arranged in its present form at a latitude of about 23 degrees (e.g. Gujarat).^[51]

Mahabharata

Aryabhata dated the Mahabharata war to 3137 BCE, and Varahamihira to 2449 BCE.^[52] According to the Puranic genealogies, the Mahabahrata War occurred at 1924 BCE (1500 years before the Nandas at 424 BCE).^[53] This period would stand or fall according to who the Sandracouttus described by the Greek Megasthenes really is. Scholars normally assume that he is Chandragupta Maurya. However, it is a debatable issue by itself, since the Greek shows no knowledge of Kautilya. If it is Chandragupta Gupta, then the entire history of the dynasties of India would get pushed back by at least 600 to 1200 years Statue of Aryabhata on the grounds of IUCAA, Pune. ... Megasthenes (c. ... Allegiance: Magadhan Empire Rank: Emperor Succeeded by: Bindusara Maurya Reign: 322 BC-298 BC Place of birth: India Chandragupta Maurya (Sanskrit: चन्द्रगुप्त मौर्य;sometimes known simply as Chandragupta (born on c. ...

The Hindu astronomer Varahamihira, Garga (quoted by Somakara), the Mahabharata and the Vedanga Jyothish refer to the nakshatra Dhanishta (Shravishta) and thus to an ancient calendar that would have been used in 1280 BCE.^[54] The Kaushitaki Brahmana and possibly the Atharvaveda refer to a similar calendar.^[55] The Atharvaveda, the Tandya Mahabrahmana and Laugakshi (quoted by Somakara) may show knowledge of an earlier calendar, but still in the Magha constellation.^[56] An astronomer or astrophysicist is a person whose area of interest is astronomy or astrophysics. ... Varahamihira (505 – 587) was an Indian astronomer, mathematician, and astrologer born in Ujjain. ... Manuscript illustration of the Battle of Kurukshetra The (Devanagari: ) is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India, the other being the . ... Jyotisha (, in Hindi and English usage Jyotish) is the Hindu system of astrology, one of the six disciplines of Vedanta, and regarded as one of the oldest schools of ancient astrology to have had an independent origin, affecting all other schools in and around India. ... A nakshatra (Devanagari: नक्षत्र) or lunar mansion is one of the 27 or 28 divisions of the sky, identified by the prominent star(s) in them, that the Moon passes through during its monthly cycle, as used in Hindu astronomy and astrology. ... Delphinus, being Latin for Dolphin, is a rather small (ranked 69th) northern constellation very close to the celestial equator. ... The times before writing belong either to protohistory or to prehistory. ... A page from the Hindu calendar 1871-72. ... The Kaushitaki Brahmana is the Brahmana associated with the Rigveda in the Bashkala shakha. ... The Atharvaveda (Sanskrit: अथर्ववेद, , a tatpurusha compound of , a type of priest, and meaning knowledge) is a sacred text of Hinduism, and one of the four Vedas, often called the fourth Veda. According to tradition, the Atharvaveda was mainly composed by two groups of rishis known as the Bhrigus and the... Regulus (α Leo / α Leonis / Alpha Leonis) is the brightest star in the constellation Leo and one of the brightest stars in the nighttime sky. ...

See also

• Aryabhata
• Yuga
• Indian mathematics
• Jyotish (Vedic astrology)
• Vedic timekeeping
• Hindu calendar
• Chinese astronomy
• Hindu cosmology
• History of astronomy
• Vedic fire altar
• Surya Siddhanta

Statue of Aryabhata on the grounds of IUCAA, Pune. ... Yuga (Devnāgari: युग) in Hindu philosophy refers to an epoch or era within a cycle of four ages: the Satya Yuga (or Krita Yuga), the Treta Yuga, the Dvapara Yuga, and finally the Kali Yuga. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... The Hindu metrics of time can be summarized as below. ... A page from the Hindu calendar 1871-72. ... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... // an egg broke and out came the planets thanks to gods pet hen The Rig Veda describes the origin of the universe as: Then was not non-existence nor existence: there was no realm of air, no sky beyond it. ... Astronomy is probably the oldest of the natural sciences, dating back to antiquity, with its origins in the religious practices of pre-history: vestiges of these are still found in astrology, a discipline long interwoven with astronomy, and not completely different from it until about 1750‑1800 in the Western... Vedic Fire altars (called Agni) were a part of the Vedic religion. ... The Surya Siddhanta is the first Indian astronomical treatise where rules were laid down to determine the true motions of the luminaries, which conforms to their actual positions in the sky. ...

Notes

Approximate extent of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom circa 220 BCE. The Greco-Bactrians were a dynasty of Greek kings who controlled Bactria and Sogdiana, an area comprising todays northern Afghanistan and parts of Central Asia, the easternmost area of the Hellenistic world, from 250 to 125 BCE. Their expansion... Maximum extent of Indo-Greek territory circa 175 BCE. The Indo-Greeks (or sometimes Greco-Indians) designate a series of Greek kings, who invaded and controlled parts of northwest and northern India from 180 BCE to around 10 BCE. They are the continuation of the Greco-Bactrian dynasty of Greek... An intermediate direction or ordinal direction is one of the four compass directions located halfway between the cardinal directions: northeast, southeast, southwest, and northwest. ...

References

• S. Kak. "The Speed of Light and Purāṇic Cosmology". In T. R. N. Rao and S. Kak, Computing Science in Ancient India, pages 80–90. USL Press, Lafayette, 1998. Available as e-print physics/9804020 on the arXiv.

Subhash Kak (सुभाष काक) (born March 26, 1947, Srinagar, Kashmir) is Delaune Distinguished Professor of Electrical Engineering and Professor in the Asian Studies and Cognitive Science Programs at Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge. ... arXiv (pronounced archive, as if the X were the Greek letter χ) is an archive for electronic preprints of scientific papers in the fields of physics, mathematics, computer science and biology which can be accessed via the internet. ...

Further reading

• Aiyar, B.V. Kamesvara. 1922. "The Age of the Brahmanas". Quarterly Journal of the Mythic Society 12.
• Billard, R. L'Astronomie Indienne. Ecole Francaise d'Extreme Orient, Paris, 1971.
• Bryant, Edwin (2001), The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture, Oxford University Press
• Duke, Dennis. 2005. "The Equant in India: The Mathematical Basis of Ancient Indian Planetary Models." Archive for History of Exact Sciences 59: 563–576.
• Koenraad Elst: Update on the Aryan Invasion Debate. 1999.
• Filliozat, Jean. 1969. "Notes on Ancient Iranian and Indian Astronomy." Journal of the K.R. Cama Oriental Research Institute 42:100-135.
• David Frawley. 1991. Gods, Sages, and Kings, Lotus Press, Twin Lakes, Wisconsin ISBN 0-910261-37-7
• Kak, Subhash: The Astronomical Code of the Rigveda
• Kramrisch, S. The Presence of Siva. Princeton University Press, Princeton 1981.
• Jacobi, Hermann. 1909. "On the Antiquity of Vedic Culture." Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 721-726.
• N.N. Law. 1965. Age of the Rgveda. Calcutta: Firma K.L. Mukhopadhyay.
• Pingree, David. 1978. "History of Mathematical astronomy in India." Dictionary of Scientific Biography, vol. 15, pp. 533–633, New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.
• de Santillana and von Dechend: Hamlet's Mill. Gambit, Boston 1969.
• Seidenberg, A. "The origin of mathematics" Archive for History of Exact Sciences 18: 301-342, 1978.
• Sengupta, P.C. Ancient Indian Chronology. Calcutta: University of Calcutta Press, 1947.
• Sen, S.N., and K.S. Shukla, eds. 1985. History of Astronomy in India. New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy.
• Tilak, Bal Gangadhar: The Orion or Researches into the antiquities of the Vedas, The arctic home in the vedas, Vedic Chronology and Vedanga Jyotisha. Poona: Messrs Tilak Bros.
• Sri Yukteswar Giri. The holy science. Los Angeles, Ca: Self-Realization Fellowship, 1984.

The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture is a book by Edwin Bryant published at Oxford University Press (ISBN 0195137779). ... Koenraad Elst is a Belgian orientalist, writer and researcher[1]. He has authored fifteen books on topics related to Hinduism, Indian history, and Indian politics. ... Update on the Aryan Invasion Debate is a book by Koenraad Elst. ... Dr. David Frawley (born 1950 in Wisconsin, U.S.A.) is currently one of the worlds leading authors on Hinduism (Sanatana Dharma), Yoga, Ayurveda, and contemporary Indian politics. ... Subhash Kak (सुभाष काक) (born March 26, 1947, Srinagar, Kashmir) is Delaune Distinguished Professor of Electrical Engineering and Professor in the Asian Studies and Cognitive Science Programs at Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge. ... The Astronomical Code of the Rigveda is a book by Subhash Kak (Munshiram Manoharlal, New Delhi, 2000) that presents long-forgotten regularities in the organization of the Rigveda, connecting the structure to certain numbers in the astronomy-based ritual of the five-layered brick altars of the Vedic times. ... Bal Gangadhar Tilak (1856 - 1920), was an Indian nationalist, social reformer and freedom fighter who was the first popular leader of the Indian Independence Movement. ... Priya Nath Karar, known by his monastic name Sri Yukteswar Giri (May 10, 1855-March 9, 1936), was the guru of Paramahansa Yogananda. ...

Translations

• Burgess, Ebenezer (tr.) The Surya Siddhanta. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1989 (1860)
• Kuppanna Sastry, T.S., Vedanga Jyotisha of Lagadha. Indian National Science Academy, Delhi 1985.
• Vidyalankara, V. Satapatha Brahmanastha Agnicayana Samiksa. Bahalgarh, 1985.

External links

• Online course material for InSIGHT, a workshop on traditional Indian sciences for school children conducted by the Computer Science department of Anna University, Chennai, India.
• http://www.bharatvani.org/books/ait/ch22.htm
• http://www.sanskrit.org/Astronomy/Astronomy%20Index.htm
• http://www.jqjacobs.net/astro/aryabhata.html
• Rig Veda Riddles In Nomad Perspective
• The Cosmological Insights of the Vedic Seers