Science and technology in India covered all the major branches of human knowledge and activities, including mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, medical science and surgery, fine arts, mechanical and production technology, civil engineering and architecture, shipbuilding and navigation, sports and games. Euclid, detail from The School of Athens by Raphael. ... Lunar astronomy: the large crater is Daedalus, photographed by the crew of Apollo 11 as they circled the Moon in 1969. ... A Superconductor demonstrating the Meissner Effect Physics (from the Greek, φυσικός (physikos), natural, and φύσις (physis), nature) is the science of the natural world dealing with the fundamental constituents of the universe, the forces they exert on one another, and the results produced by these forces. ... Multicolored chemicals are frequent hallmarks of chemistry. ... See drugs, medication, and pharmacology for substances that are used to treat patients. ... A typical modern surgical operation For other uses, see Surgery (disambiguation). ... Fine art is a term used to refer to fields traditionally considered to be artistic. ... By the mid 20th century humans had achieved a level of technological mastery sufficient to leave the surface of the planet for the first time and explore space. ... The Falkirk Wheel in Scotland. ... The Parthenon on top of the Acropolis, Athens, Greece Table of architecture, Cyclopaedia, 1728 The following article focuses on built environment, the architecture of spaces designed for human habitation. ... Men from Francisco de Orellanas expedition building a small brigantine, the San Pedro, to be used in the search for food Shipbuilding is the construction of ships. ... There are several traditions of navigation. ... GAMES Magazine is a United States based magazine devoted to games published by GAMES Publications, a division of Kappa Publishing Group. ...

British historian Grant Duff has remarked: "Many of the advances in the sciences that we consider today to have been made in Europe were in fact made in India centuries ago". A historian is a person who studies history. ...

Introduction

Ancient India was a land of sages, saints and seers as well as scholars and scientists. Its contribution to science and technology include: Prehistory The prehistory of India goes back to the old Stone age (Palaeolithic). ... The Wise Old Man (or Senex) is an archetype as described by Carl Jung. ... In general, the term Saint refers to someone who is exceptionally virtuous and holy. ... Seer has several possible meanings: A fortune teller or prophet The fictional character on the television series Charmed The Seasonal energy efficiency ratio standard for air conditioning appliances This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... A scholar is either a student or someone who has achieved a mastery of some academic discipline, perhaps receiving financial support through a scholarship. ... Albert Einstein is almost without question, currently the most widely recognized scientist among the general public. ...

• Mathematics – Vedic literature is replete with concepts of zero, the techniques of algebra and algorithm, square root and cube root. Arguably, the origins of Calculus lie in India 300 years before Leibnitz and Newton.
• Astronomy – Rig Veda (2000 BC) refers to astronomy.
• Physics – Concepts of atom and theory of relativity were explicitly stated by an Indian philosopher around 600 BC.
• Chemistry – Principles of chemistry did not remain abstract but also found expression in distillation of perfumes, aromatic liquids, manufacturing of dyes and pigments, and extraction of sugar.
• Medical science & surgery – Around 800 BC, the first compendium on medicine and surgery was complied in ancient India.
• Fine Arts – study of sound and phonetics arose from the need of correct recitation of the Vedas. The natural corollary was the emergence of music and other performing arts.
• Mechanical & production technology – Greek historians have testified to smelting of certain metals in India in the 4th century BC.
• Civil engineering & architecture – The discovery of urban settlements of Mohenjodaro and Harappa indicates the existence of civil engineering and architecture, which blossomed to a highly precise science and found expression in innumerable monuments.
• Shipbuilding & navigation – Sanskrit and Pali texts have several references to maritime activity by ancient Indians.
• Sports & games – Ancient India is the birth place of chess, ludo, snakes and ladders and playing cards.

The Vedic Civilization is the Indo-Aryan culture associated with the Vedas, the earliest known records of Indian history. ... 0 (zero), alternatively called naught, nil, nada, ought, zilch, zip, nothing or nought, is both a number and a numeral. ... Algebra is the current mathematics collaboration of the week! Please help improve it to featured article standard. ... Flowcharts are often used to represent algorithms. ... In mathematics, the principal square root of a non-negative real number is denoted and represents the non-negative real number whose square (the result of multiplying the number by itself) is For example, since This example suggests how square roots can arise when solving quadratic equations such as or... Plot of y = ∛x In mathematics, the cube root (∛) of a number is a number which, when cubed (multiplied by itself and then multiplied by itself again), gives back the original number. ... Integral and differential calculus is a central branch of mathematics, developed from algebra and geometry. ... Leibnitz is a town in the Austrian province of Styria and has about 6,892 inhabitants (census of population 2001). ... The newton (symbol: N) is the SI unit of force. ... The Rig Veda ऋग्वेद (Sanskrit ṛc praise + veda knowledge) is the earliest of the four Hindu religious scriptures known as the Vedas. ... (Redirected from 2000 BC) (21st century BC - 20th century BC - 19th century BC - other centuries) (3rd millennium BC - 2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC) Events 2064 - 1986 BC -- Twin Dynasty wars in Egypt 2000 BC -- Farmers and herders travel south from Ethiopia and settle in Kenya. ... Properties In chemistry and physics, an atom (Greek άτομον meaning indivisible) is the smallest possible particle of a chemical element that retains its chemical properties. ... Wikisource has original text related to this article: Relativity: The Special and General Theory Albert Einsteins theory of relativity, or simply relativity, refers specifically to two theories: special relativity and general relativity. ... Centuries: 8th century BC - 7th century BC - 6th century BC Decades: 650s BC 640s BC 630s BC 620s BC 610s BC - 600s BC - 590s BC 580s BC 570s BC 560s BC 550s BC Events and Trends Fall of the Assyrian Empire and Rise of Babylon 609 BC _ King Josiah... Perfume is a mixture of fragrant essential oils and aroma compounds, fixatives, and solvents used to give the human body, objects, and living spaces a lasting and pleasant smell. ... Odor receptors on the antennae of a Luna moth An odor is the object of perception of the sense of olfaction. ... Yarn drying after being dyed in the early American tradition, at Conner Prairie living history museum. ... In biology, pigment is any material resulting in color in plant or animal cells which is the result of selective absorption. ... Magnified view of refined sugar crystals. ... Centuries: 10th century BC - 9th century BC - 8th century BC Decades: 850s BC 840s BC 830s BC 820s BC 810s BC - 800s BC - 790s BC 780s BC 770s BC 760s BC 750s BC Events and Trends 804 BC - Hadad-nirari IV of Assyria conquers Damascus. ... A schematic representation of hearing. ... Phonetic (pho-NET-ic) is a nationwide voicemail-to-text messaging service available for most digital mobile phones in which a subscriber is provided a custom voice mailbox for the purpose of receiving all incoming voice messages as actual transcribed text for reading via short messaging (also known as SMS... Music is an art, entertainment, or other human activity which involves structured and audible sound, though definitions vary. ... Performance art is art where the actions of an individual or a group at a particular place and in a particular time, constitute the work. ... Chemical reduction, or smelting, is a form of extractive metallurgy. ... Hot metal work from a blacksmith In chemistry, a metal (Greek: Metallon) is an element that readily forms ions (cations) and has metallic bonds, and metals are sometimes described as a lattice of positive ions (cations) in a cloud of electrons. ... Mohenjo-daro (literally, mound of the dead), like Harappa, was a city of the Indus Valley civilization. ... Conception of ancient Harappas Mound E Gateway [1] Harappa is a city in Punjab, northeast Pakistan, located beside a former course of the Ravi River; about 35km southwest of Sahiwal. ... Sanskrit ( संस्कृतम्) is an Indo-European Classical language of India and a liturgical language of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. ... For the town and district in Rajasthan, see Pali, Rajasthan For the Ganapati temple of pali and place in Maharastra, see Ballaleshwar Pali Pāli (Devanagari पालि) is a Middle Indo-Aryan dialect or prakrit. ... From the latin maritimus, maritime refers to things relating to the sea. ... Listen to this article · (info) This audio file was created from an article revision dated 2006-03-08, and does not reflect subsequent edits to the article. ... Ludo (from Latin ludus, game) is a simple board game played mainly by children, in which each player must move their four tokens from their starting positions round the board to their final allocated position. ... Snakes and ladders is a classic childrens board game played between 2 or more players on a playing board with numbered grid squares. ... Some typical modern playing cards. ...

Mathematics

Main article: Indian mathematics

Mathematics represents a very high level of abstraction attained by the human brain. In ancient India, roots to mathematics can be traced to Vedic literature, which is around 4000 years old. Between 1000 BC and 1000 AD, a number of mathematical treatises were authored in India. The chronology of Indian mathematics spans from the Indus Valley civilization (3300-1500 BC) and Vedic civilization (1500-500 BC) to modern India. ... The Vedic Civilization is the Indo-Aryan culture associated with the Vedas, the earliest known records of Indian history. ... (Redirected from 1000 BC) Centuries: 12th century BC - 11th century BC - 10th century BC Decades: 1050s BC 1040s BC 1030s BC 1020s BC 1010s BC - 1000s BC - 990s BC 980s BC 970s BC 960s BC 950s BC Events and Trends 1006 BC - David becomes king of the ancient Israelites (traditional... (Redirected from 1000 AD) For other uses, see number 1000. ...

American historian Will Durant (1885–1981) has said that "India was the mother of our philosophy... of much of our mathematics." Australian Indologist A. L. Basham writes in his book, The Wonder That was India, "... the world owes most to India in the realm of mathematics, which was developed in the Gupta period to a stage more advanced than that reached by any other nation of antiquity. The success of Indian mathematics was mainly due to the fact that Indians had a clear conception of the abstract number as distinct from the numerical quantity of objects or spatial extension." William Durant William James Durant (November 5, 1885—November 7, 1981) was an American philosopher, historian, and writer. ... 1885 (MDCCCLXXXV) is a common year starting on Thursday. ... 1981 (MCMLXXXI) was a common year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Indologist is a derivative of the word indology, which refers to study of India, particulary ancient India. ... A. L Basham was a historian with an Australian University in Canberra. ... Silver coin of the Gupta King Kumara Gupta I (414-455 CE). ...

It is now generally accepted that India was the birth place of several mathematical concepts, including zero, the decimal system, algebra, algorithm, square root and cube root. The concept of zero origininated in Indian philosophy's concept of "sunya", literally "void". A symbol for zero emerged to represent this philosophical concept. 0 (zero), alternatively called naught, nil, nada, ought, zilch, zip, nothing or nought, is both a number and a numeral. ... Algebra is the current mathematics collaboration of the week! Please help improve it to featured article standard. ... Flowcharts are often used to represent algorithms. ... In mathematics, the principal square root of a non-negative real number is denoted and represents the non-negative real number whose square (the result of multiplying the number by itself) is For example, since This example suggests how square roots can arise when solving quadratic equations such as or... Plot of y = ∛x In mathematics, the cube root (∛) of a number is a number which, when cubed (multiplied by itself and then multiplied by itself again), gives back the original number. ...

Geometric theories were known to ancient Indians and find display in motifs on temple walls, which are in many cases replete with mix of floral and geometric patterns. The method of graduated calculation was documented in the 5th Century AD book Five Principles (Panch-Siddhantika). In literature, a motif is any recurring element that has symbolic significance. ... Geometry (from the Greek words Ge = earth and metro = measure) is the branch of mathematics first introduced by Theaetetus dealing with spatial relationships. ... // Overview Events Romulus Augustus, Last Western Roman Emperor 410: Rome sacked by Visigoths 452: Pope Leo I allegedly meets personally with Attila the Hun and convinces him not to sack Rome 439: Vandals conquer Carthage At some point after 440, the Anglo-Saxons settle in Britain. ...

Algebraic theories and other mathematical concepts circulating in ancient India, were collected and further developed by Indian mathematician Aryabhatta, who lived in the 5th century in Patna city (then called Pataliputra). He referred to Algebra (as Bijaganitam) in his treatise on mathematics named Aryabhattiya. A 12th century mathematician, Bhaskaracharya, authored several mathematical treatises; one of them, Siddantha Shiromani, has a chapter on algebra. He is known to have given the basic idea of Rolle's Theorem and was the first to conceive of differential calculus. In 1816, James Taylor translated Bhaskaracharya's Leelavati into English. Another translation of the same work by English astronomer Henry Thomas Colebruke appeared in 1817. Aryabhata (आर्यभट) (Āryabhaṭa) is the first of the great astronomers of the classical age of India. ... // Overview Events Romulus Augustus, Last Western Roman Emperor 410: Rome sacked by Visigoths 452: Pope Leo I allegedly meets personally with Attila the Hun and convinces him not to sack Rome 439: Vandals conquer Carthage At some point after 440, the Anglo-Saxons settle in Britain. ... For other uses, see Patna (disambiguation). ... (11th century - 12th century - 13th century - other centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 12th century was that century which lasted from 1101 to 1200. ... Bhāskara (1114-1185), also called Bhāskara II and Bhāskarācārya (Bhaskara the teacher) was an Indian mathematician. ... Differential calculus is the theory of and computations with differentials; see also derivative and calculus. ... 1816 was a leap year starting on Monday (see link for calendar). ... The Best of James Taylor album cover James Vernon Taylor (born March 12, 1948) is an American singer-songwriter and guitarist, born in Boston, Massachusetts. ... 1817 was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ...

The Arabs and Persians fine-tuned and internationalized these mathematical concepts. Persian mathematician Al-Khawarizmi developed a technique of calculation that became known as "algorism." This was the seed from which modern arithmetic algorithms have developed. Al-Khwarizmi’s work was translated into Latin under the title Algoritmi de numero Indorum, meaning "The System of Indian Numerals." A mathematician in Arabic is called Hindsa, which means "from India." The Arabs (Arabic: عرب Ê»arab) are a large and heterogeneous ethnic group found throughout the Middle East and North Africa, originating in the Arabian Peninsula of southwest Asia. ... The Persians of Iran (officially named Persia by West until 1935 while still referred to as Persia by some) are an Iranian people who speak Persian (locally named Fârsi by native speakers) and often refer to themselves as ethnic Iranians as well. ... Soviet postage stamp commemorating the 1200th anniversary of Muhammad al‑Khwarizmi in 1983. ... Flowcharts are often used to represent algorithms. ... Latin is an ancient Indo-European language originally spoken in the region around Rome called Latium. ...

The 14th century Indian mathematician Madhava of Sangamagrama, along with other mathematicians of the Kerala school, studied infinite series, convergence, differentiation, and iterative methods for solution of non-linear equations. Jyestadeva of the Kerala school wrote the first calculus text, the Yuktibhasa, which explores methods and ideas of calculus repeated only in 17th-century Europe . Madhava (माधव) of Sangamagrama (1350-1425) was a major mathematician of the Kerala school who is considered the father of mathematical analysis for having taken the decisive step from the finite procedures of ancient mathematics to treat their limit-passage to infinity, which is the kernel of modern classical analysis. ... In mathematics, a series is a sum of a sequence of terms. ...

Astronomy

Further information: Hindu astronomy, and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]]

Ancient India’s contributions to astronomy are well known and documented. The earliest references to astronomy are found in the Rig Veda, which are dated 2000 BC. By 500 AD, ancient Indian astronomy emerged as an important part of Indian studies and its affect is seen in several treatises of that period. In some instances, astronomical principles were borrowed to explain matters pertaining to astrology, like casting of a horoscope. Apart from this link of astronomy to astrology in ancient India, science of astronomy continued to develop independently, and culminated in original findings, like: The Hindu Astronomy is one of the ancient astronomical systems of the world. ... Lunar astronomy: the large crater is Daedalus, photographed by the crew of Apollo 11 as they circled the Moon in 1969. ... Astrology refers to any of several systems, traditions or beliefs in which knowledge of the apparent positions of celestial bodies is held to be useful in understanding, interpreting, and organizing knowledge about human affairs and events on earth. ... In astrology, a horoscope is a chart or diagram representing the positions of the planets, other celestial bodies, and sensitive angles at the time of any event, such as a persons birth. ... Astrology refers to any of several systems, traditions or beliefs in which knowledge of the apparent positions of celestial bodies is held to be useful in understanding, interpreting, and organizing knowledge about human affairs and events on earth. ...

• The calculation of occurrences of eclipses
• Calculation of Earth’s circumference
• Theorizing about gravity
• Determining that Sun is a star
• Determining the number of planets in the Solar System

There are astronomical references of chronological significance in the Vedas. Some Vedic notices mark the beginning of the year and that of the vernal equinox in Orion; this was the case around 4500 BC. Fire altars, with astronomical basis, have been found in the third millennium cities of India. The texts that describe their designs are conservatively dated to the first millennium BC, but their contents appear to be much older. Photo taken during the French 1999 eclipse An eclipse (Greek verb: ecleipo, to cease existing or calypse, to cover ) is an astronomical event that occurs when one celestial object moves into the shadow of another. ... Earth is the third planet from the Sun. ... The circumference is the distance around a closed curve. ... Gravity is a force of attraction that acts between bodies that have mass. ... The Sun is the spectral type G2V yellow star at the center of Earths solar system. ... The Pleiades star cluster A star is a massive body of plasma in outer space that is currently producing or has produced energy through nuclear fusion. ... Presentation of the solar system (not to scale) The solar system comprises the Earths Sun and the retinue of celestial objects gravitationally bound to it. ...

A text on Vedic astronomy that has been dated to 1350 BC, was written by Lagadha. The Hindu Astronomy is one of the ancient astronomical systems of the world. ... (Redirected from 1350 BC) Centuries: 15th century BC - 14th century BC - 13th century BC Decades: 1400s BC 1390s BC 1380s BC 1370s BC 1360s BC - 1350s BC - 1340s BC 1330s BC 1320s BC 1310s BC 1300s BC Events and Trends Significant People 1350 BC - Pharaoh Amenhotep IV Akhenaton rises to... Lagadha (लगध) is the author of Vedanga Jyotisha, the text on Vedic astronomy that has been dated to 1350 BC. This text describes rules for tracking the motions of the sun and the moon. ...

Yajnavalkya composed the astronomical text Shatapatha Brahmana in the 9th century BC. He was the first to propose the concept of heliocentrism (the idea that the Sun is at the centre of the solar system and the Earth is moving around it). He referred to the Earth as a sphere and the Sun as the "centre of spheres". Based on this heliocentric model, he proposed a 95-year cycle to synchronize the motions of the Sun and the Moon, which gives the average length of the tropical year as 365.24675 days, which is only 6 minutes longer than the modern value of 365.24220 days. This estimate for the length of the tropical year remained the most accurate anywhere in the world for over a thousand years. The distances of the Moon and the Sun from the Earth was accurately measured as 108 times the diameters of these heavenly bodies. These are very close to the modern values of 110.6 for the Moon and 107.6 for the Sun, which were obtained using modern instruments. Sage Yajnavalkya of Mithila (perhaps 1800 BC) advanced a 95-year cycle to synchronize the motions of the sun and the moon. ... Shatapatha Brahmana (Brahmana of one-hundred paths) is one of the prose texts describing the Vedic ritual. ... (10th century BC - 9th century BC - 8th century BC - other centuries) (900s BC - 890s BC - 880s BC - 870s BC - 860s BC - 850s BC - 840s BC - 830s BC - 820s BC - 810s BC - 800s BC - other decades) (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium AD) Events Kingdom of Kush (900 BC... Heliocentric Solar System In astronomy, heliocentrism is the theory that the Sun is at the center of the Universe and/or the Solar System. ... A tropical year is the length of time that the Sun, as viewed from the Earth, takes to return to the same position along the ecliptic (its path among the stars on the celestial sphere). ... A tropical year is the length of time that the Sun, as viewed from the Earth, takes to return to the same position along the ecliptic (its path among the stars on the celestial sphere). ...

There is an old Sanskrit shloka (couplet) which also states "Sarva Dishanaam, Suryaha, Suryaha, Suryaha" which means that there are suns in all directions. This couplet which describes the night sky as full of suns, indicates that in ancient times Indian astronomers had arrived at the important discovery that the stars visible at night are similar to the Sun visible during day time. In other words, it was recognized that the sun is also a star, though the nearest one. This understanding is demonstrated in another Sloka which says that when one sun sinks below the horizon, a thousand suns take its place. Sanskrit ( संस्कृतम्) is an Indo-European Classical language of India and a liturgical language of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. ... Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this exact name. ...

Many Indian astronomers had later formulated ideas about gravity and gravitation in the early middle ages. The Middle Ages formed the middle period in a traditional schematic division of European history into three ages: the classical civilization of Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and modern times, beginning with the Renaissance. ...

The cosmological time cycles explained in the Surya Siddhanta, which was copied from an earlier work, gives: The Surya Siddhanta is the first Indian astronomical treatise where rules were laid down to determine the true motions of the luminaries, which conforms to their actual positions in the sky. ...

• The average length of the sidereal year (the length of the Earth's revolution around the Sun) as 365.2563627 days, which is only 1.4 seconds longer than the modern value of 365.2563627 days. This remained the most accurate estimate for the length of the sidereal year anywhere in the world for over a thousand years.

• The average length of the tropical year (the length of the year as observed on Earth) as 365.2421756 days, which is only 2 seconds shorter than the modern value of 365.2421988 days. This estimate remained the most accurate estimate for the length of the tropical year anywhere in the world for another 6 centuries (until Muslim mathematician Omar Khayyam gave a better estimate), and still remains more accurate than the value given by the modern Gregorian calendar currently in use around the world, which gives the average length of the year as 365.2425 days.

Later Indian astronomer-mathematicians such as Aryabhata made references to this text, while later Arabic and Latin translations were very influential in Europe and the Middle East. The sidereal year is the time for the Sun to return to the same position in respect to the stars of the celestial sphere. ... A tropical year is the length of time that the Sun, as viewed from the Earth, takes to return to the same position along the ecliptic (its path among the stars on the celestial sphere). ... Islamic mathematics is the profession of Muslim Mathematicians. ... Tomb of Omar Khayam, Neishapur, Iran. ... The Gregorian calendar is the calendar that is used nearly everywhere in the world. ... A year is the time between two recurrences of an event related to the orbit of the Earth around the Sun. ... Aryabhata (आर्यभट) Āryabhaṭa) (476 - 550) is the first of the great astronomers of the classical age of India. ... Arabic can mean: From or related to Arabia From or related to the Arabs The Arabic language; see also Arabic grammar The Arabic alphabet, used for expressing the languages of Arabic, Persian, Malay ( Jawi), Kurdish, Panjabi, Pashto, Sindhi and Urdu, among others. ... Latin is an ancient Indo-European language originally spoken in the region around Rome called Latium. ...

The Indian astronomer-mathematician Aryabhata in the 5th century CE, in his magnum opus Aryabhatiya, propounded a mathematical heliocentric model in which the Earth was taken to be spinning on its axis and the periods of the planets were given with respect to a stationary Sun. He was also the first to discover that the light from the Moon and the planets were reflected from the Sun, and that the planets follow an elliptical orbit around the Sun, and thus propunded an eccentric elliptical model of the planets, on which he accurately calculated many astronomical constants, such as the times of the solar and lunar eclipses, and the instantaneous motion of the Moon (expressed as a differential equation). Bhaskara (1114-1185) expanded on Aryabhata's heliocentric model in his treatise Siddhanta-Shiromani, where he mentioned the law of gravity, discovered that the planets don't orbit the Sun at a uniform velocity, and accurately calculated many astronomical constants based on this model, such as the solar and lunar eclipses, and the velocities and instantaneous motions of the planets. Arabic translations of Aryabhata's Aryabhatiya were available from the 8th century, while Latin translations were available from the 13th century, before Copernicus had written De revolutionibus orbium coelestium, so it's quite likely that Aryabhata's work had an influence on Copernicus' ideas. Aryabhata (आर्यभट) Ä€ryabhaá¹­a) (476 - 550) is the first of the great astronomers of the classical age of India. ... // Overview Events Romulus Augustus, Last Western Roman Emperor 410: Rome sacked by Visigoths 452: Pope Leo I allegedly meets personally with Attila the Hun and convinces him not to sack Rome 439: Vandals conquer Carthage At some point after 440, the Anglo-Saxons settle in Britain. ... The ellipse and some of its mathematical properties. ... Eccentric is from the Greek for out of the centre, as opposed to concentric, in the centre. ... Photo taken during the French 1999 eclipse A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes in front of the Sun and obscures it totally or partially. ... An eclipse refers to the phenomenon of one body passing into the shadow cast by another body. ... Photo taken during the French 1999 eclipse An eclipse (Greek verb: ecleipo, to cease existing or calypse, to cover ) is an astronomical event that occurs when one celestial object moves into the shadow of another. ... In mathematics, a differential equation is an equation in which the derivatives of a function appear as variables. ... Bhaskara (1114-1185), also called Bhaskara II and Bhaskara Achārya (Bhaskara the teacher) was an Indian mathematician-astronomer. ... Events January 7 - Matilda, daughter of Henry I of England, marries Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor Births Deaths Categories: 1114 ... Events April 25 - Genpei War - Naval battle of Dan-no-ura leads to Minamoto victory in Japan Templars settle in London and begin the building of New Temple Church End of the Heian Period and beginning of the Kamakura period in Japan. ... Gravity is a force of attraction that acts between bodies that have mass. ... This article is about velocity in physics. ... Arabic can mean: From or related to Arabia From or related to the Arabs The Arabic language; see also Arabic grammar The Arabic alphabet, used for expressing the languages of Arabic, Persian, Malay ( Jawi), Kurdish, Panjabi, Pashto, Sindhi and Urdu, among others. ... (7th century — 8th century — 9th century — other centuries) Events The Iberian peninsula is taken by Arab and Berber Muslims, thus ending the Visigothic rule, and starting almost 8 centuries of Muslim presence there. ... Latin is an ancient Indo-European language originally spoken in the region around Rome called Latium. ... (12th century - 13th century - 14th century - other centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 13th century was that century which lasted from 1201 to 1300. ...

Aryabhata wrote that 1,582,237,500 rotations of the Earth equal 57,753,336 lunar orbits. This is an extremely accurate ratio of a fundamental astronomical ratio (1,582,237,500/57,753,336 = 27.3964693572), and is perhaps the oldest astronomical constant calculated to such accuracy.

Brahmagupta (598-668) was the head of the astronomical observatory at Ujjain and during his tenure there wrote a text on astronomy, the Brahmasphutasiddhanta in 628. Brahmagupta (ब्रह्मगुप्त) (598_668) was an Indian mathematician and astronomer. ... Ujjain (also known as Ujain, Ujjayini, Avanti) is an ancient city of central India, in the Malwa region of Madhya Pradesh, on the eastern bank of the Kshipra River. ... The main work of Brahmagupta, Brahmasphutasiddhanta (The Opening of the Universe), written in 628, contains some remarkably advanced ideas, including a good understanding of the mathematical role of zero, rules for manipulating both positive and negative numbers, a method for computing square roots, methods of solving linear and some quadratic... Events Khusro II of Persia overthrown Pippin of Landen becomes Mayor of the Palace Brahmagupta writes the Brahmasphutasiddhanta Births Deaths Empress Suiko of Japan Theodelinda, queen of the Lombards Categories: 628 ...

Bhaskara (1114-1185) was the head of the astronomical observatory at Ujjain, continuing the mathematical tradition of Brahmagupta. He wrote the Siddhanta-Shiromani which consists of two parts: Goladhyaya (sphere) and Grahaganita (mathematics of the planets). Bhaskara (1114-1185), also called Bhaskara II and Bhaskara Achārya (Bhaskara the teacher) was an Indian mathematician-astronomer. ...

The other important names of historical astronomers from India are Madhava and Nilakantha Somayaji. Madhava (माधव) of Sangamagrama (1350-1425) was a major mathematician of the Kerala school who is considered the father of mathematical analysis for having taken the decisive step from the finite procedures of ancient mathematics to treat their limit-passage to infinity, which is the kernel of modern classical analysis. ... Nilakantha Somayaji (नीलकण्ठ सोमयाजि) (1444-1544), from Kerala, was a major mathematician and astronomer. ...

On April 19, 1975, India sent into orbit its first satellite Aryabhatta. In 1984, Rakesh Sharma became the first Indian to go to outer space. Kalpana Chawla, later a US citizen, became the first woman of Indian origin to go to space. April 19 is the 109th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (110th in leap years). ... 1975 (MCMLXXV) was a common year starting on Wednesday (the link is to a full 1975 calendar). ... 1984 (MCMLXXXIV) was a leap year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Rakesh Sharma is also an Omani cricketer. ... Kalpana Chawla Kalpana Chawla (July 1, 1961 – February 1, 2003), was an Indian-born American astronaut and space shuttle mission specialist. ...

Physics

Further information: Indian atomism and Indian relativity

The concept of the atom in ancient India derives from the classification of the material world in five basic elements by Indian philosophers. This classification existed since Vedic times (c. 1500 BC). The elements were the earth (prithvi), fire (agni), air (vayu), water (jaal) and ether or space (aksha). The elements were associated with human sensory perceptions: smell, touch, vision, taste and ether/space respectively. Later, Buddhist philosophers replaced ether/space with life, joy and sorrow. In natural philosophy, atomism is the theory that all the objects in the universe are composed of very small, indestructible elements. ... Note: The principle of relativity should not be confused with the Theory of relativity. ... Properties In chemistry and physics, an atom (Greek άτομον meaning indivisible) is the smallest possible particle of a chemical element that retains its chemical properties. ... Earth is the third planet from the Sun. ... It has been suggested that Firetending be merged into this article or section. ... Look up air in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... A girl in a swimming pool full of water Water (from the Old English waeter; c. ... The aether is the fifth classical element in ancient Greek philosophy and science. ...

Ancient Indian philosophers believed that all elements except ether were physically palpable and hence comprised of minuscule particles. The smallest particle, which could not be subdivided, was called paramanu in Sanskrit (shortened to parmanu), from param (ultimate or beyond) and anu (atom). Thus, "paramanu" literally means "beyond atom" and this was a concept at an abstract level which suggested the possibility of splitting atoms, which is now the source of atomic energy. However, the term "atom" should not be conflated with the concept of atom as it is understood today. Atomic energy is an outdated phrase which can mean a number of things related to energy produced by atoms: In the late- 19th century through the early- 20th century, it was often used to describe the particles ejected by radioactive elements (especially radium). ...

The 6th century BC Indian philosopher Kanada was the first person who went deep systematically in such theorization. Another Indian philosopher, Pakudha Katyayana, a contemporary of Buddha, also propounded the ideas of atomic constitution of the material world. All these were based on logic and philosophy and lacked any empirical basis for want of commensurate technology. Similarly, the principle of relativity (not to be confused with Einstein's theory of relativity) was available in an embryonic form in the ancient Indian philosophical concept of "sapekshavad" (c. 6th century BC]]), literally "theory of relativity" in Sanskrit. (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium) // Overview The 5th and 6th centuries BC were a time of empires, but more importantly, a time of learning and philosophy. ... Kanada (also transliterated as Kanad and in other ways; Sanskrit कणाद) was a Hindu sage who founded the philosophical school of Vaisheshika. ... Katyayana was probably a priest who lived in India around 200 BC. Like Baudhayana, he composed Shulba Sutra, or sacred mathematical texts. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Logic, from Classical Greek λόγος (logos), originally meaning the word, or what is spoken, (but coming to mean thought or reason) is most often said to be the study of criteria for the evaluation of arguments, although the exact definition of logic is a matter of controversy among philosophers. ... The Philosopher (detail), by Rembrandt Philosophy is a study that includes various diverse subfields such as aesthetics, epistemology, ethics, logic, and metaphysics. ... Note: The principle of relativity should not be confused with the Theory of relativity. ...

These theories have attracted attention of the Indologists, and veteran Australian Indologist A. L. Basham has concluded that "they were brilliant imaginative explanations of the physical structure of the world, and in a large measure, agreed with the discoveries of modern physics." A. L Basham was a historian with an Australian University in Canberra. ...

Chemistry

Ancient India’s development in chemistry was not confined at an abstract level like physics, but found development in a variety of practical activities. Multicolored chemicals are frequent hallmarks of chemistry. ...

Metallurgy has remained central to all civilizations, from the Bronze Age and the Iron Age, and later. It is believed that the basic idea of smelting reached ancient India from Mesopotamia and the Near East. In ancient India, the science of smelting reached a high level of refinement and precision. In the 5th century BC, the Greek historian Herodotus observed that "Indian and the Persian army used arrows tipped with iron." Ancient Romans used armour and cutlery made of Indian iron. Metallurgy is a domain of materials science and of materials engineering that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metallic elements and their mixtures, which are called alloys. ... The word civilization (or civilisation) has a variety of meanings related to human society. ... The Bronze Age is a period in a civilizations development when the most advanced metalworking has developed the techniques of smelting copper from natural outcroppings and alloys it to cast bronze. ... Iron Age Axe found on Gotland This article is about the archaeological period known as the Iron Age, for the mythological Iron Age see Iron Age (mythology). ... Chemical reduction, or smelting, is a form of extractive metallurgy. ... Mesopotamia (Greek: Μεσοποταμία, translated from Old Persian Miyanrudan between rivers; Aramaic name being Beth Nahrain house of rivers) is a region of Southwest Asia. ... The Near East is a term commonly used by archaeologists and historians, less commonly by journalists and commentators, to refer to the region encompassing the Levant (modern Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Syria and Lebanon), Asia Minor (modern Turkey), Mesopotamia (Iraq and eastern Syria), and the Iranian Plateau (Iran, Afghanistan and western... Bust of Herodotus at Naples Herodotus of Halicarnassus (Greek: Ήροδοτος, Herodotos) was a historian who lived in the 5th century BC (484 BC-ca. ... The term Persian Empire refers to a series of historical empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau. ... Japanese arrow (ya) and head // Weapon An arrow is a pointed projectile that is shot with a bow. ... The Roman Forum was the central area around which ancient Rome developed. ... A hoplite wearing (only) a helmet, breastplate greaves and a shield. ... Starch-polyester disposable cutlery Cutlery refers to any hand utensil used in preparing, serving, and especially eating food. ...

In India itself, certain objects testify to the high level of metallurgy. An iron pillar believed to be cast in the Gupta period around the 5th century stands by the side of Qutub Minar World heritage site in Delhi. It is 7.32 m tall, with a diameter of 40 cm at the base tapering to 30 cm at the top, and is estimated to weigh 6 tonnes. Standing in the open for last 1500 years, it has withstandood wind, heat and water without rusting, except for very minor natural erosion. This kind of rust-proof iron was not possible till iron and steel was discovered few decades before. Silver coin of the Gupta King Kumara Gupta I (414-455 CE). ... // Overview Events Romulus Augustus, Last Western Roman Emperor 410: Rome sacked by Visigoths 452: Pope Leo I allegedly meets personally with Attila the Hun and convinces him not to sack Rome 439: Vandals conquer Carthage At some point after 440, the Anglo-Saxons settle in Britain. ... The Qutub Minar and surrounding ruins. ... Site #86: Memphis and its Necropolis, including the Pyramids of Giza (Egypt). ... Known in India as the Lotus Temple, the Baháí House of Worship is one of the most famous landmarks in Delhi. ... metre or meter, see meter (disambiguation) The metre is the basic unit of length in the International System of Units. ... A tonne (symbol t), sometimes referred to as a metric tonne, is a measurement of weight. ...

Ancient India's advanced chemical science also finds expression in activities like distillation of perfumes and fragrant ointments, manufacturing of dyes and chemicals, preparation of pigments and colours, and polishing of mirrors. Paintings found on walls of Ajanta and Ellora World Heritage sites still look fresh after 1000 years, further testifying to the high level of science. Perfume is a mixture of fragrant essential oils and aroma compounds, fixatives, and solvents used to give the human body, objects, and living spaces a lasting and pleasant smell. ... Ajanta takes the name after the village Ajinţhā in Aurangabad district in the state of Maharashtra(N. lat. ... Kailasanatha Temple Ellora is an ancient village 30 km from the city of Aurangabad in the Indian state of Maharashtra famous for its magnificent rock cut architecture comprising of Buddhist, Hindu and Jaina cave temples and monasteries built between the 6th and 10th century A.D. These structures were excavated...

Medicine & surgery

Further information: Ayurveda, and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]]

The science of medicine originates in ancient India as "Ayurveda", literally, "the science of life or longevity" in Sanskrit from "ayur" (age or life) and "veda" (knowledge). Ayurveda constitutes ideas about ailments and diseases, their symptoms, diagnosis and cure, and relies heavily on herbal medicine, including extracts from several plants. This reliance on herbs differentiates ayurveda from systems like allopathy and homeopathy. Ayurveda has also always dissociated itself from witch doctors and voodoo. Ayurveda (आयुर्वेद Sanskrit: ayu—life; veda—knowledge of) or ayurvedic medicine is a comprehensive system of medicine, first described by Charaka around the beginning of the Common Era, and based on a holistic approach rooted in earlier Vedic culture. ... Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Science For the scientific journal named Science, see Science (journal). ... Medicine is the branch of health science and the sector of public life concerned with maintaining human health or restoring it through the treatment of disease and injury. ... Sanskrit ( संस्कृतम्) is an Indo-European Classical language of India and a liturgical language of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. ... A disease is any abnormal condition of the body or mind that causes discomfort, dysfunction, or distress to the person affected or those in contact with the person. ... A disease is an abnormal condition of the body or mind that causes discomfort, dysfunction, or distress to the person afflicted or those in contact with the person. ... The term symptom (from the Greek syn = con/plus and pipto = fall, together meaning co-exist) has two similar meanings in the context of physical and mental health: A symptom may loosely be said to be a physical condition which shows that one has a particular illness or disorder (see... Diagnosis (from the Greek words dia = by and gnosis = knowledge) is the process of identifying a disease by its signs, symptoms and results of various diagnostic procedures. ... Cure can be: successful treatment of disease preserve (meat, for example), as by salting, smoking, or aging (see curing) prepare, preserve, or finish (a substance) by a chemical or physical process The Cure refers to more than one thing: The Cure are an English rock band. ... A herb (pronounced hurb in Commonwealth English and urb in American English) is a plant grown for culinary, medicinal, or in some cases even spiritual value. ... Divisions Green algae Land plants (embryophytes) Non-vascular plants (bryophytes) Marchantiophyta - liverworts Anthocerotophyta - hornworts Bryophyta - mosses Vascular plants (tracheophytes) Lycopodiophyta - clubmosses Equisetophyta - horsetails Pteridophyta - true ferns Psilotophyta - whisk ferns Ophioglossophyta - adderstongues Seed plants (spermatophytes) †Pteridospermatophyta - seed ferns Pinophyta - conifers Cycadophyta - cycads Ginkgophyta - ginkgo Gnetophyta - gnetae Magnoliophyta - flowering plants Adiantum pedatum... Advocates of homeopathy and other forms of alternative medicine often use the term allopathy or allopathic medicine to refer to mainstream, Western medicine. ... Samuel Hahnemann, the father of homeopathy Homeopathy (also spelled homœopathy or homoeopathy) from the Greek words όμοιος, hómoios (similar) and πάθος, páthos (suffering), is a controversial system of alternative medicine. ... A witch doctor often refers to healers that believe that maladies are caused by magic and are therefore best cured by it, as opposed to science or developed medicine. ... A large sequined Voodoo drapo or flag by the artist George Valris The term Voodoo (Vodun in Benin; also Vodou or other phonetically equivalent spellings in Haiti; Vudu in the Dominican Republic) is applied to the branches of a West African ancestor-based spiritist-animist religious tradition. ...

Ancient scholars of India like Atreya[1], and Agnivesa have dealt with principles of ayurveda as long back as 800 BC. Their works and other developments were consolidated by Charaka into a compendium of ayurvedic principles and practices ,Charaka-Samahita, which remained a standard textbook for almost 2000 years, translated into many languages including Arabic and Latin. It deals with a variety of matters covering physiology, etiology and embryology, concepts of digestion, metabolism, and immunity. Preliminary concepts of genetics are also mentioned; for example, Charaka theorized that blindness from the birth is not due to a defect in the mother or father, but originates in the ovum and the sperm. Agnivesa was an ancient Indian rishi (sage), and myths of his birth associate his parentage to Agni. ... For a village in Greece, see Charaka (Laconia), Greece Charaka, sometimes spelled Caraka, (perhaps 1st or 2nd century) is one of the founders of Ayurveda. ... Physiology (in Greek physis = nature and logos = word) is the study of the mechanical, physical, and biochemical functions of living organisms. ... Etiology (alternately aetiology, aitiology) is the study of causation. ... Embryology is the branch of developmental biology that studies embryos and their development. ... Digestion is the process whereby a biological entity processes a substance, in order to chemically convert the substance into nutrients. ... Santorio Santorio (1561-1636) in his steelyard balance, from Ars de statica medecina, first published 1614 Metabolism (from μεταβολισμος (metabolismos)) is the biochemical modification of chemical compounds in living organisms and cells. ... In a medical sense, immunity is a state of having sufficient biological defenses to avoid infection, disease, or other unwanted biological invasion. ... Genetics (from the Greek genno γεννώ= give birth) is the science of genes, heredity, and the variation of organisms. ... A human ovum An ovum (from Latin, loosely, egg or egg cell) is a female sex cell or gamete. ... The signifier sperm can refer to: (mass noun, from Greek sperma = seed) a substance which consists of spermatozoa and which is a component of semen (mass noun) semen itself (informally, count noun with plural sperm or sperms) a single spermatozoon (= sperm cell) sperma ceti (Latin ceti, genitive of cetus = whale...

Advances in the field of medical surgery were also made in ancient India, including plastic surgery, extraction of catracts and even dental surgery. The roots of ancient Indian surgery go back to at least circa 800 BC. The medical theoretician and practitioner Shushruta lived between the 6th century BC and 1st century BC in Kasi (now called Varanasi). He wrote the medical compendium Shushruta-Samahita describing at least seven branches of surgery: Excision, Scarification, Puncturing, Exploration, Extraction, Evacuation, and Suturing. It also deals with matters like rhinoplasty (plastic surgery) and ophthalmology (ejection of cataracts). It also focuses on the study the human anatomy by using a dead body. Shushruta also describes over 120 surgical instruments, 300 surgical procedures and classifies human surgery in 8 categories. Because of his seminal and numerous contributions to the science and art of surgery he is also known by the title "Father of Surgery." Susrutha is also the father of plastic surgery and cosmetic surgery since his technique of forehead flap rhinoplasty (repairing the disfigured nose with a flap of skin from the forehead) that he used to reconstruct noses that were amputated as a punishment for crimes, is practiced almost unchanged in technique to this day. The Susrutha Samhita contains the first known description of several operations, including the uniting of bowel, the removal of the prostate gland, the removal of cataract lenses and the draining of abscesses. Susrutha was also the first surgeon to advocate the practice of operations on inanimate objects such as watermelons, clay plots and reeds; thus predating the modern practice of the surgical workshop by hundreds of years. Inoculation was practiced in China, India, and Turkey, and was a precursor to vaccination for smallpox. (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium) // Overview The 5th and 6th centuries BC were a time of empires, but more importantly, a time of learning and philosophy. ... (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium) The 1st century BC starts on January 1, 100 BC and ends on December 31, 1 BC. An alternative name for this century is the last century BC. The AD/BC notation does not use a year zero. ... Benares (also known as Banaras, Kashi, Kasi and Varanasi (वाराणसी)) is a Hindu holy city on the banks of the river Ganga or Ganges in the modern north Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. ... Situated on the banks of river Ganges, Varanasi attracts thousands of Hindu piligrims every year. ... See also Rhinoplasty (album) by Primus Rhinoplasty (Greek; Rhinos, Nose + Plastikos, to shape) is a type of plastic surgery that is used to improve the function (reconstructive surgery) or appearance (cosmetic surgery) of a persons nose. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Cosmesis. ... An optical refractor in use. ... For the band with this name, see Cataract (band). ... Anatomical drawing of the human muscles from the Encyclopédie. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Cosmesis. ... Plastic surgery is a general term for operative manual and instrumental treatment which is performed for functional or aesthetic reasons. ... See also Rhinoplasty (album) by Primus Rhinoplasty (Greek; Rhinos, Nose + Plastikos, to shape) is a type of plastic surgery that is used to improve the function (reconstructive surgery) or appearance (cosmetic surgery) of a persons nose. ... Male Anatomy The prostate is a gland that is part of male mammalian sex organs. ... An abscess is a collection of pus collected in a cavity formed by the tissue on the basis of an infectious process (usually caused by bacteria or parasites) or other foreign materials (e. ... Inoculation was a method of minimising the harm done by infection with smallpox. ... Smallpox (also known by the Latin names Variola or Variola vera) is a highly contagious disease unique to humans. ...

Yoga is a system of exercise for physical and mental nourishment. Its origins are shrouded in antiquity and mystery. Since Vedic times, the principles and practice of yoga have crystallized. But it was only around 200 BC that the fundamentals of yoga were collected by Patanjali in his treatise Yogasutra ("Yoga-Aphorisms"; see Yoga Sutras of Patanjali). In short, Patanjali surmised that through the practice of yoga, the energy latent within the human body may be released, which has a salubrious affect on the body and the mind. Modern clinical practices have established that several ailments, including hypertension, clinical depression, amnesia, acidity, can be controlled and managed by yogic practices. The application of yoga in physiotherapy is also gaining recognition. Yoga is a family of ancient spiritual practices that originated in India, where it remains a vibrant living tradition and is seen as a means to enlightenment. ... Patañjali, is the compiler of the Yoga Sutra, a major work containing aphorisms on the practical and philosophical wisdom regarding practice of Raja yoga. ... This is an article about the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali. ... See drugs, medication, and pharmacology for substances that treat patients. ... For other forms of hypertension see hypertension (disambiguation) Hypertension or high blood pressure is a medical condition wherein the blood pressure is chronically elevated. ... Clinical depression is a state of sadness or melancholia that has advanced to the point of being disruptive to an individuals social functioning and/or activities of daily living. ... Amnesia (or amnaesia in Commonwealth English) is a condition in which memory is disturbed. ... Acidity is a controversial novelette written for the popular South Asian website Chowk. ... Physical therapy can help restore lost functionality in many people. ...

Nuclear Science

In 1974, India conducted its first nuclear test in Pokhran codenamed Operation Smiling Buddha. In 1999, two more tests were conducted. Prominent scientists of India's nuclear program include Homi Jehangir Bhabha and Dr. Raja Ramanna. 1974 (MCMLXXIV) was a common year starting on Tuesday (the link is to a full 1974 calendar). ... A nuclear test explosion is an experiment involving the detonation of a nuclear weapon. ... The so-called Smiling Buddha was the first test fission explosion by India on May 18, 1974. ... 1999 (MCMXCIX) was a common year starting on Friday, and was designated the International Year of Older Persons by the United Nations. ... Homi Jehangir Bhabha (October 30, 1909- January 24, 1966) was an Indian nuclear physicist who had a major role in the development of the Indian atomic energy program. ... Raja Ramanna (1925 - September 23, 2004), was an Indian nuclear scientist and was associated with the countrys first nuclear test in 1974. ...

Fine arts

German Indologist Max Muller has declared that "If I am asked which nation had been advanced in the ancient world in respect of education and culture then I would say it was –India." Ancient India’s fine and performing arts attest to this fact. This find expression in music, musical instruments, dancing, paintings and several other art forms.

Music had a divine character and the Indian Goddess of learning, Saraswati, is always shown holding a veena. Likewise, Krishna is associated with "banshi", (flute) — a musical instrument which traveled throughout the world from India. Indian devotional songs and reciting influenced religious recitations in several eastern countries, where the style was adopted by Buddhists monks. India developed several types of musical instruments and forms of dancing, with delicate body movements and grace.

Paintings have remained the oldest art form as found in several cave paintings across the globe. Pre-historic cave paintings have been discovered in India in places like Bhimbetka, a UNESCO World Heritage site. In relatively recent times, rock paintings and carvings had significantly developed, and many such carvings have been found dating to the period of Emperor Ashoka. Indian influences may be seen in paintings at Bamiyan, Afghanistan, and in Miran and Domko in Central Asia. Sometimes, they depict not only Buddha but Hindu deities such as Shiva, Ganesha and Surya.

Production technology

Mechanical and production technology of ancient India ensured processing of natural produce and their conversion into merchandise of trade, commerce and export. A number of travelers and historians (including Megasthanes, Ptolemy, Faxian, Xuanzang, Marco Polo, Al Baruni and Ibn Batuta) have indicated a variety of items, which were produced, consumed and exported around that society's "known world" by the ancient Indians. In marketing, a product is anything that can be offered to a market that might satisfy a want or need. ... A fruit stand at a market. ... Commerce is the trading of something of value between two entities. ... Megasthenes (c. ... Claudius Ptolemaeus (Greek: ; ca. ... Fǎxiǎn (pinyin, Chinese characters: 法顯, also romanized as Fa-Hien or Fa-hsien) (ca. ... Xuanzang, Dunhuang cave, 9th century. ... Marco Polo (September 15, 1254, Venice, Italy; or Curzola, Venetian Dalmatia - now Korčula, Croatia — January 8, 1324, Venice) was a Venetian trader and explorer who, together with his father Niccolò and his uncle Maffeo, was one of the first Westerners to travel the Silk Road to China (which he... Abu Abdullah Muhammad Ibn Battuta (February 24, 1304 - 1377) was a Moroccan Berber traveller and explorer. ...

Civil engineering & architecture

The Indus Valley Civilization existed along the Indus River in present-day Pakistan. The Mohenjo-daro ruins pictured above were once the center of this ancient society.

Further information: Indus Valley Civilization, and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]]

India’s urban civilization is traceable to Mohenjodaro and Harappa, now in Pakistan, where planned urban townships existed 5000 years ago. From then on, Indian architecture and civil engineering continued to develop, and was manifestated temples, palaces and forts across the Indian peninsula and neighbouring regions. Architecture and civil engineering was known as sthapatya-kala, literally "the art of constructing". This work is copyrighted. ... This work is copyrighted. ... The Indus River in northern Pakistan, near the rock Aornus. ... Mohenjo-daro (literally, mound of the dead), like Harappa, was a city of the Indus Valley civilization. ... Full extent of the civilization. ... Mohenjo-daro (literally, mound of the dead), like Harappa, was a city of the Indus Valley civilization. ... Conception of ancient Harappas Mound E Gateway [1] Harappa is a city in Punjab, northeast Pakistan, located beside a former course of the Ravi River; about 35km southwest of Sahiwal. ... The Parthenon on top of the Acropolis, Athens, Greece Table of architecture, Cyclopaedia, 1728 The following article focuses on built environment, the architecture of spaces designed for human habitation. ... The Falkirk Wheel in Scotland. ... The Akshardham Hindu temple, Delhi, India The word temple has different meanings in the fields of architecture, religion, geography, anatomy, and education. ... The quintessential medieval European palace: Palais de la Cité, in Paris, the royal palace of France. ... Fortifications (Latin fortis, strong, and facere, to make) are military constructions designed for defensive warfare. ...

During the Kushan Empire and Mauryan Empire, Indian architecture and civil engineering reached regions like Baluchistan and Afghanistan. Statues of Buddha were cut out, covering entire mountain cliffs, like in Buddhas of Bamiyan, Afghanistan. Over a period of time, ancient Indian art of construction blended with Greek styles and spread to Central Asia. Boundary of the Kushan empire, c. ... The Mauryan empire (321 to 185 BCE), at its largest extent around 230 BCE. The Lion Capital of Asoka, erected around 250 BCE. It is the emblem of India. ... Baluchistan (or Balochistan), also known as Greater Baluchistan is an arid region of south Asia, presently split between Iran, Pakistan and Afghanistan. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... One of the Buddhas of Bamiyan before complete destruction, Afghanistan The Buddhas of Bamiyan were two monumental statues of standing Buddhas carved into the side of a cliff in the Bamiyan valley of central Afghanistan, situated 230 km (143 miles) northwest of Kabul at an altitude of 2500 meters (8... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ...

On the east, Buddhism took Indian style architecture and civil engineering to places like Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Malaysia, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, Burma, China, Korea and Japan. Angkor Wat is a testimony to the contribution of Indian civil engineering and architecture to Cambodian Khmer heritage. Buddhism (more correctly Pali Buddhadhamma or Sanskrit Buddhadharma) is a religion and philosophy based on the teachings of the Buddha, Siddhārtha Gautama, a prince of the Shakyas, whose lifetime is traditionally given as 566 to 486 BCE. Buddhism spread throughout the ancient Indian sub-continent in the five centuries... Korea (see Names of Korea) refers to the civilization and geographical area situated on the Korean Peninsula in East Asia, bordering China to the northwest and Russia to the northeast, and Japan to the southeast across the Korea Strait. ... The main entrance to the temple proper, seen from the eastern end of the Naga causeway Angkor Wat (or Angkor Vat) is a temple at Angkor, Cambodia, built for king Suryavarman II in the early 12th century as his state temple and capital city. ... The Khmer people are the main ethnic group in Cambodia, accounting for 90% of the 13 million people in the country. ...

In mainland India, there are several ancient architectural marvels, including World Heritage Sites like Ajanta, Ellora, Khajuraho, Mahabodhi Temple, Sanchi, Brihadisvara Temple and Mahabalipuram. Ajanta takes the name after the village Ajinţhā in Aurangabad district in the state of Maharashtra(N. lat. ... Kailasanatha Temple Ellora is an ancient village 30 km from the city of Aurangabad in the Indian state of Maharashtra famous for its magnificent rock cut architecture comprising of Buddhist, Hindu and Jaina cave temples and monasteries built between the 6th and 10th century A.D. These structures were excavated... Sculpture from a temple at Khajuraho Hermit monk performing auparashtika on a princely visitor. ... The Mahabodhi Temple is a Buddhist temple in Bodh Gaya, the location where Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha, attained enlightenment. ... Sanchi is a small village of India, located 46 km north east of Bhopal, in the central part of the state of Madhya Pradesh. ... The Brihadisvara temple is an ancient Hindu temple located at Thanjavur in the state of Tamil Nadu, India. ... Mahabalipuram (also known as Mamallapuram) is a 7th century port city of the South Indian dynasty of the Pallavas around 60 km south from the city of Chennai in Tamil Nadu. ...

Shipbuilding & navigation

Further information: Indus Valley Civilization#Trade and Lothal

The science of shipbuilding and navigation were well-known to ancient Indians. Sanskrit and Pali texts are replete with maritime references. Indians, particularly from coastal regions, traded with several nations across the Bay of Bengal like Cambodia, Java, Sumatra, Borneo, even China and South America, and across the Arabian Sea like Arabia, Egypt and Persia. A panel found in Mohenjodaro depicts a sailing craft, and thousands of years later Ajanta murals also depict a sea-faring ship. Full extent of the civilization. ... Ancient Lothal as envisaged by the Archaeological Survey of India. ... Men from Francisco de Orellanas expedition building a small brigantine, the San Pedro, to be used in the search for food Shipbuilding is the construction of ships. ... There are several traditions of navigation. ... For the town and district in Rajasthan, see Pali, Rajasthan For the Ganapati temple of pali and place in Maharastra, see Ballaleshwar Pali Pāli (Devanagari पालि) is a Middle Indo-Aryan dialect or prakrit. ... From the latin maritimus, maritime refers to things relating to the sea. ... A map showing the location of the Bay of Bengal. ... Map of Java Java (Indonesian, Javanese, and Sundanese: Jawa) is an island of Indonesia, and the site of its capital city, Jakarta. ... Sumatra (also spelled Sumatara and Sumatera) is the sixth largest island of the world (approximately 470,000 km²) and is the 3rd largest island of Indonesia after Kalimantan and New Guinea. ... Borneo and Sulawesi. ... South America South America is a continent crossed by the equator, with most of its area in the Southern Hemisphere. ... Map of the Arabian Sea. ... The Arabian Peninsula The Arabian Peninsula is a mainly desert peninsula in Southwest Asia at the junction of Africa and Asia and an important part of the greater Middle East. ... Mohenjo-daro (literally, mound of the dead), like Harappa, was a city of the Indus Valley civilization. ... Ajanta takes the name after the village Ajinţhā in Aurangabad district in the state of Maharashtra(N. lat. ...

Even around circa 500 AD, sextants and mariner’s compass were not unknown to ancient Indian shipbuilders and navigators. J.L. Reid, a member of the Institute of Naval Architects and Shipbuilders, England, around the beginning of the 20th century wrote in the Bombay Gazetteer (Volume XIII, Part II, Appendix A) that "The early Hindu astrologers are said to have used the magnet, in fixing the North and East, in laying foundations, and other religious ceremonies. The Hindu compass was an iron fish that floated in a vessel of oil, pointing north. The fact of this older Hindu compass seems placed beyond doubt by the Sanskrit word Maccha-Yantra ("fish-machine"), which Molesworth calls "mariner's compass". For other uses, see Sextant (disambiguation). ... Compass in a wooden box A compass (or mariners compass) is a navigational instrument for finding directions on the earth. ... Royal motto (French): Dieu et mon droit (Translated: God and my right) Englands location (dark green) within the British Isles Languages English (de facto) Capital London de facto Largest city London Area – Total Ranked 1st UK 130,395 km² Population – Total (mid-2004) – Total (2001 Census) – Density Ranked 1st... (19th century - 20th century - 21st century - more centuries) Decades: 1900s 1910s 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s As a means of recording the passage of time, the 20th century was that century which lasted from 1901–2000 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar (1900–1999 in the... Do you mean: Lt-Gen George Molesworth (1890-1968) Nigel Molesworth, the protagonist of the Molesworth series of books written by Geoffrey Willans, with cartoons by Ronald Searle Molesworth, the town in Huntingdonshire, UK This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share...

Games & sports

Several games now familiar across the world originated in India: chess, ludo (including snakes and ladders), and playing cards. The epic Mahabharata (variously dated around 800 to 1000 BC) narrates an incident where a game called Chaturanga was played between two groups of warring cousins. In some form or the other, the game continued till it evolved into chess. H. J. R. Murry, in his book A History of Chess, concluded that "chess is a descendant of an Indian game played in the 7th century AD". The Encyclopædia Britannica states, "we find the best authorities agreeing that chess existed in India before it is known to have been played anywhere else." This article is about a recreational activity. ... Listen to this article · (info) This audio file was created from an article revision dated 2006-03-08, and does not reflect subsequent edits to the article. ... A ludo game Ludo (from Latin ludus, game) is a simple childrens board game for two to four players, in which the players race their four tokens from start to finish according to die rolls. ... Snakes and ladders is a classic childrens board game played between 2 or more players on a playing board with numbered grid squares. ... Set of 52 playing cards Some typical Anglo-American playing cards. ... The Mahabharata (Devanagari: महाभारत, phonetically Mahābhārata - see note), sometimes just called Bharata, is one of the two major ancient Sanskrit epics of India, the other being the Ramayana. ... Chaturanga. ... Listen to this article · (info) This audio file was created from an article revision dated 2006-03-08, and does not reflect subsequent edits to the article. ... 1913 advertisement for the 11th edition, with the slogan When in doubt — look it up in the Encyclopædia Britannica The Encyclopædia Britannica (properly spelt with æ, the ae-ligature) was first published in 1768–1771 as The Britannica was an important early English-language general encyclopedia, and is still...

The game of cards also developed in ancient India. Abul Fazal was a scholar in the court of Mughal emperor Akbar. His book, Ain-e-Akbari, which mirrors life of that time, records game of cards is of Indian origins.

Kalaripayattu martial arts are native to Kerala State. Kalaripayattu consists of a series of intricate movements that train the body and mind. It is believed to have been the predecessor of Shaolin martial arts. Hawaiian State Grappling Championships. ... Kerala (IPA: ; Malayalam: േകരളം — ) is a state on the tropical Malabar Coast of southwestern India. ... For the style associated with Gu Ruzhang, see Northern Shaolin (martial art). ...

See also

• History of mathematics
• History of astronomy

The word mathematics comes from the Greek μάθημα (máthema) which means science, knowledge, or learning; μαθηματικός (mathematikós) means fond of learning. Today, the term refers to a specific body of knowledge - the rigorous, deductive study of quantity, structure, space, and change. ... Astronomy is probably the oldest of the natural sciences, dating back to antiquity, with its origins in the religious practices of pre-history: vestiges of these are still found in astrology, a discipline long interwoven with astronomy, and not completely separate from it until about 1750‑1800 in the Western...

External links

• History Of Indian Science & Technology
• Ancient India's Contribution to World's culture
• Indian physics
• Seafaring in ancient India
• Amazing Sciences from India
• india's traditional flying machines