NationMaster - Encyclopedia: Indonesian War of Independence

The Indonesian National Revolution or Indonesian War of Independence was an armed conflict and diplomatic struggle between Indonesia and the Netherlands that took place between the time of Indonesia's declaration of independence in 1945 and the Netherlands' recognition of Indonesia's independence in 1949. Image File history File links Crystal_128_clock. ... Image File history File links Unbalanced_scales. ... The nation-state known in modern times as Indonesia encompasses an archipelago of 17,508 islands (6,000 inhabited) stretching along the Equator. ... Image File history File links Historyofindonesia. ... Map of Southeast Asia at end of 12th century. ... At a point in time when Sri Vijaya had been the established leader in the Southeast Asian region for about 100 years, the Sailendra Kingdom of Java emerged. ... Mataram was an Indianized kingdom based in Central Java between the 8th and 10th centuries CE. The centre of the kingdom was moved from Central Java to East Java by Mpu Sindok. ... Kediri was a Hindu kingdom based in East Java from 1045 to 1221. ... This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ... The Majapahit Empire was an Indianized kingdom based in eastern Java from 1293 to around 1500. ... The Sultanate of Demak was founded in the 16th century by Raden Patah (1475-1518), once a vassal of the declining Majapahit Empire. ... This article is about a historic kingdom on Java in what is now Indonesia. ... The Dutch East Indies, or Netherlands East Indies, (Dutch: Nederlands-IndiÃ«) was the name of the colonies set up by the Dutch East India Company, which came under administration of the Netherlands during the 19th century (see Indonesia). ... Anglo-Dutch Java War in 1810-1811 was a war between Great Britain and Netherlands fought entirely on Island of Java in colonial Indonesia The governor-general of the Dutch East Indies, Herman Willem Daendels (1762_1818), fortified the island of Java against possible British attack. ... The Padri War also called Minangkabau War is the name given to the skirmishes fought by Dutch troops from 1821 to 1837 in West Sumatra, Indonesia. ... The Java War was fought in Java between 1825 and 1830. ... The Aceh War (also Achinese War) took place from 1873-1904 between the Netherlands and the people of Aceh in Sumatra as the Dutch attempted to colonize this independent state on the northern-most tip of Sumatra. ... The period of the Dutch Ethical Policy and Indonesian National Revival was a period in Indonesian history spanning from 1899 until the Japanese Invasion in 1942. ... The Netherlands East Indies campaign was the shortlived defence of the Netherlands East Indies by Allied forces, against invasion by the Empire of Japan in 1941-42. ... The Japanese occupation of Indonesia refers to the period between 1942 and 1945, during World War II, when the Empire of Japan ruled Indonesia. ... The Indonesian Declaration of Independence was officially read at exactly 10. ... The Asian-African Conference was a meeting of Asian and African states, most of which were newly independent, organized by Egypt, Indonesia, Burma, Ceylon (Sri Lanka), India, and Pakistan. ... The Indonesia-Malaysia confrontation was an intermittent war over the future of the island of Borneo, between British-backed Malaysia and Indonesia in 1962â€“1966. ... The New Order (Indonesian: Orde Baru) is the term coined by former Indonesian President Suharto to characterize his regime as he came to power in 1966. ... The overthrow of Sukarno and the violence that followed it was a conflict in Indonesia from 1965 to 1966 between forces loyal to then-President Sukarno and the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI) and forces loyal to a right-wing military faction led by General Abdul Haris Nasution and Maj. ... Act of Free Choice (Indonesian: Penentuan Pendapat Rakyat [PEPERA]) was the title of a 1969 referendum in the former Dutch territory of Western New Guinea, to determine whether the territory would become part of Indonesia or maintain independence. ... The Reformation (in bahasa Indonesia Reformasi) is the name commonly used for the present era in the history of Indonesia. ... The Indonesian 1998 Revolution is the term given to a series of protests and political manoeuverings that brought about the end of the rule of the three-decade long New Order government of the autocratic President Suharto of Indonesia. ... Indonesia was seriously affected by the earthquake and tsunami created by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake on 26 December 2004, swamping the northern and western coastal areas of Sumatra, and the smaller outlying islands off Sumatra. ...

The struggle lasted four years and comprised sporadic but bloody armed conflict, internal Indonesian political upheavals, and two international diplomatic interventions. Dutch forces were too weak to prevail over the inexperienced but determined Indonesians, but strong enough to resist being expelled.^[1] Thus, the Republic of Indonesia ultimately won the Revolution by international persuasion as much as it did through Indonesian determination in the armed conflicts on Java and other islands. Java (Indonesian, Javanese, and Sundanese: Jawa) is an island of Indonesia and the site of its capital city, Jakarta. ...

Background

Nationalistic sentiment and movements for Indonesian independence from Dutch colonialists developed rapidly in the first half of the twentieth century, and crystallised by the emergence of organizations such as Budi Utomo, the Indonesian National Party (PNI), Sarekat Islam, and the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI). Budi Utomo, Sarekat Islam and others pursued their nationalist goals through strategies of co-operation by joining the Volskraad (People's Council) in the hope that Indonesian would be granted self-rule. ^[2] Others chose a non-cooperative strategy demanding the freedom of self-government from the Dutch East Indies colony.^[3] The most notable of these were Soekarno and Mohammad Hatta, two students and nationalist leaders who had benefited from the educational reforms of the Dutch Ethical Policy. The period of the Dutch Ethical Policy and Indonesian National Revival was a period in Indonesian history spanning from 1899 until the Japanese Invasion in 1942. ... The Japanese occupation of Indonesia refers to the period between 1942 and 1945, during World War II, when the Empire of Japan ruled Indonesia. ... EugÃ¨ne Delacroixs Liberty Leading the People, symbolizing French nationalism during the July Revolution. ... The Dutch East Indies, or Netherlands East Indies, (Dutch: Nederlands-IndiÃ«) was the name of the colonies set up by the Dutch East India Company, which came under administration of the Netherlands during the 19th century (see Indonesia). ... student-organized priyayi ethno-political party opposing the colonial status quo in Indonesia, but advocating co-operation with the Dutch Government. ... Indonesian National Party (Partai Nasional Indonesia/PNI) is the oldest political party in Indonesia, established on 4 July 1927. ... Sarekat Islam, formerly Sarekat Dagang Islam, is an Indonesian organization. ... Communist Party of Indonesia (Partai Komunis Indonesia), was founded in 1920 in Semarang, as the successor of the Indische Sociaal-Democratische Vereeniging (ISDV, Indian Social Democratic Association). ... The Dutch East Indies, or Netherlands East Indies, (Dutch: Nederlands-IndiÃ«) was the name of the colonies set up by the Dutch East India Company, which came under administration of the Netherlands during the 19th century (see Indonesia). ... Sukarno Sukarno (June 6, 1901 - June 21, 1970) was the first President of Indonesia. ... Mohammad Hatta Mohammad Hatta (born August 12, 1902, Bukittinggi, West Sumatra, Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia); died March 14, 1980, Jakarta) was Indonesias first vice president, after being the countrys Prime Minister. ... The period of the Dutch Ethical Policy and Indonesian National Revival was a period in Indonesian history spanning from 1899 until the Japanese Invasion in 1942. ...

The nationalist movement gained momentum when the Netherlands came under German occupation during World War II. The Dutch had little ability to defend their colony against the Japanese army. In November 1941, Madjlis Rakjat Indonesia, an Indonesian organization of religious, political and trade union organizations, submitted a memorandum to the Dutch East Indies Government requesting the mobilization of the Indonesian people in the face of the war threat.^[4] The memorandum was refused because the Government did not consider the Madjlis Rakyat Indonesia to be representative of the people. Within only four months, the Japanese had occupied the archipelago. Combatants Major Allied powers: United Kingdom Soviet Union United States Republic of China and others Major Axis powers: Nazi Germany Italy Japan and others Commanders Winston Churchill Joseph Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Harry Truman Chiang Kai-Shek Adolf Hitler Benito Mussolini Hideki Tojo Casualties Military dead: 17,000,000 Civilian dead... The Imperial Japanese Army (: å¤§æ—¥æœ¬å¸åœ‹é™¸è» Shinjitai: å¤§æ—¥æœ¬å¸å›½é™¸è» Dai-Nippon Teikoku Rikugun) was the official ground based armed force of Japan from 1867 to 1945 when it was Imperial Japan. ...

Following the end of the war in Europe, 28 Indonesian members of the Volksraad petitioned the Dutch government in exile to clarify the implications for Indonesia of the Atlantic Charter.^[4] They were informed that there was no significant item of the charter referring to the Dutch colonies.^[4] With the Japanese on the brink of losing the war, the Dutch wanted to re-establish their authority in the archipelago, and requested the Japanese army to "preserve law and order" in Indonesia.^[4] The Japanese, however, were in favor of helping Indonesian nationalists prepare for self-government. The Dutch government in exile was the government of the Netherlands, headed by Queen Wilhelmina, that fled to London after the German invasion of the country at the outset of World War II. Prior to 1940, the Netherlands were a neutral country, generally on good terms with Germany. ... Churchill meets FDR aboard USS Augusta at their 1941 secret meeting at Argentia, Newfoundland. ...

Independence declared

Indonesia proclaimed its independence on 17 August 1945, two days after the Japanese Emperor’s surrender in the Pacific. The following day, Soekarno was declared President, Hatta the Vice President. By the end of August a central Republican government was established in Jakarta. It adopted a constitution that had been drafted by the Preparatory Committe for Indonesian Independence during the Japanese occupation. Sjahrir was appointed Prime Minister the following November. With elections yet to be held, a Central Indonesian National Committee (KNIP) was appointed to assist the President and similar National Committees were established at provincial and regency levels. The Indonesian Declaration of Independence was officially read at exactly 10. ... August 17 is the 229th day of the year (230th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. ... Year 1945 (MCMXLV) was a common year starting on Monday (the link is to a full 1945 calendar). ... Victory over Japan Day or V-J Day is the celebration of the August 15, 1945 Surrender of Japan and the end of World War II. In Japan, the day is known as, Shusen-kinenbi, which literally means the Memorial day for the end of the war. This is commemorated... List of Presidents of Indonesia Categories: Indonesia | Lists of office-holders ... Dr. Mohammad Hatta (1945 - 1956) Sri Sultan Hamengkubuwono IX (1973 -1978) Adam Malik (1978 - 1983) Umar Wirahadikusumah (1983 - 1988) Sudharmono (1988 - 1993) Try Sutrisno (1993 - 1998) Jusuf Habibie (1998) Megawati Sukarnoputri (1999 - 2001) Hamzah Haz (2001 - 2004) Jusuf Kalla (2004 - 2009) List of Presidents of Indonesia Categories: | | ... Sutan Sjahrir (5 March 1909 â€” 9 April 1966) was the first prime minister of Indonesia, after a career as a key Indonesian nationalist organizer in the 1930s and 1940s. ...

The Dutch, however, still claimed sovereignty over Indonesia and sought to re-establish their colony. They wanted to re-gain their power, re-establish the international cartel in petroleum, sugar and tin, in cooperation with the British.^[4] Furthermore, the Dutch East Indies administration had just received a ten million dollar loan from the United States to finance its return to Indonesia.^[4] A cartel is a group of legally independent producers whose goal it is to fix prices, limit supplies and limit competition. ... Pumpjack pumping an oil well near Sarnia, Ontario Ignacy Åukasiewicz - inventor of the refining of kerosene from crude oil. ... Magnification of typical sugar showing monoclinic hemihedral crystalline stucture. ... General Name, Symbol, Number tin, Sn, 50 Chemical series poor metals Group, Period, Block 14, 5, p Appearance silvery lustrous gray Atomic mass 118. ...

In the weeks after the Japanese surrender, power vacuums existed, both from outside and within Indonesia, creating an atmosphere of uncertainty, but also one of opportunity.^[5] External power had shifted; it would be weeks before Allied Forces entered Indonesia as the Dutch were too weakened and did not return as a military force until early 1946. The Japanese on the other hand were required by the terms of the surrender to both lay down there arms and maintain order; a contradiction that some resolved by handing weapons to Japanese-trained Indonesians.^[5] The Allies of World War II were the countries officially opposed to the Axis Powers during the Second World War. ...

In the self-created Indonesian army, Japanese-trained Indonesian officers prevailed over those trained by the former Dutch. Thirty year-old former school teacher Sudirman was elected 'commander-in-chief' at the first meeting of Division Commanders in Yogyakarta on 11 November 1945.^[6] During the Revolution, the Army was to often behave independently of the Republican Government and any of its institutions; conduct it has continued through to recent times.^[6] General Sudirman General Sudirman (January 24, 1916 - January 29, 1950; also spelled Soedirman) was the military commander of Republican Indonesian forces during Indonesias fight for independence from the Dutch in the 1940s. ... The Special Region of Yogyakarta (Indonesian: Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta, or DIY), is a province of Indonesia on the island of Java. ...

Within Indonesia, the newly formed government quickly established its rule over Java, Sumatera, and Madura. The Indonesian government also appointed governors for Borneo, Celebes, Mollucas, and Lesser Sunda Islands; however they were quickly arrested by incoming Dutch troops. The influence of the newly-proclaimed Indonesian government is strongest on Java, Bali, Sumatera, and Madura which was ruled by the Japanese army during World War II, and weakest on the other islands which was ruled by the Japanese navy. This is because the Japanese army allowed nationalist agitation in the area they ruled, while the Japanese navy discouraged such activities. Furthermore, communists and islamists would also challenge the legitimacy of the new government. ^[7] While some group chose to obey the government although they disagreed such as Sudirman or Nasution^{[citation needed]}, while other chose to kidnap member of cabinet such as what had been done by Tan Malaka, while others chose to declare their own government such as Kartosoewirjo from Darul Islam and Musso from Indonesian Communist Party. This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... This article is about political Islamism. ... Tan Malaka, portrait as published in his autobiography Tan Malaka (1896/1897â€“c. ...

Battle of Surabaya

The Battle of Surabaya occurred in November 1945 and was the heaviest battle of the Revolution and became a national symbol of resistance.^[8] In Surabaya, news about independence proclamation was first heard on Saturday, 18 August 1945, over Radio Japan after a youth group confiscated it. On the next Monday, 20 August 1945, the Soeara Asia newspaper published the full text of the proclamation for the first time. The youth groups began to take action regarding the newly declared independence by seizing arms and ammunitions from Japanese. On 22 August, an instruction was received from Jakarta to set up two new organizations called Komite National Indonesia (KNI) or the Indonesia National Committee and Badan Keamanan Rakyat (BKR) or the People Security Council. By the end of October, the youth groups had mobilized their strong foothold in Surabaya such that prior the Allied Force arrival, the city was described as "a strong unified fortress".^[9] This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Surabaya (formerly Soerabaja) is Indonesias second-largest city, and the capital of the province of East Java. ... August 18 is the 230th day of the year (231st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1945 (MCMXLV) was a common year starting on Monday (the link is to a full 1945 calendar). ... August 20 is the 232nd day of the year (233rd in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. ... Year 1945 (MCMXLV) was a common year starting on Monday (the link is to a full 1945 calendar). ... In anatomy, an arm is one of the upper limbs of a two-legged animal. ... Boxes of ammunition clog a warehouse in Baghdad Ammunition is a generic military term meaning (the assembly of) a projectile and its propellant. ... August 22 is the 234th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (235th in leap years), with 131 days remaining. ... Jakarta (also Djakarta or DKI Jakarta), formerly known as Sunda Kelapa, Jayakarta and Batavia is the capital and largest city of Indonesia. ... The Allies of World War II were the countries officially opposed to the Axis Powers during the Second World War. ...

In October, skirmishes broke out between the armed Indonesian republican militia led by revolutionary leaders such as Bung Tomo, and European internees that were returning to the Surabaya following the Japanese surrender. Fighting worsened when British Indian troops landed in the city in support of the Netherlands. Sukarno and Hatta arrived in the city to negotiate a ceasefire between the Republicans and the British forces led by General Mallaby. Following the killing of Mallaby on 30 October, ^[9] the British troops sent more troops into the city from 10 November under the cover of air attacks. The poorly armed Republicans fought for three weeks and thousands died as the population fled to the countryside before the European forces captured the city. Sutomo (October 3, 1920 - October 7, 1981; also known as Bung Tomo) is best known for his role as an Indonesian military leader during the Indonesian War of Independence against the Netherlands. ... Surabaya (formerly Soerabaja) is Indonesias second-largest city, and the capital of the province of East Java. ... Sukarno (June 6, 1901 â€“ June 21, 1970) was the first President of Indonesia. ... Hatta can mean:- Hatta was an Arab village in Palestine (now Israel): it was abandoned in 1948. ...

Despite the military defeat suffered by the Republicans, the battle and defence mounted by the Indonesians galvanised the nation and helped garner international support for Indonesia independence. For the Dutch it removed any doubt that the Republic was not simply a gang of collaborators without popular support. It also had the effect of convincing Britain that wisdom lay on the side of neutrality in the Revolution;^[8] within a few years, in fact, Britain openly supported the Republican cause in the United Nations. 10 November is now celebrated in Indonesia as 'Heroes Day'.

The return of the Dutch

In Bogor, near Jakarta, and in Balikpapan, in Kalimantan, Republican officials were imprisoned. In preparation for Dutch occupation of Sumatra, its largest cities Palembang and Medan were bombed. In December 1946, DST (Dutch Special Troops) led by Captain Raymond 'Turk' Westerling was accused of trying to pacify the southern Sulawesi region using arbitrary terror techniques, which were copied by other anti-Republicans. As many as 3,000 Republican militia and their supporters were killed in a few weeks.^[10] In a number of the outer islands, where Republican sentiment was not always as strong as it was on Java, at least among the elite, the Dutch were attempting to form puppet states which included the December 1946 establishment of the State of East Indonesia (NIT). Puncak pass area, looking north towards Bogor over extensive tea plantations Bogor is a city in West Java with a population of approximately 800,000 people in CBD area and 2,000,000 in suburban area, bringing a total of 3 million population. ... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... Kalimantan is the Indonesian part of the island of Borneo. ... Sumatra (also spelled Sumatera) is the sixth largest island of the world (approximately 470,000 kmÂ²) and is the largest island entirely in Indonesia (two larger islands, Borneo and New Guinea, are partially in Indonesia). ... Location of Palembang Palembang is a city in the south of the Indonesian island of Sumatra. ... Medan is the capital city of North Sumatra province, Indonesia. ... Raymond Pierre Paul Westerling (August 31, 1919 - November 26, 1987), nicknamed the Turk, was a Dutch commander. ...

The Republican government in Jakarta, led by Sukarno and Hatta urged calm, but pemuda in favour of armed struggle saw the older leadership as dithering and betraying the revolution. Conflicts amongst Indonesians broke out around the country. After the Dutch took over Jakarta, the Republican government was moved to Yogyakarta in January 1946. Sri Sultan Hamengkubuwono IX of Yogyakarta went on to play a leading role in the Revolution that would result in the city being granted its own Special Territory status. The Special Region of Yogyakarta (Indonesian: Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta, or DIY), is a province of Indonesia on the island of Java. ... Sri Sultan Hamengkubuwono IX was born in Sompilan, Ngasem, Yogyakarta in 12 April 1912. ...

The last British troops left Indonesia in November 1946, but by this time 55,000 Dutch troops had landed in Java.

Bandung Sea of Fire

An ultimatum was given by the British commander in Bandung for the Indonesian combatants in Bandung to leave the city. In response, the southern part of Bandung was deliberately burned down in an act of defiance as they left on March 24th 1946; an event which came to be known as Bandung Lautan Api (or Bandung Sea of Fire)^[11]. A heroic song "Halo-halo Bandung" was sung by these hundreds of patriots. Bandung is also the name of a Malaysian drink. ... Bandung is also the name of a Malaysian drink. ...

During the evacuations in March 1946, Mohammad Toha, a member of Indonesian militia, smuggled several sticks of dynamite past Japanese and Dutch troops, and into the Dutch military Headquarters in Dayeuh Kolot. He detonated the dynamite in warehouses of ammunition, killing himself and several Dutch, Japanese troops in the area.^{[citation needed]} The explosion created a small lake ("situ") in Dayeuh Kolot. The main street in the area is called "Mohammad Toha Street". Mohammad Toha was an Indonesian guerilla revered as a hero and martyr for his act of self-sacrifice during the Indonesian War of Independence. ...

Linggarjati Agreement and Dutch 'police action'

In a British-brokered diplomatic intervention, The Netherlands and the Republic signed an agreement at Linggarjati on 15 November 1946. The agreement required Dutch recognition of Republic authority over Java and Sumatra. Both parties agreed to the formation of the 'United States of Indonesia' by 1 January 1949, a semi-autonomous federal state with the Queen of the Netherlands as its head. The Republican-controlled Java and Sumatra would be one its states, alongside areas that were generally under stronger Dutch influence: southern Kalimantan; and the 'Great East' consisting of Sulawesi, Maluku, the Lesser Sunda Islands, and West New Guinea. The KNIP did not ratify the agreement until March 1947, and neither the republic nor the Dutch were happy with it.^[6] The agreement was signed on 25 May, 1947. Both sides soon accused each other of violating the agreement. The Dutch were concerned about the fate of its citizens, most of who had been held under deplorable conditions in concentration camps by the Japanese, and accused the Indonesians of not cooperating in liberating these prisoners.^{[citation needed]} The Linggadjati Agreement was a political accord concluded on November 15, 1946 by the Dutch administration and the unilaterally declared Republic of Indonesia. ... Motto: Bhinneka Tunggal Ika (Old Javanese/Kawi: Unity in Diversity) National ideology: Pancasila Anthem: Indonesia Raya Capital Jakarta Largest city Jakarta Official language(s) Indonesian (Bahasa Indonesia, a standardized dialect of the Malay language) Government President Republic Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono Independence - Declared - Recognised From Netherlands 17 August 1945 27 December... The word federal in a general sense refers to the nature of an agreement between or among two or more states, nations, or other groups to merge into a union in which control of common affairs is held by a central authority created by and with the consent of the... The Netherlands have been an independent monarchy since 1815, and have been governed by members of the House of Orange-Nassau since. ... A concentration camp is a large detention centre created for political opponents, aliens, specific ethnic or religious groups, civilians of a critical war-zone, or other groups of people, often during a war. ...

The Dutch launched a major military campaign at midnight on 20 July 1947 with the intent of conquering the Republic. Claiming violations of the Linggajati Agreement the Dutch described the campaign as Politionele acties ('police actions') to restore law and order. Republican troops were driven out of Sumatra and eastern and western Java by Royal Netherlands East Indies Army (KNIL) troops. The Republicans were confined to the Yogyakarta region of central Java. To maintain their force of 100,000 troops in Java, the Dutch gained control of lucrative Sumatran plantations, and oil and coal installations, and in Java, control of all deep water ports. There were atrocities and violations of human rights in many forms by both sides in the conflict.^{[citation needed]} Some 6,000 Dutch and 150,000 Indonesians are estimated to have been killed.^{[citation needed]} The politionele acties (Dutch: police actions) were the two military operations that the Netherlands undertook on Java and Sumatra against the Republic of Indonesia to reestablish colonial rule after World War Two. ... KNIL is an acronym for Koninklijk Nederlands Indisch Leger or the Royal Netherlands Indies Army. ... Human rights are rights which some hold to be inalienable and belonging to all humans. ...

International reaction to the Dutch actions was negative. Newly-independent India and neighbouring Australia were particularly active in supporting the Republic's cause in the UN, as was the Soviet Union and, most significantly, the United States. Dutch ships continued to be boycotted from loading and unloading by Australian waterside workers since September 1945. The United Nations Security Council became directly involved in the conflict, establishing a Good Offices Committee to sponsor further negotiations, making the Dutch diplomatic position particularly difficult. A cease fire, called for by UN resolution, was ordered by the Dutch and Sukarno on 4 August 1946. The United Nations involvement lead to the Renville agreement in 1948.

Communist and Islamist insurgencies

On the 3 November 1945, Vice President Hatta proclaimed the right of the people to form political parties, and by early 1946 the main parties of the period were forming recognisable groupings. The Indonesian Communist Party (PKI) had been reconstituted in October 1945. In January 1946 the Indonesian Nationalist Party (PNI), Sukarno's former party, was also revived. The main Islamic political party was the Masyumi made up largely of the Nahdlatul Ulama and Muhammadiyah. By November 1945, however, control of Masyumi had been won by urban 'Modernist' politicians. The Republican army was also emerging as a political force but was heavily factionalised. The independence movement was far from united and on several occasions civil war threatened to erupt. Communist Party of Indonesia (Partai Komunis Indonesia), was founded in 1920 in Semarang, as the successor of the Indische Sociaal-Democratische Vereeniging (ISDV, Indian Social Democratic Association). ... Indonesian National Party (Partai Nasional Indonesia/PNI) is the oldest political party in Indonesia, established on 4 July 1927. ... The Nahdatul Ulama, known as Nahdlatul Ulama or NU, is a traditionalist conservative Sunni Islam group in Indonesia. ... Muhammadiyah (full name: Persyarikatan Muhammadiyah) is a moderate Islamic organization in Indonesia. ...

On September 18, 1948, an ‘Indonesian Soviet Republic’ was declared in Madiun, east of Yogyakarta, by members of the PKI and the Indonesian Socialist Party (PSI) led by Musso. Judging the times as right for a a proletarian uprising, it was intended as rallying center for revolt against "Sukarno-Hatta, the slaves of the Japanese and America".^[5] Madiun, however, was won back by Republican forces within a few weeks and Musso killed. RM Suryo, the governor of East Java, several police officers and religious leaders were killed by the rebels. This ended a perilous distraction for the Revolution,^[5] and significantly, it turned vague American sympathies based on anti-colonial sentiments into diplomatic support. The Republic was seen as being staunchly anti-communist and a potential ally in the brewing global Cold War between the American-led 'free world' and the Soviet-led bloc.^[13] Soviet redirects here. ... Madiun uprising is seen in Pramoedya Ananta Toers works Pramoedya Ananta Toer is probably the best known internationally of all Indonesian writers. ... Socialist Party of Indonesia (Partai Socialis Indonesia), a political party founded by Sjahrir. ... Musso (1897 - October 31, 1948) was an Indonesian communist politician who was leader of the Indonesian Communist Party in the 1920s and again during the Madiun rebellion of 1948. ... The proletariat (from Latin proles, offspring) is a term used to identify a lower social class; a member of such a class is called a proletarian. ... The Cold War was the period of protracted conflict and competition between the United States and the Soviet Union and their allies from the late 1940s until the late 1980s. ...

Due to Renville agreement, Siliwangi Division (Indonesian Army which based on West Java) led by Nasution, took a long march in February 1948. Some of Indonesian Army which came from Hizbullah felt betrayed by Indonesian Government. Led by S M Kartosuwirjo, in Mei 1948, they declared Negara Islam Indonesia (Indonesian Islamic Country) or also known as Darul Islam. The Republican Government did not respond as they were focused on the threat from Dutch. Some leaders of Masjumi even sympathized with the rebellion. After the Republic regained all territories in December 1949, the government started to take Darul Islam seriously especially after some provinces declared their joining to be part of Darul Islam. The rebellion was finally subdued in 1962. This article does not cite its references or sources. ...

The Renville Agreement and the second 'Police Action'

The United Nations Security Council brokered the Renville Agreement, named after the U.S. Navy Ship Renville on which it was signed whilst moored in Jakarta Harbour. The agreement was ratified in January 1948 and recognised a cease-fire along the so-called 'van Mook line'; an artificial line which connected up the most advanced Dutch positions. Many Republican positions, however, were still held behind the Dutch lines. The apparent reasonableness of Republicans garnered much important American goodwill.^[14] The Renville Agreement was a political accord concluded on January 17, 1948 by the Dutch administration and the Republic of Indonesia. ...

Believing the Republic to be weakened by both the Darul Islam and Madiun insurgencies, the Dutch launched a military offensive known as the "2nd Police Action" or 'Operation Kraa'. Launched on December 18, 1948, the Yogyakarta was conquered by the next day and by the end of December, all major Republican held cities in Java and Sumatra were in Dutch hands. The President, Vice President, and all but 6 Republic of Indonesia ministers were captured by Dutch troops and exiled on the island of Bangka Island off the east coast of Sumatra. In Yogyakarta, Surakarta, and surrounding areas, Indonesian forces refused to surrender and continued to wage a guerrilla war under the leadership of Indonesian military chief of staff, General Sudirman who had escaped the Dutch offensives. The Special Region of Yogyakarta (Indonesian: Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta, or DIY), is a province of Indonesia on the island of Java. ... Bangka Island is an island lying east of Sumatra, Indonesia. ... General Sudirman General Sudirman (January 24, 1916 - January 29, 1950; also spelled Soedirman) was the military commander of Republican Indonesian forces during Indonesias fight for independence from the Dutch in the 1940s. ...

Once again, international opinion of the military campaigns was one of outrage, significantly in both the United Nations and the United States. United States aid specifically earmarked for the Netherlands' Indonesia efforts was immediately cancelled and pressure mounted within the American Congress for all United States aid to be cut off. This included Marshall Plan aid that was vital for Dutch post-World War II rebuilding and that had so far totalled US$ 1 billion.^[15] The Netherlands Government had spent an amount equivalent to almost half of this funding their campaigns in Indonesia. That United States aid could be being used to fund "a senile and ineffectual imperialism" encouraged many key voices in the United States, including those amongst the Republican Party, and from within American churches and NGOs to speak out in support of Indonesian independence.^[16] Type Bicameral Houses Senate House of Representatives President of the Senate Dick Cheney, R, since January 20, 2001 Speaker of the House Dennis Hastert, R, since January 6, 1999 Members 535 plus 4 Delegates and 1 Resident Commissioner Political groups (as of January 4, 2005 elections) Democratic Party Republican Party... Map of Cold-War era Europe showing countries that received Marshall Plan aid. ... For other uses, see Republican Party (disambiguation) or GOP (disambiguation). ...

RI Government in Exile

The Republic of Indonesia’s Strategy Council had prepared an emergency plan to create a "government in exile" in Sumatra or overseas. Mr Sjafruddin Prawiranegara, the Minister of Prosperity went to Bukittinggi, West Sumatra in preparation for this emergency plan. Before being captured by the Dutch, President Sukarno sent a telegraph message to Mr. Sjafruddin Prawiranegara in Bukittinggi giving him a mandate to create a "Republic of Indonesia government in exile" but this was not received until 1949. A similar telegraph was sent to Mr. Maramis, Indonesian Minister of Finance in Sri Lanka. Based on the emergency plan, after the Dutch invasion, on December 22, 1948, Mr. Sjafruddin Prawiranegara established a 'government in exile' called the 'Emergency Government of the Reupublic of Indonesia' (PDRI) in Bukittinggi, Sumatra. The leaders of the PDRI moved around West Sumatra in an effort to evade arrest by the Dutch who wanted abolish the PDRI. In 1949 the PDRI government contacted the leaders of Indonesian forces in Java and the six Republic of Indonesia government ministers in Java who had escaped arrest. City of Bukittinggi Bukittinggi (Indonesian for high hill) is one of the larger cities in West Sumatra, Indonesia, with a population of around 100,000 people. ... Motto: Tuah Sakato. ... City of Bukittinggi Bukittinggi (Indonesian for high hill) is one of the larger cities in West Sumatra, Indonesia, with a population of around 100,000 people. ...

Based on the Roem-Royen peace agreement on July 13, 1949, Dutch troops were to be pulled out from Republic of Indonesia regions and the Republic of Indonesia leaders were to be freed. The PDRI would therefore no longer be required, and Mr. Sjafruddin Prawiranegara disbanded PDRI and returned the mandate back to the President of RI.

Indonesian offensive at Yogyakarta

Following the 2nd ‘Police Action’, the Dutch claimed that the Republic of Indonesia was destroyed and now defunct.^{[citation needed]} In an attempt to disprove this, a plan orchestrated by General Sudirman and Sultan Hamengkubuwono IX, saw Indonesian troops and militia led by Lt. Colonel. Suharto attack Dutch positions in Yogyakarta at dawn on March 1, 1949. ^{[citation needed]} The Dutch were expelled from the city for six hours but reinforcements were brought in (tanks) from the nearby cities of Ambarawa and Semarang that afternoon. Indonesian fighters retreated at 12.00pm and the Dutch re-entered the city. The Indonesian attack known as '1 March General Attack’ is commemorated by a large monument in Yogyakarta. A similar attack against Dutch troops in Surakarta was led by Lt. Col. Slamet Riyadi on August 7, 1949.^{[citation needed]} ... Haji Mohammad Soeharto (born June 8, 1921), more commonly referred to as simply Soeharto (Suharto in the English-speaking world), is a former Indonesian military and political leader. ... Semarang is a city on the north coast of the island of Java, Indonesia. ... Surakarta (its formal name; locally it is referred to as Solo) is an Indonesian city of approximately 500,000 people located in Central Java. ...

Transfer of sovereignty

The resilience of the Indonesian Republican resistance and active international diplomacy set world opinion against the Dutch efforts to re-establish their colony.^[16] The newly appointed United States Secretary of State Dean Acheson pushed the Netherlands government into negotiations earlier recommended by the United Nations but until then defied by the Netherlands. At a round table conference in The Hague, the Netherlands finally recognised a new federal state known as the 'United States of Indonesia'. Sovereignty was formally transferred on the December 27, 1949, and the new state was immediately recognised by the United States. A number of the 'federal' states were created by the Netherlands since 1945 but these dissolved themselves into the Republic and on August 17, 1950, the fifth anniversary his proclamation of Indonesian independence, Sukarno proclaimed the Republic of Indonesia as a unitary state. Seal of the United States Department of State. ... Dean Acheson Dean Gooderham Acheson (April 11, 1893 â€“ October 12, 1971) was an American statesman and lawyer; as United States Secretary of State in the late 1940s he played the central role in defining American foreign policy for the Cold War. ... Arms of The Hague Flag of The city of The Hague. ... A federal state is one that brings together a number of different political communities with a common government for common purposes, and separate state or provincial or cantonal governments for the particular purposes of each community. ... Motto: Bhinneka Tunggal Ika (Old Javanese/Kawi: Unity in Diversity) National ideology: Pancasila Anthem: Indonesia Raya Capital Jakarta Largest city Jakarta Official language(s) Indonesian (Bahasa Indonesia, a standardized dialect of the Malay language) Government President Republic Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono Independence - Declared - Recognised From Netherlands 17 August 1945 27 December... December 27 is the 361st day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (362nd in leap years). ... 1949 (MCMXLIX) was a common year starting on Saturday (the link is to a full 1949 calendar). ... August 17 is the 229th day of the year (230th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 1950 (MCML) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will take you to calendar). ... A map showing the unitary states. ...

In the following decades, a diplomatic row over the officially recognized date of Indonesian independence persisted between the governments of Indonesia and the Netherlands. Indonesians commemorate the anniversary of 17 August 1945 - the day of Sukarno's proclamation of independence - as their official Independence Day. The Netherlands, on the other hand, for many decades recognized December 27, 1949 - the date of their official transfer of power - as the date of Indonesian independence. In 2005 the Netherlands Foreign Minister, Bernard Bot, officially accepted Indonesian independence as beginning on August 17, 1945; expressing regret for suffering during the war.^[18] The Indonesian Declaration of Independence was officially proclaimed at 10. ... December 27 is the 361st day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (362nd in leap years). ... 1949 (MCMXLIX) was a common year starting on Saturday (the link is to a full 1949 calendar). ... A minister for foreign affairs, or foreign minister, is a cabinet minister who helps form the governmental foreign policy of a sovereign nation. ... Dr. Bernard Bot, born November 21, 1937 is the current Minister of Foreign affairs of The Netherlands. ... August 17 is the 229th day of the year (230th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. ... Year 1945 (MCMXLV) was a common year starting on Monday (the link is to a full 1945 calendar). ...

References

General references and further reading

Anderson, Ben (1972). Java in a Time of Revolution: Occupation and Resistance, 1944-1946. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-0687-0.
Friend, Theodore (2003). Indonesian Destinies. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN0-674-01834-6.
Kahin, Audrey (1995). Regional Dynamics of the Indonesian Revolution. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0824809823.
http://countrystudies.us/indonesia/16.htm
J.G.A. Parrot, "Who killed Brigadier Mallaby"; Cornell University; "Indonesia Magazine", July 1976, pg. 91.
History of Surabaya. (Indonesian)
M.C. Ricklefs, "A History of Modern Indonesia Since c. 1200 Third Edition"; Palgrave Publisher, 2001

Notes

^ Friend, Theodore (2003). Indonesian Destinies. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, p.36. ISBN0-674-01834-6.
^ Amry Vandenbosch (1931). "Nationalism in Netherlands East India". Pacific Affairs 4 (12): 1051–1069.
^ George Mc.T Kahin (1980). "In Memoriam: Mohammad Hatta (1902-1980)". Indonesia: 113–120.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Charles Bidien (5 December 1945). "Independence the Issue". Far Eastern Survey 14 (24): 345–348.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Friend, Theodore (2003). Indonesian Destinies. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, p.32. ISBN0-674-01834-6.
^ ^a ^b ^c Friend, Theodore (2003). Indonesian Destinies. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, p.35. ISBN0-674-01834-6.
^
^ ^a ^b Ricklefs, M.C. (1993). A History of Modern Indonesia Since c.1300, 2nd Edition. London: MacMillan, p.217. ISBN 0-333-57689-6.
^ ^a ^b J. G. A. Parrott (October 1975). "Who Killed Brigadier Mallaby?". Indonesia 20: 87–111. Retrieved on 2006-11-27.
^ Ricklefs, M.C. (1993). A History of Modern Indonesia Since c.1300, 2nd Edition. London: MacMillan, p.224. ISBN 0-333-57689-6.
^ Sitaresmi, Ratnayu. "Social History of The Bandung Lautan Api (Bandung Sea of Fire), 24 March 1946" (pdf). Retrieved on 2008-08-22.
^ van Mook, H. J. (July 1949). "Indonesia". International Affairs 25 (3): p.278.
^ Ricklefs, M.C. (1993). A History of Modern Indonesia Since c.1300, 2nd Edition. London: MacMillan, p.230. ISBN 0-333-57689-6.
^ Ricklefs, M.C. (1993). A History of Modern Indonesia Since c.1300, 2nd Edition. London: MacMillan, p.226. ISBN 0-333-57689-6.
^ Friend, Theodore (2003). Indonesian Destinies. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, p.37. ISBN0-674-01834-6.
^ ^a ^b Friend, Theodore (2003). Indonesian Destinies. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, p.38. ISBN0-674-01834-6.
^ Sukarno (1965). Sukarno: An Autobiography. Bobbs-Merrill, pp. 262-263.
^ Veeramalla, Anjaiah, Rendi A. Witular. "Dutch govt expresses regrets over killings in RI", The Jakarta Post, August 18, 005. Retrieved on 2006-12-29.

2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... November 27 is the 331st day (332nd on leap years) of the year in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... August 22 is the 234th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (235th in leap years), with 131 days remaining. ... Hubertus Johannes van Mook (1895–1965) was a Dutch administrator in the East Indies. ... Sukarno (June 6, 1901 â€“ June 21, 1970) was the first President of Indonesia. ... The Jakarta Post is a daily English-language newspaper in Indonesia. ... 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... December 29 is the 363rd day of the year (364th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 2 days remaining. ...

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