NationMaster - Encyclopedia: Integrated circuit

In electronics, an integrated circuit (also known as IC, microcircuit, microchip, silicon chip, or chip) is a miniaturized electronic circuit (consisting mainly of semiconductor devices, as well as passive components) that has been manufactured in the surface of a thin substrate of semiconductor material. Image File history File links Diopsis. ... Image File history File links Diopsis. ... Atmel ATMEGA32 microcontroller Atmel AT90S2333 microcontroller Atmel Corporation (NASDAQ: ATML) is a manufacturer of semiconductors, founded in 1984. ... System-on-a-chip (SoC or SOC) is an idea of integrating all components of a computer system into a single chip. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (1024x768, 167 KB)By Richard Wheeler (Zephyris) 2007. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (1024x768, 167 KB)By Richard Wheeler (Zephyris) 2007. ... EPROM. The small quartz window admits UV light during erasure. ... Note: Ultraviolet is also the name of a 1998 UK television miniseries about vampires. ... Surface mount electronic components Electronics is the study of the flow of charge through various materials and devices such as semiconductors, resistors, inductors, capacitors, nano-structures and vacuum tubes. ... An electronic circuit is an electrical circuit that also contains active electronic devices such as transistors or vacuum tubes. ... Semiconductor devices are electronic components that exploit the electronic properties of semiconductor materials, principally silicon, germanium, and gallium arsenide. ... A passive component is an electronic component that does not require a source of energy to perform its intended function. ... A semiconductor is a solid material that has electrical conductivity in between that of a conductor and that of an insulator; it can vary over that wide range either permanently or dynamically. ...

A hybrid integrated circuit is a miniaturized electronic circuit constructed of individual semiconductor devices, as well as passive components, bonded to a substrate or circuit board. An electronic circuit consisting of several different levels of components; printed circuits, semiconductors, resistors, capacitors etc. ...

Introduction

Integrated circuits were made possible by experimental discoveries which showed that semiconductor devices could perform the functions of vacuum tubes, and by mid-20th-century technology advancements in semiconductor device fabrication. The integration of large numbers of tiny transistors into a small chip was an enormous improvement over the manual assembly of circuits using discrete electronic components. The integrated circuit's mass production capability, reliability, and building-block approach to circuit design ensured the rapid adoption of standardized ICs in place of designs using discrete transistors. Semiconductor devices are electronic components that exploit the electronic properties of semiconductor materials, principally silicon, germanium, and gallium arsenide. ... Structure of a vacuum tube diode Structure of a vacuum tube triode In electronics, a vacuum tube, electron tube, or (outside North America) thermionic valve or just valve, is a device used to amplify, switch or modify a signal by controlling the movement of electrons in an evacuated space. ... NASAs Glenn Research Center cleanroom. ... Assorted discrete transistors A transistor is a semiconductor device, commonly used as an amplifier or an electrically controlled switch. ... Various components An electronic component is a basic electronic element usually packaged in a discrete form with two or more connecting leads or metallic pads. ... Mass production is the production of large amounts of standardised products on production lines. ...

There are two main advantages of ICs over discrete circuits: cost and performance. Cost is low because the chips, with all their components, are printed as a unit by photolithography and not constructed one transistor at a time. Performance is high since the components switch quickly and consume little power, because the components are small and close together. As of 2006, chip areas range from a few square mm to around 350 mm², with up to 1 million transistors per mm². Photolithography is a process used in semiconductor device fabrication to transfer a pattern from a photomask (also called reticle) to the surface of a substrate. ... A millimetre (American spelling: millimeter), symbol mm is an SI unit of length that is equal to one thousandth of a metre. ... A millimetre (American spelling: millimeter), symbol mm is an SI unit of length that is equal to one thousandth of a metre. ... Assorted discrete transistors A transistor is a semiconductor device, commonly used as an amplifier or an electrically controlled switch. ... A millimetre (American spelling: millimeter), symbol mm is an SI unit of length that is equal to one thousandth of a metre. ...

Advances in integrated circuits

Among the most advanced integrated circuits are the microprocessors or "cores", which control everything from computers to cellular phones to digital microwave ovens. Digital memory chips and ASICs are examples of other families of integrated circuits that are important to the modern information society. While cost of designing and developing a complex integrated circuit is quite high, when spread across typically millions of production units the individual IC cost is minimized. The performance of ICs is high because the small size allows short traces which in turn allows low power logic (such as CMOS) to be used at fast switching speeds. Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (1740x1344, 411 KB) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Integrated circuit Microcontroller Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner used... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (1740x1344, 411 KB) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Integrated circuit Microcontroller Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner used... Intel Corporation (NASDAQ: INTC, SEHK: 4335), founded in 1968 as Integrated Electronics Corporation, is an American multinational corporation that is best known for designing and manufacturing microprocessors and specialized integrated circuits. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with embedded microprocessor. ... CPU can stand for: in computing: Central processing unit in journalism: Commonwealth Press Union in law enforcement: Crime prevention unit in software: Critical patch update, a type of software patch distributed by Oracle Corporation in Macleans College is often known as Ash Lim. ... Look up RAM, Ram, ram in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... EPROM. The small quartz window admits UV light during erasure. ... Energy Input: The energy placed into a reaction. ... A microprocessor incorporates most or all of the functions of a central processing unit (CPU) on a single integrated circuit (IC). ... This article is about the machine. ... Cellular redirects here. ... Microwave oven A microwave oven, or microwave, is a kitchen appliance employing microwave radiation primarily to cook or heat food. ... RAM redirects here. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... For other uses, see Information society (disambiguation). ... For delivered electrical power, see Electrical power industry. ... For other uses, see CMOS (disambiguation). ...

ICs have consistently migrated to smaller feature sizes over the years, allowing more circuitry to be packed on each chip. This increased capacity per unit area can be used to decrease cost and/or increase functionality—see Moore's law which, in its modern interpretation, states that the number of transistors in an integrated circuit doubles every two years. In general, as the feature size shrinks, almost everything improves—the cost per unit and the switching power consumption go down, and the speed goes up. However, ICs with nanometer-scale devices are not without their problems, principal among which is leakage current (see subthreshold leakage for a discussion of this), although these problems are not insurmountable and will likely be solved or at least ameliorated by the introduction of high-k dielectrics. Since these speed and power consumption gains are apparent to the end user, there is fierce competition among the manufacturers to use finer geometries. This process, and the expected progress over the next few years, is well described by the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS). Gordon Moores original graph from 1965 Growth of transistor counts for Intel processors (dots) and Moores Law (upper line=18 months; lower line=24 months) For the observation regarding information retrieval, see Mooers Law. ... A nanometre (American spelling: nanometer) is 1. ... Subthreshold leakage of an NMOS Subthreshold leakage is the current that flows from the drain to source of a MOSFET when the transistor is supposed to be off. ... The term high-Îº dielectric refers to materials with a high dielectric constant (Îº) (relative to silicon dioxide) which are going to be used [1] in next generation semiconductor components to replace the SiO2 gate dielectric, especially for the low standby power (LSTP) applications at the 45 nm technology node. ... The International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors is a set of documents produced by a group of semiconductor industry experts. ...

Popularity of ICs

Only a half century after their development was initiated, integrated circuits have become ubiquitous. Computers, cellular phones, and other digital appliances are now inextricable parts of the structure of modern societies. That is, modern computing, communications, manufacturing and transport systems, including the Internet, all depend on the existence of integrated circuits. Indeed, many scholars believe that the digital revolution—brought about by the microchip revolution—was one of the most significant occurrences in the history of humankind. The microchip revolution had its beginnings with the IC (integrated circuit) and the microprocessor, both of which were developed to increase efficiency. ... This article is about the machine. ... Cellular redirects here. ... For other uses, see Digital (disambiguation). ... The word appliance has several different areas of meaning, all usually referring to a device with a narrow function: One class of objects includes items that are custom-fitted to an individual for the purpose of correction of a physical or dental problem, such as prosthetic, orthotic appliances and dental... For the formal concept of computation, see computation. ... For other uses, see Communication (disambiguation). ... Manufacturing (from Latin manu factura, making by hand) is the use of tools and labor to make things for use or sale. ... A scholar is either a student or someone who has achieved a mastery of some academic discipline, perhaps receiving financial support through a scholarship. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... The microchip revolution had its beginnings with the IC (integrated circuit) and the microprocessor, both of which were developed to increase efficiency. ... HIStory â€“ Past, Present and Future, Book I is a double album by American singer Michael Jackson released in June 1995 and remains Jacksons most conflicting and controversial release. ... Human beings are defined variously in biological, spiritual, and cultural terms, or in combinations thereof. ...

Classification

Integrated circuits can be classified into analog, digital and mixed signal (both analog and digital on the same chip). ImageMetadata File history File links Download high resolution version (2592x1944, 2389 KB) Licensing File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... ImageMetadata File history File links Download high resolution version (2592x1944, 2389 KB) Licensing File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... For other uses, see CMOS (disambiguation). ... The 4000 series is the general classification referring to the industry standard integrated circuits which implement a variety of logic functions using CMOS technology. ... ICs in DIP14-Package Several PDIPs and CERDIPS. The large CERDIP in the foreground is an 8080 processor. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Analog electronics. ... Digital circuits are electric circuits based on a number of discrete voltage levels. ... A mixed-signal integrated circuits combines analog and digital circuitry. ...

Digital integrated circuits can contain anything from a few thousand to millions of logic gates, flip-flops, multiplexers, and other circuits in a few square millimeters. The small size of these circuits allows high speed, low power dissipation, and reduced manufacturing cost compared with board-level integration. These digital ICs, typically microprocessors, DSPs, and micro controllers work using binary mathematics to process "one" and "zero" signals. A logic gate performs a logical operation on one or more logic inputs and produces a single logic output. ... In digital circuits, flip-flop is an onomatopoeic term that refers a kind of bistable multivibrator, an electronic circuit which has two stable states and thereby is capable of serving as one bit of memory. ... MUX redirects here. ... A microprocessor incorporates most or all of the functions of a central processing unit (CPU) on a single integrated circuit (IC). ... A digital signal processor (DSP) is a specialized microprocessor designed specifically for digital signal processing, generally in real-time. ...

Analog ICs, such as sensors, power management circuits, and operational amplifiers, work by processing continuous signals. They perform functions like amplification, active filtering, demodulation, mixing, etc. Analog ICs ease the burden on circuit designers by having expertly designed analog circuits available instead of designing a difficult analog circuit from scratch. Op-amp ICs (some single, some dual) in 8-pin dual in-line packages (DIPs) An operational amplifier, usually referred to as an op-amp for brevity, is a DC-coupled high-gain electronic voltage amplifier with differential inputs[1] and, usually, a single output. ... For the British rock band of the same name, see Amplifier (band). ... An example of high-pass active filter. ... Demodulation is the act of removing the modulation from an analog signal. ... In telecommunication, a mixer is a nonlinear circuit or device that accepts as its input two different frequencies and presents at its output (a) a signal equal in frequency to the sum of the frequencies of the input signals, (b) a signal equal in frequency to the difference between the...

ICs can also combine analog and digital circuits on a single chip to create functions such as A/D converters and D/A converters. Such circuits offer smaller size and lower cost, but must carefully account for signal interference. 4-channel stereo multiplexed analog-to-digital converter WM8775SEDS made by Wolfson Microelectronics placed on X-Fi Fatal1ty Pro sound card An analog-to-digital converter (abbreviated ADC, A/D or A to D) is an electronic integrated circuit (i/c) that converts continuous signals to discrete digital numbers. ... 8-channel digital-to-analog converter Cirrus Logic CS4382 placed on Sound Blaster X-Fi Fatal1ty In electronics, a digital-to-analog converter (DAC or D-to-A) is a device for converting a digital (usually binary) code to an analog signal (current, voltage or electric charge). ...

Manufacture

Fabrication

The semiconductors of the periodic table of the chemical elements were identified as the most likely materials for a solid state vacuum tube by researchers like William Shockley at Bell Laboratories starting in the 1930s. Starting with copper oxide, proceeding to germanium, then silicon, the materials were systematically studied in the 1940s and 1950s. Today, silicon monocrystals are the main substrate used for integrated circuits (ICs) although some III-V compounds of the periodic table such as gallium arsenide are used for specialised applications like LEDs, lasers, solar cells and the highest-speed integrated circuits. It took decades to perfect methods of creating crystals without defects in the crystalline structure of the semiconducting material. NASAs Glenn Research Center cleanroom. ... Image File history File links Silicon_chip_3d. ... Image File history File links Silicon_chip_3d. ... Standard Cell design involves compiling Hardware definition Language HDL designs into standard logic libraries. ... A dielectric is a nonconducting substance, i. ... A semiconductor is a solid material that has electrical conductivity in between that of a conductor and that of an insulator; it can vary over that wide range either permanently or dynamically. ... The Periodic Table redirects here. ... The periodic table of the chemical elements A chemical element, or element, is a type of atom that is distinguished by its atomic number; that is, by the number of protons in its nucleus. ... In electronics, solid state circuits are those that do not contain vacuum tubes. ... Structure of a vacuum tube diode Structure of a vacuum tube triode In electronics, a vacuum tube, electron tube, or (outside North America) thermionic valve or just valve, is a device used to amplify, switch or modify a signal by controlling the movement of electrons in an evacuated space. ... William Bradford Shockley (February 13, 1910 â€“ August 12, 1989) was a British-born American physicist and inventor. ... Bell Telephone Laboratories or Bell Labs was originally the research and development arm of the United States Bell System, and was the premier corporate facility of its type, developing a range of revolutionary technologies from telephone switches to specialized coverings for telephone cables, to the transistor. ... Copper forms two oxides, copper(I) oxide (cuprous oxide, Cu2O) a red powder and copper(II) oxide (cupric oxide, CuO) a black powder. ... General Name, Symbol, Number germanium, Ge, 32 Chemical series metalloids Group, Period, Block 14, 4, p Appearance grayish white Standard atomic weight 72. ... Not to be confused with Silicone. ... Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Substrate is a term used in printing, mainly industrial printing, to describe the base material that images will be printed onto. ... This article is about the chemical compound. ... Various light-emitting diodes (5 mm reds, 3 mm greens and yellows) A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that emits incoherent monochromatic light when electrically biased in the forward direction. ... For alternative meanings see laser (disambiguation). ... A solar cell, a form of photovoltaic cell, is a device that uses the photoelectric effect to generate electricity from light, thus generating solar power (energy). ... For other uses, see Crystal (disambiguation). ... In mineralogy and crystallography, a crystal structure is a unique arrangement of atoms in a crystal. ...

Semiconductor ICs are fabricated in a layer process which includes these key process steps: A semiconductor is a solid material that has electrical conductivity in between that of a conductor and that of an insulator; it can vary over that wide range either permanently or dynamically. ...

The main process steps are supplemented by doping, cleaning and planarisation steps.

Mono-crystal silicon wafers (or for special applications, silicon on sapphire or gallium arsenide wafers) are used as the substrate. Photolithography is used to mark different areas of the substrate to be doped or to have polysilicon, insulators or metal (typically aluminium) tracks deposited on them. Not to be confused with Silicone. ... It has been suggested that Wafer prober be merged into this article or section. ... Silicon on sapphire (SOS) is a hetero-epitaxial process for integrated circuit manufacturing that consists of a thin layer (typically thinner than 0. ... This article is about the chemical compound. ... Photolithography is a process used in semiconductor device fabrication to transfer a pattern from a photomask (also called reticle) to the surface of a substrate. ... In semiconductor production, doping refers to the process of intentionally introducing impurities into an intrinsic semiconductor in order to change its electrical properties. ... Aluminum redirects here. ...

Since a CMOS device only draws current on the transition between logic states, CMOS devices consume much less current than bipolar devices. For other uses, see CMOS (disambiguation). ... Assorted discrete transistors A transistor is a semiconductor device, commonly used as an amplifier or an electrically controlled switch. ... Resistor symbols (American) Resistor symbols (Europe, IEC) Axial-lead resistors on tape. ... See Capacitor (component) for a discussion of specific types. ... An inductor is a passive electrical device employed in electrical circuits for its property of inductance. ... The gyrator is an electric circuit which inverts an impedance. ... Boolean algebra is the finitary algebra of two values. ... In information processing, a state is the complete set of properties (for example, its energy level, etc. ... The schematic symbols for pnp_ and npn_type BJTs. ...

A random access memory is the most regular type of integrated circuit; the highest density devices are thus memories; but even a microprocessor will have memory on the chip. (See the regular array structure at the bottom of the first image.) Although the structures are intricate – with widths which have been shrinking for decades – the layers remain much thinner than the device widths. The layers of material are fabricated much like a photographic process, although light waves in the visible spectrum cannot be used to "expose" a layer of material, as they would be too large for the features. Thus photons of higher frequencies (typically ultraviolet) are used to create the patterns for each layer. Because each feature is so small, electron microscopes are essential tools for a process engineer who might be debugging a fabrication process. RAM redirects here. ... A microprocessor incorporates most or all of the functions of a central processing unit (CPU) on a single integrated circuit (IC). ... For other uses, see Light (disambiguation). ... Surface waves in water This article is about waves in the most general scientific sense. ... Visible light redirects here. ... In modern physics the photon is the elementary particle responsible for electromagnetic phenomena. ... For other uses, see Ultraviolet (disambiguation). ... An electron microscope is a type of microscope that uses electrons as a way to illuminate and create an image of a specimen. ... Industrial processes are procedures involving chemical or mechanical steps to aid in the manufacture of an item or items, usually carried out on a very large scale. ... Look up engineer in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Debugging is a methodical process of finding and reducing the number of bugs, or defects, in a computer program or a piece of electronic hardware thus making it behave as expected. ...

Each device is tested before packaging using automated test equipment (ATE), in a process known as wafer testing, or wafer probing. The wafer is then cut into rectangular blocks, each of which is called a die. Each good die (plural dice, dies, or die) is then connected into a package using aluminium (or gold) wires which are welded to pads, usually found around the edge of the die. After packaging, the devices go through final testing on the same or similar ATE used during wafer probing. Test cost can account for over 25% of the cost of fabrication on lower cost products, but can be negligible on low yielding, larger, and/or higher cost devices. Wafer testing is a step performed during semiconductor device fabrication. ... A die in the context of integrated circuits is a small piece of semiconducting material on which a given circuit is fabricated. ... GOLD refers to one of the following: GOLD (IEEE) is an IEEE program designed to garner more student members at the university level (Graduates of the Last Decade). ... Welding is a fabrication process that joins materials, usually metals or thermoplastics, by causing coalescence. ... Yield may mean: In economics, yield is a measure of the amount of income an investment generates over time (related to return on investment). ...

As of 2005, a fabrication facility (commonly known as a semiconductor fab) costs over a billion US Dollars to construct^[1], because much of the operation is automated. The most advanced processes employ the following techniques: A semiconductor is a solid material that has electrical conductivity in between that of a conductor and that of an insulator; it can vary over that wide range either permanently or dynamically. ...

Intel Corporation (NASDAQ: INTC, SEHK: 4335), founded in 1968 as Integrated Electronics Corporation, is an American multinational corporation that is best known for designing and manufacturing microprocessors and specialized integrated circuits. ... For other uses, see IBM (disambiguation) and Big Blue. ... For other uses, see NEC (disambiguation). ... Advanced Micro Devices, Inc. ... CPU redirects here. ... In immersion lithography, light travels down through a system of lenses and then a pool of water before reaching the photoresist on top of the wafer. ... Copper-based chips are semiconductor integrated circuits, usually microprocessors, which use copper for interconnections. ... A Low-K dielectric is one with a small dielectric constant. ... Silicon on insulator technology (SOI) refers to the use of a layered silicon-insulator-silicon substrate in place of conventional silicon substrates in semiconductor manufacturing, especially microelectronics, to reduce parasitic device capacitance and thereby improve performance. ... Strained silicon is a layer of silicon in which the silicon atoms are stretched beyond their normal interatomic distance. ... For other uses, see IBM (disambiguation) and Big Blue. ... Strained silicon directly on insulator (SSDOI) is a procedure developed by IBM which removes the silicon germanium layer in the strained silicon process leaving the strained silicon directly on the insulator. ...

Packaging

The earliest integrated circuits were packaged in ceramic flat packs, which continued to be used by the military for their reliability and small size for many years. Commercial circuit packaging quickly moved to the dual in-line package (DIP), first in ceramic and later in plastic. In the 1980s pin counts of VLSI circuits exceeded the practical limit for DIP packaging, leading to pin grid array (PGA) and leadless chip carrier (LCC) packages. Surface mount packaging appeared in the early 1980s and became popular in the late 1980s, using finer lead pitch with leads formed as either gull-wing or J-lead, as exemplified by small-outline integrated circuit -- a carrier which occupies an area about 30 – 50% less than an equivalent DIP, with a typical thickness that is 70% less. This package has "gull wing" leads protruding from the two long sides and a lead spacing of 0.050 inches. Integrated circuit packaging is the final stage of semiconductor device fabrication per se, followed by IC testing. ... ICs in DIP14-Package Several PDIPs and CERDIPS. The large CERDIP in the foreground is an 8080 processor. ... Package Diagram for 168-Pin PGA Embedded IntelDX2™ Processor The pin grid array or PGA is a type of packaging used for integrated circuits, particularly microprocessors. ... A leadless chip carrier (LCC) is a type of packaging for integrated circuits which has no leads, but instead rounded pins through the edges of the ceramic package. ... Surface-mount components on a keydrives circuit board Surface mount technology (SMT) is a method for constructing electronic circuits in which the components are mounted directly onto the surface of printed circuit boards (PCBs). ... Small-Outline Integrated Circuit (SOIC). ... ICs in DIP14-Package Several PDIPs and CERDIPS. The large CERDIP in the foreground is an 8080 processor. ...

Small-outline integrated circuit (SOIC) and PLCC packages. In the late 1990s, PQFP and TSOP packages became the most common for high pin count devices, though PGA packages are still often used for high-end microprocessors. Intel and AMD are currently transitioning from PGA packages on high-end microprocessors to land grid array (LGA) packages. Small-Outline Integrated Circuit (SOIC). ... An integrated circuit (IC) is a thin chip consisting of at least two interconnected semiconductor devices, mainly transistors, as well as passive components like resistors. ... PQFP, or plastic quad flat pack, is a type of IC packaging. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... A microprocessor incorporates most or all of the functions of a central processing unit (CPU) on a single integrated circuit (IC). ... The land grid array (LGA) is a physical interface for microprocessors of the Intel Pentium 4 family. ...

Ball grid array (BGA) packages have existed since the 1970s. Flip-chip Ball Grid Array packages, which allow for much higher pin count than other package types, were developed in the 1990s. In an FCBGA package the die is mounted upside-down (flipped) and connects to the package balls via a package substrate that is similar to a printed-circuit board rather than by wires. FCBGA packages allow an array of input-output signals (called Area-I/O) to be distributed over the entire die rather than being confined to the die periphery. For the Bulgarian Go Association, see Bulgarian Go Association. ...

Traces out of the die, through the package, and into the printed circuit board have very different electrical properties, compared to on-chip signals. They require special design techniques and need much more electric power than signals confined to the chip itself. Part of a 1983 Sinclair ZX Spectrum computer board. ...

When multiple dies are put in one package, it is called SiP, for System In Package. When multiple dies are combined on a small substrate, often ceramic, it's called an MCM, or Multi-Chip Module. The boundary between a big MCM and a small printed circuit board is sometimes fuzzy. A System-in-a-Package or System in Package (SiP) is a number of integrated circuits enclosed in a single package or module. ... POWER5 MCM with four processors and four 36 MB external L3 cache modules on a ceramic substrate. ...

History, origins, and generations

The birth of the IC

In April 1949, the German engineer Werner Jacobi (Siemens AG) filed the earliest patent for an integrated-circuit-like semiconductor amplifying device ^[2] showing five transistors on a common substrate arranged in a 3-stage amplifier arrangement. Jacobi discloses small and cheap hearing aids as typical industrial applications of his patent. A commercial use of his patent has not been reported. Siemens redirects here. ... For the British rock band of the same name, see Amplifier (band). ... Behind the ear aid For the song, see Flood (album). ...

The integrated circuit was later also conceived by a radar scientist, Geoffrey W.A. Dummer (1909-2002), working for the Royal Radar Establishment of the British Ministry of Defence, and published in Washington, D.C. on May 7, 1952. Dummer unsuccessfully attempted to build such a circuit in 1956. Geoffrey W.A. Dummer, MBE (1909 â€“ February, 2002) is credited as being the first person to conceptualise the integrated circuit, commonly called the microchip, in the late-1940s and early 1950s. ... The Ministry of Defence (MOD) is the United Kingdom government department responsible for implementation of government defence policy and is the headquarters of the British Armed Forces. ... For other uses, see Washington, D.C. (disambiguation). ... is the 127th day of the year (128th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1952 (MCMLII) was a leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ...

A precursor idea to the IC was to create small ceramic squares (wafers), each one containing a single miniaturized component. Components could then be integrated and wired into a bidimensional or tridimensional compact grid. This idea, which looked very promising in 1957, was proposed to the US Army by Jack Kilby, and led to the short-lived Micromodule Program (similar to 1951's Project Tinkertoy).^[3] However, as the project was gaining momentum, Kilby came up with a new, revolutionary design: the IC. Jack St. ...

The first integrated circuits were manufactured independently by two scientists: Jack Kilby of Texas Instruments filed a patent for a "Solid Circuit" made of germanium on February 6, 1959. Kilby received several US patents.^[4]^[5]^[6] Robert Noyce of Fairchild Semiconductor was awarded a patent for a more complex "unitary circuit" made of Silicon on April 25, 1961. (See the Chip that Jack built for more information.) Texas Instruments (NYSE: TXN), better known in the electronics industry (and popularly) as TI, is an American company based in Dallas, Texas, USA, renowned for developing and commercializing semiconductor and computer technology. ... General Name, Symbol, Number germanium, Ge, 32 Chemical series metalloids Group, Period, Block 14, 4, p Appearance grayish white Standard atomic weight 72. ... is the 37th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1959 (MCMLIX) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Robert Noyce Robert Noyce (December 12, 1927 â€“ June 3, 1990), nicknamed the Mayor of Silicon Valley, co-founded Fairchild Semiconductor in 1957 and Intel in 1968. ... Fairchild Semiconductor introduced the first commercially available integrated circuit (although at almost the same time as one from Texas Instruments), and would go on to become one of the major players in the evolution of Silicon Valley in the 1960s. ... is the 115th day of the year (116th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1961 (MCMLXI) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ...

Noyce credited Kurt Lehovec of Sprague Electric for the principle of p-n junction isolation caused by the action of a biased p-n junction (the diode) as a key concept behind the IC.^[7] Kurt Lehovec was involved with the invention of the integrated circuit in 1959. ... p-n junction isolation is a method used to electrically isolate electronic components, such as transistors, on an integrated circuit (IC) by surrounding the components with reverse biased p-n junctions. ...

See: Other variations of vacuum tubes for precursor concepts such as the Loewe 3NF. Structure of a vacuum tube diode Structure of a vacuum tube triode In electronics, a vacuum tube, electron tube, or (outside North America) thermionic valve or just valve, is a device used to amplify, switch or modify a signal by controlling the movement of electrons in an evacuated space. ... The Loewe 3NF was an early attempt to combine several functions in one Electronic device. ...

SSI, MSI, LSI

The first integrated circuits contained only a few transistors. Called "Small-Scale Integration" (SSI), they used circuits containing transistors numbering in the tens.

SSI circuits were crucial to early aerospace projects, and vice-versa. Both the Minuteman missile and Apollo program needed lightweight digital computers for their inertial guidance systems; the Apollo guidance computer led and motivated the integrated-circuit technology, while the Minuteman missile forced it into mass-production. The LGM-30 Minuteman is a United States nuclear missile, a land-based intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) (the other type is the LG-118A Peacekeeper, which is to be phased out by 2005). ... This article is about the series of human spaceflight missions. ... The references in this article would be clearer with a different and/or consistent style of citation, footnoting or external linking. ...

These programs purchased almost all of the available integrated circuits from 1960 through 1963, and almost alone provided the demand that funded the production improvements to get the production costs from $1000/circuit (in 1960 dollars) to merely $25/circuit (in 1963 dollars).^{[citation needed]} They began to appear in consumer products at the turn of the decade, a typical application being FM inter-carrier sound processing in television receivers. The abbreviations FM, Fm, and fm may refer to: Electrical engineering Frequency modulation (FM) and its most common applications: FM broadcasting, used primarily to broadcast music and speech at VHF frequencies FM synthesis, a sound-generation technique popularized by early digital synthesizers Science Femtometre (fm), an SI measure of length...

The next step in the development of integrated circuits, taken in the late 1960s, introduced devices which contained hundreds of transistors on each chip, called "Medium-Scale Integration" (MSI).

They were attractive economically because while they cost little more to produce than SSI devices, they allowed more complex systems to be produced using smaller circuit boards, less assembly work (because of fewer separate components), and a number of other advantages.

Further development, driven by the same economic factors, led to "Large-Scale Integration" (LSI) in the mid 1970s, with tens of thousands of transistors per chip.

Integrated circuits such as 1K-bit RAMs, calculator chips, and the first microprocessors, that began to be manufactured in moderate quantities in the early 1970s, had under 4000 transistors. True LSI circuits, approaching 10000 transistors, began to be produced around 1974, for computer main memories and second-generation microprocessors.

VLSI

The final step in the development process, starting in the 1980s and continuing through the present, was "Very Large-Scale Integration" (VLSI). This could be said to start with hundreds of thousands of transistors in the early 1980s, and continues beyond several billion transistors as of 2007. It has been suggested that VHSIC be merged into this article or section. ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (1024x1024, 1775 KB) Summary Photograph of the upper interconnect layers on an Intel 80486 DX2 taken with an optical microscope at 200x magnification. ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (1024x1024, 1775 KB) Summary Photograph of the upper interconnect layers on an Intel 80486 DX2 taken with an optical microscope at 200x magnification. ... The Intel486[1] brand refers to Intels family of i486 (incl. ... VLSI may refer to: Very-large-scale integration, a process for the creation of electronic integrated circuits VLSI Technology (1979â€“1999), a former American integrated circuit manufacturer, now a part of Philips Electronics VLSI Solution, a Finnish integrated circuit manufacturer Category: ...

There was no single breakthrough that allowed this increase in complexity, though many factors helped. Manufacturing moved to smaller rules and cleaner fabs, allowing them to produce chips with more transistors with adequate yield, as summarized by the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS). Design tools improved enough to make it practical to finish these designs in a reasonable time. The more energy efficient CMOS replaced NMOS and PMOS, avoiding a prohibitive increase in power consumption. Better texts such as the landmark textbook by Mead and Conway helped schools educate more designers... The International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors is a set of documents produced by a group of semiconductor industry experts. ... PCB Layout Program Electronic design automation (EDA) is the category of tools for designing and producing electronic systems ranging from printed circuit boards (PCBs) to integrated circuits. ... For other uses, see CMOS (disambiguation). ... Professor Carver Andress Mead (born 1 May 1934, in Bakersfield, California) is a prominent U.S. computer scientist. ... Lynn Conway is a U.S. computer scientist and inventor. ...

In 1986 the first one megabit RAM chips were introduced, which contained more than one million transistors. Microprocessor chips passed the million transistor mark in 1989 and the billion transistor mark in 2005^[8]. The trend continues largely unabated, with chips introduced in 2007 containing tens of billions of memory transistors ^[9]. RAM redirects here. ...

ULSI, WSI, SOC, 3D-IC

To reflect further growth of the complexity, the term ULSI that stands for "Ultra-Large Scale Integration" was proposed for chips of complexity of more than 1 million transistors.

Wafer-scale integration (WSI) is a system of building very-large integrated circuits that uses an entire silicon wafer to produce a single "super-chip". Through a combination of large size and reduced packaging, WSI could lead to dramatically reduced costs for some systems, notably massively parallel supercomputers. The name is taken from the term Very-Large-Scale Integration, the current state of the art when WSI was being developed. Wafer-scale integration, WSI for short, is a yet-unused system of building very-large integrated circuit networks that use an entire silicon wafer to produce a single super-chip. Through a combination of large size and reduced packaging, WSI could lead to dramatically reduced costs for some systems, notably...

System-on-a-Chip (SoC or SOC) is an integrated circuit in which all the components needed for a computer or other system are included on a single chip. The design of such a device can be complex and costly, and building disparate components on a single piece of silicon may compromise the efficiency of some elements. However, these drawbacks are offset by lower manufacturing and assembly costs and by a greatly reduced power budget: because signals among the components are kept on-die, much less power is required (see Packaging, above). System-on-a-chip (SoC or SOC) is an idea of integrating all components of a computer system into a single chip. ...

Three Dimensional Integrated Circuit (3D-IC) has two or more layers of active electronic components that are integrated both vertically and horizontally into a single circuit. Communication between layers uses on-die signaling, so power consumption is much lower than in equivalent separate circuits. Judicious use of short vertical wires can substantially reduce overall wire length for faster operation.

Other developments

In the 1980's programmable integrated circuits were developed. These devices contain circuits whose logical function and connectivity can be programmed by the user, rather than being fixed by the integrated circuit manufacturer. This allows a single chip to be programmed to implement different LSI-type functions such as logic gates, adders, and registers. Current devices named FPGAs (Field Programmable Gate Arrays) can now implement tens of thousands of LSI circuits in parallel and operate up to 550 MHz. A programmable logic device or PLD is an electronic component used to build digital circuits. ... A logic gate performs a logical operation on one or more logic inputs and produces a single logic output. ... In electronics, an adder or summer is a digital circuit that performs addition of numbers. ... In computer architecture, a processor register is a small amount of very fast computer memory used to speed the execution of computer programs by providing quick access to frequently used valuesâ€”typically, these values are involved in multiple expression evaluations occurring within a small region on the program. ... A field-programmable gate array or FPGA is a gate array that can be reprogrammed after it is manufactured, rather than having its programming fixed during the manufacturing — a programmable logic device. ...

The techniques perfected by the integrated circuits industry over the last three decades have been used to create microscopic machines, known as MEMS. These devices are used in a variety of commercial and military applications. Example commercial applications include DLP projectors, inkjet printers, and accelerometers used to deploy automobile airbags. A mite next to a gear set produced using MEMS. Courtesy Sandia National Laboratories, SUMMiTTM Technologies, www. ... This article is about Digital Light Processing. ... Projectors are used for displaying an image on a projection screen or similar surface for the view of an audience. ... An Epson inkjet printer Inkjet printers operate by propelling variably-sized droplets of liquid or molten material (ink) onto almost any medium. ... A depiction of an accelerometer designed at Sandia National Laboratories. ... For the Mozilla crash reporting software previously called Airbag, see Breakpad. ...

In the past, radios could not be fabricated in the same low-cost processes as microprocessors. But since 1998, a large number of radio chips have been developed using CMOS processes. Examples include Intel's DECT cordless phone, or Atheros's 802.11 card. Atheros Communications (NASDAQ: ATHR) is a developer of semiconductors for wireless communications. ...

Future developments seem to follow the multi-microprocessor paradigm, already used by the Intel and AMD dual-core processors. Intel recently unveiled a prototype, "not for commercial sale" chip that bears a staggering 80 microprocessors. Each core is capable of handling its own task independently of the others. This is in response to the heat-versus-speed limit that is about to be reached using existing transistor technology. This design provides a new challenge to chip programming. X10 is the new open-source programming language designed to assist with this task. ^[10] X10 is a programming language being developed by IBM at the Thomas J. Watson Research Center as part of DARPAs High Productivity Computing Initiative (HPCS) program. ...

Silicon graffiti

Ever since ICs were created, some chip designers have used the silicon surface area for surreptitious, non-functional images or words. These are sometimes referred to as Chip Art, Silicon Art, Silicon Graffiti or Silicon Doodling. For an overview of this practice, see the article The Secret Art of Chip Graffiti, from the IEEE magazine Spectrum and the Silicon Zoo. Image of a buffalo, trailing buffalo chips, etched on a digital filter chip from the HP3582a audio spectrum analyzer. ...

Key industrial and academic data

Notable ICs

NE555 from Signetics in dual-in-line package Schematic symbol of the 555 timer The 555 is an integrated circuit (chip) implementing a variety of timer and multivibrator applications. ... A multivibrator is an electronic circuit used to implement a variety of simple two-state systems such as oscillators, timers and flip-flops. ... A 741 operational amplifier in a TO-5 metal can package An operational amplifier or op-amp is a very high-gain amplifier which has two inputs, one inverting (âˆ’) and one non-inverting (+). The output voltage is the difference between the + and âˆ’ inputs, multiplied by the open-loop gain: The... The 7400 chip, containing four NANDs. ... A Motorola 68000-based computer with various TTL chips. ... The 4000 series is the general classification referring to the industry standard integrated circuits which implement a variety of logic functions using CMOS technology. ... For other uses, see CMOS (disambiguation). ... The Intel 4004 is a 4-bit central processing unit (CPU) released by Intel Corporation in 1971. ... A microprocessor incorporates most or all of the functions of a central processing unit (CPU) on a single integrated circuit (IC). ... The MOS Technology 6502 is an 8-bit microprocessor that was designed by Chuck Peddle for MOS Technology in 1975. ... One of the first Z80 microprocessors manufactured; the date stamp is from June 1976. ... This article is primarily about a certain class of Personal computers from the late 1970s to mid 1980s, see Domotics or Home servers for home computers used in home automation. ...

Manufacturers

Agere Systems Inc. ... In 1996, AT&T spun off its Systems and Technology units, along with the famous Bell Laboratories, to form a new company named Lucent Technologies (NYSE: LU). ... This article is about the current AT&T. For the 1885-2005 company, see American Telephone & Telegraph. ... Agilent Technologies (NYSE: A) (Agilent for short) is a measurement and instrument company headquartered in Santa Clara, California. ... The Hewlett-Packard Company (NYSE: HPQ), commonly known as HP, is a very large, global company headquartered in Palo Alto, California, United States. ... Alcatel SA is a global company, headquartered in France that provides hardware, software and services to telecommunications service providers and enterprises. ... Altera headquarters in San Jose Altera Corporation (NASDAQ: ALTR) is a leading manufacturer of programmable logic devices. ... Advanced Micro Devices, Inc. ... Analog Devices (NYSE: ADI) is an American multinational producer of semiconductor devices. ... ATI Technologies Inc. ... Tseng Laboratories, Inc. ... Atmel ATMEGA32 microcontroller Atmel AT90S2333 microcontroller Atmel Corporation (NASDAQ: ATML) is a manufacturer of semiconductors, founded in 1984. ... Broadcom Corporation is a leading American supplier of integrated circuits (ICs) for broadband communications. ... MOS Technology, Inc. ... Cypress Semiconductor began operations in 1982 and listed publicly in 1986. ... Fairchild Semiconductor introduced the first commercially available integrated circuit (although at almost the same time as one from Texas Instruments), and would go on to become one of the major players in the evolution of Silicon Valley in the 1960s. ... The Traitorous Eight at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1959. ... Freescale sign Freescale Semiconductor, Inc. ... Motorola Inc. ... For the district in Saga, Japan, see Fujitsu, Saga. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... MOS Technology, Inc. ... It has been suggested that Hitachi Works be merged into this article or section. ... Horizon Semiconductors is a leading fabless semiconductor company producing System-on-a-Chip (SoC) solutions for the Consumer Electronics and Home Entertainment markets. ... For other uses, see IBM (disambiguation) and Big Blue. ... For the raceway, see Infineon Raceway. ... Siemens redirects here. ... IDT was founded in 1980 as a semiconductor vendor. ... Intel Corporation (NASDAQ: INTC, SEHK: 4335), founded in 1968 as Integrated Electronics Corporation, is an American multinational corporation that is best known for designing and manufacturing microprocessors and specialized integrated circuits. ... Intersil Corporation NASDAQ: ISIL produces integrated circuits and semiconductors. ... Lattice Semiconductor Corporation NASDAQ: [LSCC] is a leading manufacturer of high-performance programmable logic devices (PLDs), field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs), programmable mixed-signal and interconnect products, related software and intellectual property (IP). ... Founded in 1981, Linear Technology Corporation is a leading supplier of high performance analog integrated circuits. ... LSI Logic was founded in Milpitas, CA by Wilfred Corrigan in 1981 after he left an executive position with Fairchild Semiconductor. ... Maxim Integrated Products Stock symbol MXIM.PK, commonly known as Maxim, is a semiconductor company that designs and manufactures analog and mixed-signal integrated circuits. ... Marvell (NASDAQ: MRVL) is an American producer of storage, communications and consumer semiconductor products. ... Microchip Technology (NASDAQ: MCHP) is a manufacturer of semiconductors, founded in ??. Its products include microcontrollers (PICmicro, dsPIC, PIC24), EEPROM and Flash memory devices, KEELOQ devices, radio frequency (RF) devices, battery management devices, interface devices, analog devices and many others. ... Microsystems International Limited (MIL) was an early (1971) attempt to create a merchant semiconductor house by Nortel Networks (then Northern Electric). ... MOS Technology, Inc. ... Mostek was an integrated circuit manufacturer, founded in 1969 by ex-employees of Texas Instruments. ... Categories: Electronics companies of the United States | Companies based in California | Corporation stubs ... Nordic Semiconductor (formerly Nordic VLSI) is a fabless semiconductor company, developing and manufacturing integrated circuits. ... The American multinational Nvidia Corporation (NASDAQ: NVDA) (pronounced ) specializes in the manufacture of graphics-processor technologies for workstations, desktop computers, and handheld devices. ... 3dfx Interactive was a company which specialized in the manufacturing of cutting-edge 3D graphics processing units and, later, graphics cards. ... For other uses of NXP, see NXP (disambiguation). ... Philips HQ in Amsterdam Koninklijke Philips Electronics N.V. (Royal Philips Electronics N.V.), usually known as Philips, (Euronext: PHIA, NYSE: PHG) is one of the largest electronics companies in the world, founded and headquartered in the Netherlands. ... ON Semiconductor (NASDAQ: ONNN), a leading supplier of power management solutions, was recapitalized and established as an independent company on August 4, 1999. ... Motorola Inc. ... Parallax, Inc. ... PMC-Sierra NASDAQ: PMCS is a fabless semiconductor company which develops and sells devices into the communications, storage, printing, and embedding computing marketplaces. ... Renesas Technology Corporation ) is a Japanese semiconductor manufacturer. ... It has been suggested that Hitachi Works be merged into this article or section. ... Mitsubishi Electric Corporation (ä¸‰è±é›»æ©Ÿ, Mitsubishi Denki), TYO: 6503 is a Japanese company based in the Mitsubishi Denki Building in Tokyo, manufactures electric and architectural equipment. ... ROHM Co. ... Samsung Electronics (SEC, Hangul:ì‚¼ì„±ì „ìž; KRXS: 005930, KRXS: 005935, LSE: SMSN, LSE: SMSD) is the worlds largest electronics and information technology company[1], headquartered in Suwon, South Korea. ... STMicroelectronics is an international leading supplier of semiconductors. ... Texas Instruments (NYSE: TXN), better known in the electronics industry (and popularly) as TI, is an American company based in Dallas, Texas, USA, renowned for developing and commercializing semiconductor and computer technology. ... Toshiba Corporations headquarters (Center) in Hamamatsucho, Tokyo Toshiba Corporation sales by division for year ending March 31, 2005 Toshiba Corporation ) (TYO: 6502 ) is a Japanese multinational conglomerate manufacturing company, headquartered in Tokyo, Japan. ... Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company, Limited (Traditional Chinese: å°ç£ç©é«”é›»è·¯è£½é€ è‚¡ä»½æœ‰é™å…¬å¸, abbrev. ... VIA Technologies logo VIA Technologies is a Taiwanese manufacturer of integrated circuits, mainly motherboard chipsets, CPUs, and memory, and is part of the Formosa Plastics Group. ... Formosa Plastics Group (Ch: å°ç£å¡‘è† å…¬å¸) is a Taiwanese conglomerate of diverse interests, including biotechnology, petrochemical processing, and production of electronics components. ... Volterra Semiconductor, commonly known as Volterra, is a fabless semiconductor company that designs and manufactures mixed-signal integrated circuits used in power management applications. ... Xilinx, Inc. ... Zilog, often seen as ZiLOG, is a manufacturer of 8-bit, 16-bit, 24-bit, and 32-bit CPUs, and is most famous for its Intel 8080-compatible Z80 series. ... This article is about the fuel brand. ... The Texas Pacific Group (commonly referred as TPG) is a private equity investment firm founded by David Bonderman, James Coulter and William Price in 1993. ...

VLSI conferences

International Solid-State Circuits Conference is a global forum for presentation of advances in solid-state circuits and Systems-on-a-Chip. ... International Solid-State Circuits Conference is foremost global forum for presentation of advances in solid-state circuits and Systems-on-a-Chip. ... IEEE Custom Integrated Circuits Conference is an international conference devoted to IC development, showcasing original, first published technical work and circuit techniques that tackle practical problems. ... The International Conference on VLSI Design was started in 1985, as a small workshop at IIT Madras, under the visionary guidance of Dr. Vishwani Agrawal of Auburn University, and Prof. ... The Design Automation Conference, or DAC is a combination of a technical conference and a trade show, both specializing in electronic design automation. ... The International Conference on Computer-Aided Design, or ICCAD, is a yearly conference about electronic design automation. ... The International Symposium on Physical Design, or ISPD is a yearly conference on the topic of electronic design automation, concentrating on algorithms for the physical design of integrated circuits. ... The International Symposium on Quality Electronic Design (ISQED), is a premier Design & Design Automation conference, aimed at bridging the gap between and integration of, electronic design tools and processes, integrated circuit technologies, processes & manufacturing, to achieve design quality. ... Design Automation and Test in Europe, or DATE is a yearly conference on the topic of electronic design automation. ... The International Electron Devices Meeting is an annual conference held alternatively in San Francisco, California and Washington D.C. Established in 1954, IEDM is the worlds main forum on advancement in semiconductor and electronic devices. ... The Asia and South Pacific Design Automation Conference, or ASP-DAC is a yearly conference on the topic of electronic design automation. ...

VLSI journals

IEEE Transactions on Computer-Aided Design of Integrated Circuits and Systems, often abbreviated IEEE TCAD or IEEE Transactions on CAD, is a technical journal devoted to the design, analysis, and use of computer programs that aid in the design of integrated circuits and systems. ...

Branch pages

In manufacturing, a clean room is an enclosed area protected against dust that might interfere with the manufacturing process. ... A current mirror is a circuit designed to copy a current flowing through one active device by controlling the current in another active device of a circuit, keeping the output current constant regardless of loading. ... Ion implantation is a materials engineering process by which ions of a material can be implanted into another solid, thereby changing the physical properties of the solid. ...

Contents

Introduction

Advances in integrated circuits

Popularity of ICs

Classification

Manufacture

Fabrication

Packaging

History, origins, and generations

The birth of the IC

SSI, MSI, LSI

VLSI

ULSI, WSI, SOC, 3D-IC

Other developments

Silicon graffiti

Key industrial and academic data

Notable ICs

Manufacturers

VLSI conferences

VLSI journals

Branch pages

See also

References

External links

Contents

Introduction GA_googleFillSlot("encyclopedia_square");

Advances in integrated circuits

Popularity of ICs

Classification

Manufacture

Fabrication

Packaging

History, origins, and generations

The birth of the IC

SSI, MSI, LSI

VLSI

ULSI, WSI, SOC, 3D-IC

Other developments

Silicon graffiti

Key industrial and academic data

Notable ICs

Manufacturers

VLSI conferences

VLSI journals

Branch pages

See also

References

External links

Introduction