Example of Arabic IDN

Example of Chinese IDN

Example of Persian IDN

Example of Greek IDN

Example of Hebrew IDN

Example of Ukrainian IDN

An internationalized domain name (IDN) is an Internet domain name that (potentially) contains non-ASCII characters. Such domain names could contain letters with diacritics, as required by many European languages, or characters from non-Latin scripts such as Arabic or Chinese. However, the standard for domain names does not allow such characters, and much work has gone into finding a way around this, either by changing the standard, or by agreeing on a way to convert internationalized domain names into standard ASCII domain names while preserving the stability of the domain name system. Example of Arabic IDN This is a screenshot of copyrighted Macintosh computer software. ... Example of Arabic IDN This is a screenshot of copyrighted Macintosh computer software. ... Image File history File links Chinese-domain-name. ... Image File history File links Chinese-domain-name. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 528 × 599 pixelsFull resolution‎ (743 × 843 pixels, file size: 208 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) I, the copyright holder of this work, hereby release it into the public domain. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 528 × 599 pixelsFull resolution‎ (743 × 843 pixels, file size: 208 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) I, the copyright holder of this work, hereby release it into the public domain. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 800 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (1024 × 768 pixel, file size: 91 KB, MIME type: image/gif)this image is under GPL license created and uploaded by activetech ltd. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 800 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (1024 × 768 pixel, file size: 91 KB, MIME type: image/gif)this image is under GPL license created and uploaded by activetech ltd. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 685 × 600 pixelsFull resolution‎ (1,042 × 912 pixels, file size: 76 KB, MIME type: image/png) This image or media has a non-free use rationale that is disputed because of the following concern: . Unless concern is addressed by adding an... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 685 × 600 pixelsFull resolution‎ (1,042 × 912 pixels, file size: 76 KB, MIME type: image/png) This image or media has a non-free use rationale that is disputed because of the following concern: . Unless concern is addressed by adding an... The term domain name has multiple related meanings: A name that identifies a computer or computers on the internet. ... Image:ASCII fullsvg There are 95 printable ASCII characters, numbered 32 to 126. ... Example of a letter with a diacritic A diacritic or diacritical mark, also called an accent, is a small sign added to a letter to alter pronunciation or to distinguish between similar words. ... The Arabic alphabet is the script used for writing languages such as Arabic, Persian, Urdu, and others. ...

IDN has, by the standards of the Internet, a long history; it was originally proposed in 1996 (by M. Duerst) and implemented in 1998 (by T.W.Tan et al). After much debate and many competing proposals, a system called Internationalizing Domain Names in Applications (IDNA) was adopted as the chosen standard, and is currently, as of 2005, in the process of being rolled out. 2005 is a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar. ...

In IDNA, the term internationalized domain name means specifically any domain name consisting only of labels to which the IDNA ToASCII algorithm can be successfully applied. (For the meaning of 'label' and 'ToASCII', see the section ToASCII and ToUnicode below.)

Internationalizing domain names in applications

Internationalizing Domain Names in Applications (IDNA) is a mechanism defined in 2003 for handling internationalized domain names containing non-ASCII characters. Such domain names could not be handled by the existing DNS and name resolver infrastructure. Rather than redesigning the existing DNS infrastructure, it was decided that non-ASCII domain names should be converted to a suitable ASCII-based form by web browsers and other user applications; IDNA specifies how this conversion is to be done. Image:ASCII fullsvg There are 95 printable ASCII characters, numbered 32 to 126. ... The term domain name has multiple related meanings: A name that identifies a computer or computers on the internet. ... On the Internet, the Domain Name Server (DNS) associates various sorts of information with so-called domain names; most importantly, it serves as the phone book for the Internet by translating human-readable computer hostnames, e. ... An example of a Web browser (Mozilla Firefox) A web browser is a software application that enables a user to display and interact with text, images, videos, music and other information typically located on a Web page at a website on the World Wide Web or a local area network. ...

IDNA was designed for maximum backward compatibility with the existing DNS system, which was designed for use with names using only a subset of the ASCII character set. In technology, especially computing (irrespective of platform), a product is said to be backward compatible (or upward compatible) when it is able to take the place of an older product, by interoperating with other products that were designed for the older product. ...

An IDNA-enabled application is able to convert between the restricted-ASCII and non-ASCII representations of a domain, using the ASCII form in cases where it is needed (such as for DNS lookup), but being able to present the more readable non-ASCII form to users. Applications that do not support IDNA will not be able to handle domain names with non-ASCII characters, but will still be able to access such domains if given the (usually rather cryptic) ASCII equivalent.

ICANN issued guidelines for the use of IDNA in June 2003, and it was already possible to register .jp domains using this system in July 2003. Several other top-level domain registries started accepting registrations in March 2004. An ICANN working group formed in November 2007.^[1] ICANN headquarters ICANN (IPA /aɪkæn/) is the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers. ... “TLD” redirects here. ...

Mozilla 1.4, Netscape 7.1, Opera 7.11 and Safari are among the first applications to support IDNA. A browser plugin is available for Internet Explorer 6 to provide IDN support. Internet Explorer 7.0 and Windows Vista's URL APIs provide native support for IDN [1]. Mozilla was the official, public, original name of Mozilla Application Suite by the Mozilla Foundation, nowadays called SeaMonkey suite. ... Netscape Navigator, also known as Netscape, was a proprietary web browser that was popular during the 1990s. ... Opera is an Internet suite which handles common internet-related tasks, including visiting web sites, sending and receiving e-mail messages, managing contacts, and online chat. ... Safari is a web browser developed by Apple Inc. ... Windows Vista is a line of graphical operating systems used on personal computers, including home and business desktops, notebook computers, Tablet PCs, and media centers. ...

ToASCII and ToUnicode

The conversions between ASCII and non-ASCII forms of a domain name are accomplished by algorithms called ToASCII and ToUnicode. These algorithms are not applied to the domain name as a whole, but rather to individual labels. For example, if the domain name is www.example.com, then the labels are www, example and com, and ToASCII or ToUnicode would be applied to each of these three separately.

The details of these two algorithms are complex, and are specified in the RFCs linked at the end of this article. The following gives an overview of their behaviour. In internetworking and computer network engineering, Request for Comments (RFC) documents are a series of memoranda encompassing new research, innovations, and methodologies applicable to Internet technologies. ...

ToASCII leaves unchanged any ASCII label, but will fail if the label is unsuitable for DNS. If given a label containing at least one non-ASCII character, ToASCII will apply the Nameprep algorithm (which converts the label to lowercase and performs other normalization) and will then translate the result to ASCII using Punycode before prepending the 4-character string "xn--". This 4-character string is called the ACE prefix, where ACE means ASCII Compatible Encoding, and is used to distinguish Punycode-encoded labels from ordinary ASCII labels. Note that the ToASCII algorithm can fail in a number of ways; for example, the final string could exceed the 63-character limit for the DNS. A label on which ToASCII fails cannot be used in an internationalized domain name. Nameprep is the process of Unicode NFKC normalization, case-folding to lowercase and removal of some generally invisible code points before it is suitable to represent a domain name, or other such canonical name. ... This article or section may be confusing for some readers, and should be edited to be clearer. ...

ToUnicode reverses the action of ToASCII, stripping off the ACE prefix and applying the Punycode decode algorithm. It does not reverse the Nameprep processing, since that is merely a normalization and is by nature irreversible. Unlike ToASCII, ToUnicode always succeeds, because it simply returns the original string if decoding would fail. In particular, this means that ToUnicode has no effect on a string that does not begin with the ACE prefix.

Example of IDNA encoding

Main article: Punycode

As an example of how IDNA works, suppose the domain to be encoded is Bücher.ch (“Bücher” is German for “books”, and .ch is the country domain for Switzerland). This has two labels, Bücher and ch. The second label is pure ASCII, and so is left unchanged. The first label is processed by Nameprep to give bücher, and then by Punycode to give bcher-kva, and then has xn-- prepended to give xn--bcher-kva. The final domain suitable for use with the DNS is therefore xn--bcher-kva.ch. This article or section may be confusing for some readers, and should be edited to be clearer. ... .ch is the Internet country code top-level domain (ccTLD) for Switzerland. ... A country code top-level domain (ccTLD) is a top-level domain used and reserved for a country or a dependent territory. ...

ASCII Spoofing and squatting concerns

Main article: IDN homograph attack

Because IDN allows websites to use full Unicode names, it also makes it much easier to create a spoofed web site that looks exactly like another, including domain name and security certificate, but in fact is controlled by someone attempting to steal private information. These spoofing attacks potentially open users up to phishing attacks. It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Homograph spoofing attack. ... In the context of network security, a spoofing attack is a situation in which one person or program successfully masquerades as another by falsifying data and thereby gaining an illegitimate advantage. ... An example of a phishing email, disguised as an official email from a (fictional) bank. ...

These attacks are not due to technical deficiencies in either the Unicode or IDNA specifications, but due to the fact that different characters in different languages can look the same, depending on the font used. For example, Unicode character U+0430, Cyrillic small letter a ("а"), can look identical to Unicode character U+0061, Latin small letter a, ("a") which is the lowercase "a" used in English. Characters that look alike in this way may be termed homonyms, homographs, or (less ambiguously) homoglyphs. For the specialised use of homonym in scientific nomenclature, see Homonym (botany) and Homonym (zoology). ... In typography, a homoglyph is one of a pair of characters with shapes that are visually identical or nearly identical. ...

Although a computer may display visually identical or very similar glyphs for two different characters, these differences are still significant to the computer when locating web sites or validating certificates. The user assumes a one-to-one correspondence between the visual appearance of a name and the named entity, but when two names appear identical, this correspondence breaks down. variant glyphs representing the character a (allographs of a) in the Zapfino typeface. ...

By contrast, with the old set of a to z, 0 to 9, and the hyphen, there is little in the way of homographs. l and 1 and 0 and o are the closest, and the combination "rn" looks similar to "m" in some fonts; however, most fonts make a noticeable visible distinction between them. Still, this means even in the worst case a site like Google would still only need to register 8 names to protect against the homograph attacks.

On December 2001, two Israeli researchers, Evgeniy Gabrilovich and Alex Gontmakher, published a paper titled "The Homograph Attack",^[2] an attack that used Unicode URLs to spoof a website URL. To prove the feasibility of this kind of attack, the researchers successfully registered a variant of the domain name "Microsoft.com" which incorporated Russian language characters. Year 2001 (MMI) was a common year starting on Monday (link displays the 2001 Gregorian calendar). ...

In general, this kind of attack is known as a homograph spoofing attack. This problem was anticipated before IDN was introduced, and guidelines were issued to registries to try and avoid or reduce the problem -- for example, recommending that registries only accept the Latin alphabet and that of their own country, not all of Unicode. Unfortunately this advice was not followed by those in control of a number of major TLDs. It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with IDN homograph attack. ... TLD is a three-letter acronym that may stand for: Top-level domain Tag Library Descriptor — an XML document that maps JSP tags to their handlers or associated files. ...

On February 7, 2005, Slashdot reported that this exploit was disclosed at the hacker conference Shmoocon with an example available at http://www.shmoo.com/idn/. On browsers supporting IDNA, the URL "http://www.pаypal.com/" (where the first a is replaced by a Cyrillic а) appears to lead to paypal.com but instead lead to a spoofed PayPal web site that said "Meeow." is the 38th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Slashdot, often abbreviated as /.[1], is a science, science fiction, and technology-related news website owned by SourceForge, Inc. ... This article is about computer hacking. ... ShmooCon is an east coast computer security convention organized by The Shmoo Group. ... eBays North First Street satellite office campus (home to PayPals corporate headquarters) PayPal is an e-commerce business allowing payments and money transfers to be made through the Internet. ...

Internet Explorer 7 imposes restrictions on displaying non-ASCII domain names based on a user-defined list of allowed languages and provide an anti-phishing filter that checks suspicious Web sites against a remote database of known phishing sites. Windows Internet Explorer (formerly Microsoft Internet Explorer abbreviated MSIE), commonly abbreviated to IE, is a series of graphical web browsers developed by Microsoft and included as part of the Microsoft Windows line of operating systems starting in 1995. ...

Since Internet Explorer prior to version 7 does not support IDNs, it is not vulnerable to this kind of attack. However, older versions of Internet Explorer can be made IDN-compatible by browser plug-ins some of which are vulnerable to the spoofing attacks. On July 9, 2005, the IDN-enabling plug-in Quero Toolbar 2.1.0 was released that implemented several anti-spoofing techniques like mixed-script detection and highlighting of characters belonging to different scripts.^{[citation needed]} A plugin (or plug-in) is a computer program that can, or must, interact with another program to provide a certain, usually very specific, function. ... is the 190th day of the year (191st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ...

On February 17, 2005, Mozilla developers announced that they would ship their next versions of their software with IDN support still enabled, but showing the punycode URLs instead, thus thwarting any attacks exploiting similarities between ASCII and non-ASCII letters (but not necessarily, for example, between Cyrillic and Greek letters, unless the user knows which Punycode URL corresponds to their chosen IDN URL) while still allowing people to access websites on an IDN domain. This is a change from the earlier plans to disable IDN entirely for the time being. [2] is the 48th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... This article or section may be confusing for some readers, and should be edited to be clearer. ...

Since then, both Mozilla and Opera have now announced that they will be using per-domain whitelists to selectively switch on IDN display for domain run by registries which are taking appropriate anti-spoofing precautions[3]. (See the article on homograph spoofing attacks for more details). As of September 9, 2005, the most recent version of Mozilla Firefox as well as the most recent Internet Explorer displays the spoofed Paypal URL as "http://www.xn--pypal-4ve.com/", unsightly but clearly different from the actual paypal.com. By contrast, the (non-existent) "http://www.xn--pypal-4ve.org" will display in the Firefox address bar as http://www.pаypal.org, as this form of domain is prohibited from registration at the Afilias registry level and therefore does not pose the same risk. It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with IDN homograph attack. ... is the 252nd day of the year (253rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Firefox redirects here. ... Afilias Limited is the operator of the . ...

Safari's approach is to render problematic character sets as punycode. This can be changed by altering the settings in Safari's system preference files^{[citation needed]}. Safari is a web browser developed by Apple Inc. ... In Mac OS X operating system, plist files are files that store Core Foundation objects. ...

History of IDN

• 12/1996: Martin Duerst's original Internet Draft proposing UTF5 (the first incarnation of what is known today as ACE) - UTF-5 was first defined by Martin Duerst at the University of Zürich in [4][5][6]
• 03/1998: Early Research on IDN at National University of Singapore (NUS), Center for Internet Research (formerly Internet Research and Development Unit - IRDU) led by Prof. Tan Tin Wee (IDN Project team - Lim Juay Kwang and Leong Kok Yong) and subsequently continued under a team at Bioinformatrix Pte. Ltd. (BIX Pte. Ltd.) - a NUS spin-off company led by Prof. S. Subbiah.
• 07/1998: Geneva INET'98 conference with a BoF discussion on iDNS and APNG General Meeting and Working Group meeting.
• 07/1998: Asia Pacific Networking Group (APNG, now still in existence [7] and distinct from a gathering known as APSTAR [8]) iDNS Working Group formed. [9]
• 10/1998: James Seng was recruited to lead further IDN development at BIX Pte. Ltd. by Prof. S. Subbiah.
• 02/1999: iDNS Testbed launched by BIX Pte. Ltd. under the auspicies of APNG with participation from CNNIC, JPNIC, KRNIC, TWNIC, THNIC, HKNIC and SGNIC led by James Seng [10]
• 02/1999: Presentation of Report on IDN at Joint APNG-APTLD meeting, at APRICOT'99
• 03/1999: Endorsement of the IDN Report at APNG General Meeting 1 March 1999.
• 06/1999: Grant application by APNG jointly with the Centre for Internet Research (CIR), National University of Singapore, to the International Development Research Center (IDRC), a Canadian Government funded international organisation to work on IDN for IPv6. This APNG Project was funded under the Pan Asia R&D Grant administered on behalf of IDRC by the Canadian Committee on Occupational Health and Safety (CCOHS). Principal Investigator: Tan Tin Wee of National University of Singapore. [11]
• 07/1999 Tout, Walid R. (WALID Inc.) Filed IDNA patent application number US1999000358043 Method and system for internationalizing domain names. Published 2001-01-30 [12]
• 07/1999: [13]; Renewed 2000 [14] Internet Draft on UTF5 by James Seng, Martin Duerst and Tan Tin Wee.
• 08/1999: APTLD and APNG forms a working group to look into IDN issues chaired by Kilnam Chon. [15]
• 10/1999: BIX Pte. Ltd. and National University of Singapore together with New York Venture Capital investors, General Atlantic Partners, spun-off the IDN effort into 2 new Singapore companies - i-DNS.net International Inc. and i-Email.net Pte. Ltd. that created the first commercial implementation of an IDN Solution for both domain names and IDN email addresses respectively.
• 11/1999: IETF IDN Birds-of-Feather in Washington was initiated by i-DNS.net at the request of IETF officials.
• 12/1999: i-DNS.net InternationalPte. Ltd. launched the first commercial IDN. It was in Taiwan and in Chinese characters under the top-level IDN TLD ".gongsi" (meaning loosely ".com") with endorsement by the Minister of Communications of Taiwan and some major Taiwanese ISPs with reports of over 200 000 names sold in a week in Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore, Malaysia, China, Australia and USA. Requires use of either plug-in or special DNS hacks.
• Late 1999: Kilnam Chon initiates Task Force on IDNS which led to formation of MINC, the Multilingual Internet Names Consortium. [16]
• 01/2000: IETF IDN Working Group formed chaired by James Seng and Marc Blanchet
• 01/2000: The second ever commercial IDN launch was IDN TLDs in the Tamil Language, corresponding to .com, .net, .org, and .edu. These were launched in India with IT Ministry support by i-DNS.net International. Requires use of either plug-in or special DNS hacks.
• 02/2000: Multilingual Internet Names Consortium(MINC) Proposal BoF at IETF Adelaide. [17]
• 03/2000: APRICOT 2000 Multilingual DNS session [18]
• 04/2000: WALID Inc. (with IDNA patent pending application 6182148) started Registration & Resolving Multilingual Domain Names.
• 05/2000: Interoperability Testing WG, MINC meeting. San Francisco, chaired by Bill Manning and Y.Yoneya 12 May 2000. [19]
• 06/2000: Inaugural Launch of the Multilingual Internet Names Consortium (MINC) in Seoul [20] to drive the collaborative roll-out of IDN starting from the Asia Pacific. [21]
• 07/2000: Joint Engineering TaskForce (JET) initiated in Yokohama to study technical issues led by JPNIC (K.Konishi)
• 07/2000: Official Formation of CDNC Chinese Domain Name Consortium to resolve issues related to and to deploy Han Character domain names, founded by CNNIC, TWNIC, HKNIC and MONIC in May 2000. [22] [23]
• 03/2001: ICANN Board IDN Working Group formed
• 07/2001: Japanese Domain Name Association : JDNA Lauch Ceremony (July 13, 2001) in Tokyo, Japan.
• 07/2001: Urdu Internet Names System (July 28, 2001) in Islamabad, Pakistan, Organised Jointly by SDNP and MINC. [24]
• 07/2001: Presentation on IDN to the Committee Meeting of the Computer Science and Telecommunications Board, National Academies USA (JULY 11-13, 2001) at University of California School of Information Management and Systems, Berkeley, CA. [25]
• 08/2001: MINC presentation and outreach at the Asia Pacific Advanced Network annual conference, Penang, Malaysia 20th August 2001
• 10/2001: Joint MINC-CDNC Meeting in Beijing 18-20 October 2001
• 11/2001: ICANN IDN Committee formed
• 12/2001: Joint ITU-WIPO Symposium on Multilingual Domain Names organised in association with MINC, 6-7 Dec 2001, International Conference Center, Geneva.
• 01/2003: Free implementation of StringPrep, Punycode, and IDNA release in GNU Libidn.
• 03/2003: Publication of RFC 3454, RFC 3490, RFC 3491 and RFC 3492
• 06/2003: Publication of ICANN IDN Guidelines for registries Adopted by .cn, .info, .jp, .org, and .tw registries.
• 05/2004: Publication of RFC 3743, Joint Engineering Team (JET) Guidelines for Internationalized Domain Names (IDN) Registration and Administration for Chinese, Japanese, and Korean
• 03/2005: First Study Group 17 of ITU-T meeting on Internationalized Domain Names [26]
• 05/2005: .IN ccTLD (India) creates expert IDN Working Group to create solutions for 22 official languages
• 04/2006: ITU Study Group 17 meeting in Korea gave final approval to the Question on Internationalized Domain Names [27]
• 06/2006: Workshop on IDN at ICANN meeting at Marrakech, Morocco
• 11/2006: ICANN GNSO IDN Working Group created to discuss policy implications of IDN TLDs. Ram Mohan elected Chair of the IDN Working Group.
• 12/2006: ICANN meeting at São Paulo discusses status of lab tests of IDNs within the root.
• 01/2007: Tamil and Malayalam variant table work completed by India's C-DAC and Afilias
• 03/2007: ICANN GNSO IDN Working Group completes work, Ram Mohan presents report at ICANN Lisboa meeting. [28]
• 10/2007: Eleven IDNA top-level domains were added to the root nameservers in order to evaluate the use of IDNA at the top level of the DNS.^[3][4]

Seng Ching Hong, or James Seng, is one of the Internet pioneers in Singapore and is recognized as an international expert in the Internet arena. ... China Internet Network Information Center (Simplified Chinese:中国互联网络信息中心), founded as a non-profit organization on June 3, 1997, is the administrative agency responsible for Internet affairs under the Ministry of Information Industry of the Peoples Republic of China. ... The Japan Network Information Center (JPNIC) is the National Internet Registry in Japan that manages several aspects of internet operations, including the allocation of IP addresses and AS numbers. ... Seng Ching Hong, or James Seng, is one of the Internet pioneers in Singapore and is recognized as an international expert in the Internet arena. ... Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) is charged with developing and promoting Internet standards. ... The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) is charged with developing and promoting Internet standards. ... Seng Ching Hong, or James Seng, is one of the Internet pioneers in Singapore and is recognized as an international expert in the Internet arena. ... ICANN headquarters ICANN (IPA /aɪkæn/) is the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers. ... ICANN headquarters ICANN (IPA /aɪkæn/) is the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers. ... Ram Mohan is the name that is framed by combining names of HINDU Gods RAMA and MOHAN (which also is the other name of Krishna) Ram Mohan is the Vice President of Business Operations and Chief Technology Officer at Afilias Limited. ... Afilias Limited is the operator of the . ... Ram Mohan is the name that is framed by combining names of HINDU Gods RAMA and MOHAN (which also is the other name of Krishna) Ram Mohan is the Vice President of Business Operations and Chief Technology Officer at Afilias Limited. ... “TLD” redirects here. ... The AMS-IX mirror of the K root-server. ...

DNS registries known to have adopted IDNA

• .ac: see details
• .ae
• .at: see details
• .biz: NeuLevel/NeuStar supports Chinese, Danish, German, Icelandic, Japanese, Korean, Norwegian, Spanish, Swedish IDN in .biz, see details
• .br: (May 9, 2005) for Portuguese(Brazilian) names, see details
• .cat: (February 14, 2006) for Catalan names, see details
• .com: see details
• .ch: (March 1, 2004)
• .cl: (September 21, 2005), see details
• .cn: see CNNIC's web site
• .de: (March 1, 2004), see details
• .dk: (January 1, 2004), (æ, ø, å, ö, ä, ü, & é), see details
• .es: (October 2, 2007), (á, à, é, è, í, ï, ó, ò, ú, ü, ñ, ç, l·l) see details
• .fi: (September 1, 2005), see details
• .gr: (July 4, 2005) for Greek names, see details
• .hk: (March 8, 2007) for Chinese characters, see details
• .hu
• .info: (March 19, 2004) see details
• .io: see details
• .ir: see more details
• .is: (July 1, 2004) see details
• .jp: (July 2003), for Japanese characters (Kanji, hiragana & katakana)
• .kr: (August 2003), for Korean characters
• .li: (March 1, 2004)
• .lt: (March 30, 2003), (ą, č, ę, ė, į, š, ų, ū, ž), see details
• .lv: (2004), see details
• .museum: (January 20, 2004), see details
• .net: see details
• .no: (February 9, 2004), see details
• .nu: see details
• .org: (January 18, 2005), see details
• .pl: (September 11, 2003), see details
• .pt: (July 1, 2005) for Portuguese characters
• .se: (October 2003), for Swedish characters, summer 2007 also for Finnish, Meänkieli (tornedalsfinska), Sami languages, Romani and Jiddish. See details
• .sh: see details
• .tm: see details
• .tr: (November 14, 2006), see nic.tr website for details
• .tw: Traditional Chinese characters, see TWNIC's site
• .vn: Vietnamese, see character list

.ac is the Internet country code top-level domain (ccTLD) for Ascension Island. ... .ae is the Internet country code top-level domain (ccTLD) for the United Arab Emirates. ... .at is the Internet country code top-level domain (ccTLD) for Austria. ... .biz is a generic top-level domain (TLD) intended for domains to be used by businesses; the name is a phonetic spelling of the first syllable of business. ... .br is the Internet country code top-level domain (ccTLD) for Brazil. ... is the 129th day of the year (130th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... .cat is a top-level domain submitted to ICANN for approval as a sponsored TLD. It would be used to highlight Catalan language and culture. ... is the 45th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... This article is about the generic top-level domain . ... .ch is the Internet country code top-level domain (ccTLD) for Switzerland. ... is the 60th day of the year (61st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2004 (MMIV) was a leap year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ... .cl is the Internet country code top-level domain (ccTLD) for Chile. ... is the 264th day of the year (265th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... .cn is the country code top-level domain (ccTLD) for the Peoples Republic of China. ... .de is the country code top-level domain (ccTLD) for the Federal Republic of Germany. ... is the 60th day of the year (61st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2004 (MMIV) was a leap year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ... .dk is the country code top-level domain (ccTLD) for Denmark. ... is the 1st day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2004 (MMIV) was a leap year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ... .es is the country code top-level domain (ccTLD) for Spain. ... is the 275th day of the year (276th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... .fi is the Internet country code top-level domain (ccTLD) for Finland. ... is the 244th day of the year (245th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... .gr is the country code top-level domain (ccTLD) for Greece. ... is the 185th day of the year (186th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... .hk is the Internet country code top-level domain ( ccTLD) for Hong Kong. ... is the 67th day of the year (68th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... Technical note: Due to technical limitations, some web browsers may not display some special characters in this article. ... .hu is the Internet country code top-level domain (ccTLD) for Hungary. ... .info is a generic top-level domain intended for informative websites, although its use is not restricted. ... is the 78th day of the year (79th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2004 (MMIV) was a leap year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ... .io is the Internet country code top-level domain ( ccTLD) for the British Indian Ocean Territory. ... .ir is the Internet country code top-level domain (ccTLD) for Iran. ... .is is the Internet country code top-level domain ( ccTLD) for Iceland. ... is the 182nd day of the year (183rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2004 (MMIV) was a leap year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ... .jp is the Internet country code top-level domain (ccTLD) for Japan. ... Year 2003 (MMIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... .kr is the Internet country code top-level domain ( ccTLD) for South Korea. ... Year 2003 (MMIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... .li is the Internet country code top-level domain ( ccTLD) for Liechtenstein. ... is the 60th day of the year (61st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2004 (MMIV) was a leap year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ... .lt is the Internet country code top-level domain ( ccTLD) for Lithuania. ... is the 89th day of the year (90th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2003 (MMIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... .lv is the Internet country code top-level domain ( ccTLD) for Latvia. ... .museum is a generic top-level domain (gTLD) used exclusively by museums, museum associations, and individual members of the museum profession, as these groups are defined by the International Council of Museums (ICOM). ... is the 20th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2004 (MMIV) was a leap year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ... This article is about the top-level domain . ... .no is the Internet country code top-level domain (ccTLD) for Norway. ... is the 40th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2004 (MMIV) was a leap year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ... .nu is the Internet country code top-level domain (ccTLD) assigned to the island state of Niue. ... .org (organization) is a generic top-level domain (gTLD) used in the Internets Domain Name System. ... is the 18th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... .pl is the Internet country code top-level domain (ccTLD) for Poland, administered by NASK, Polish research and development organization. ... is the 254th day of the year (255th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2003 (MMIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... .pt is the Internet country code top-level domain (ccTLD) for Portugal and is managed by the Fundacao para a Computacao Cientifica Nacional (FCCN). ... is the 182nd day of the year (183rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... .se is the Internet country code top-level domain (ccTLD) for Sweden. ... Year 2003 (MMIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... Meänkieli (lit. ... Look up Sami, sami in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Romani (or Romany) relates to: The Roma people, sometimes referred to as Gypsies. Romani language, the language of the Roma. ... Yiddish ( yidish or idish, literally: Jewish) is a nonterritorial Germanic language, spoken throughout the world and written with the Hebrew alphabet. ... For the . ... For other meanings, see TM .tm is the Internet country code top-level domain (ccTLD) for Turkmenistan. ... .tr is the Internet country code top-level domain (ccTLD) for Turkey. ... is the 318th day of the year (319th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... .tw is the Internet country code top-level domain ( ccTLD) for Taiwan ( Republic of China). ... Technical note: Due to technical limitations, some web browsers may not display some special characters in this article. ... .vn is the Internet country code top-level domain ( ccTLD) for Vietnam. ...

Non-IDNA or non-ICANN registries that support non-ASCII domain names

There are other registries that support non-ASCII domain names; a Singapore company called I-DNS, also proposes via an own registrar network generic domain name registrations in various languages, but the country codes at the end of the domain names are also transcripted into the same characters as the domain names. The company ThaiURL.com in Thailand supports .com registrations via its own modified DNS, ThaiURL. Registrar may refer to: In education, a registrar or registry is an official in an academic institution (a college, university, or secondary school) who handles student records. ... The term domain name has multiple related meanings: A name that identifies a computer or computers on the internet. ... The term domain name has multiple related meanings: A name that identifies a computer or computers on the internet. ... This article belongs in one or more categories. ...

Because these companies, and other organizations that offer modified DNS systems, do not subject themselves to ICANN's control, they must be regarded as alternate DNS roots. Domains registered with them will therefore not be supported by most Internet Service Providers, and as a result most users will not be able to look up such domains without manually configuring their computers to use the alternate DNS. ICANN headquarters ICANN (IPA /aɪkæn/) is the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers. ... In addition to the Internets main DNS root (currently consisting of 13 nominal root nameservers working in agreement with ICANN), several organizations operate alternate DNS roots (often referred to as alt roots). ... “ISP” redirects here. ...

At ICANN's December meeting at São Paulo, IDNs were discussed in depth. ICANN has continued lab tests of IDNs within the root to implement the true IDN top level domains (IDN.IDN).

See also

• Unicode
• Nameprep
• Punycode

The Unicode Standard, Version 5. ... Nameprep is the process of Unicode NFKC normalization, case-folding to lowercase and removal of some generally invisible code points before it is suitable to represent a domain name, or other such canonical name. ... This article or section may be confusing for some readers, and should be edited to be clearer. ...

References

4. GNSO IDN Working Group Outcomes Paper: http://gnso.icann.org/correspondence/gnso-idn-wg-outcomes-ram.pdf is the 306th day of the year (307th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 306th day of the year (307th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

External links

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• RFC 3454 (Stringprep)
• RFC 3490 (IDNA)
• RFC 3491 (Nameprep)
• RFC 3492 (Punycode)
• ICANN Guidelines for the Implementation of Internationalized Domain Names
• IANA Repository of TLD IDN Practices
• IDN TLD evaluation gateway
• Internet Mail Consortium IDNA test tool (includes Perl source code)
• Online Punycode/IDN Decoder/Encoder
• Online StringPrep/Punycode/IDNA encoder/decoder (supports Latin-1, UTF-8, KOI-8, 2022-JP, etc)
• List of all applications which have implemented IDNA along with a list of open source SDKs
• IANA e-mails explaining the final choice of ACE prefix
• GNU Libidn is an implementation of IDNA
• Unicode Technical Report #36 - Security Considerations for the Implementation of Unicode and Related Technology
• ICANN Internationalized Domain Names.
• IDN Language Table Registry
• The Homograph Attack, Evgeniy Gabrilovich and Alex Gontmakher, Communications of the ACM, 45(2):128, February 2002
• MINC - Multilingual Internet Names Consortium - Advocates use of IDN's worldwide.
• ISC IDN-OSS project Open Source EchIDNA plug-in for IE5/6