A significant number of inventions were produced in the Muslim world, many of them with direct implications for Fiqh related issues. Most of these inventions were invented in the Middle Ages, especially during the Islamic Golden Age. An invention is an object, process, or technique which displays an element of novelty. ... Nations with a Muslim majority appear in green, while nations that are approximately 50% Muslim appear yellow. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... The Middle Ages formed the middle period in a traditional schematic division of European history into three ages: the classical civilization of Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and modern times, beginning with the Renaissance. ... Photo taken from medieval manuscript by Qotbeddin Shirazi (1236–1311), a Persian Astronomer. ...

Aircraft technology

Parachute

In 9th century Islamic Spain, Armen Firman invented a primitive version of the parachute.^[1][2][3][4] John H. Lienhard described it in The Engines of Our Ingenuity as follows: Al-Andalus is the Arabic name given the Iberian Peninsula by its Muslim conquerors; it refers to both the Caliphate proper and the general period of Muslim rule (711–1492). ... Armen Firman was a Moor remembered for an attempt at flight in 852 AD. He wrapped himself in a loose cloak stiffened with wooden struts and jumped from a tower in Córdoba, Spain, intending to use the garment as wings on which he could glide. ... The Apollo 15 capsule landed safely despite a parachute failure. ...

"In 852, a new Caliph and a bizarre experiment: A daredevil named Armen Firman decided to fly off a tower in Cordova. He glided back to earth, using a huge winglike cloak to break his fall. He survived with minor injuries, and the young Ibn Firnas was there to see it."^[5]

Hang glider

Shortly afterwards, Abbas Ibn Firnas built the first hang glider, which may have also been the first manned glider. Knowledge of Firman and Firnas' flying machines spread to other parts of Europe from Arabic references.^[1][2] Abbas Ibn Firnas, or Abbas Qasim Ibn Firnas (Unknown- 887 A.D.) was a Spanish-Arab humanitarian, technologist, and chemist. ... Hang gliding is one of the windsports. ... Gliders or Sailplanes are heavier-than-air aircraft primarily intended for unpowered flight. ... World map showing the location of Europe. ... Arabic ( or just ) is the largest living member of the Semitic language family in terms of speakers. ...

According to Philip Hitti in History of the Arabs: Philip Khuri Hitti (1886 - 1978), born in Shimlan, Lebanon, was a Western scholar of Islam. ... History of the Arabs is a book written by Philip Khuri Hitti in 1937. ...

"Ibn Firnas was the first man in history to make a scientific attempt at flying."

Artificial wings

Ibn Firnas' hang glider was the first to have artificial wings, though the flight was eventually unsuccessful. According to Evliya Çelebi in the 17th century, Hezarfen Ahmet Celebi was the first aviator to have made a successful flight with artificial wings between 1630-1632.^[6] WING ESPN 1410 is a commercial AM radio station in Dayton, Ohio operating with 5,000 watts at 1410 kHz with studios, offices and transmitter located on David Road in Kettering. ... Evliya Çelebi (اوليا چلبي; also known as DerviÅŸ Mehmed Zılli) (March 25, 1611–1682) was the most famous Ottoman traveler, having journeyed throughout the territories of the Ottoman Empire and the neighbouring lands over a period of forty years. ... Hezarfen Ahmet Celebi (Turkish: Hezarfen Ahmet Çelebi), who lived in the 17th century in Istanbul in the Ottoman Empire, is one of the first aviators to have succeeded in flying with artificial wings. ... For other uses, see Aviator (disambiguation). ... Events February 22 - Native American Quadequine introduces Popcorn to English colonists. ... See also: 1632 (novel) Events February 22 - Galileos Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems is published July 23 - 300 colonists for New France depart Dieppe November 8 - Wladyslaw IV Waza elected king of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth after Zygmunt III Waza death November 16 - Battle of Lützen...

Rocket aircraft

According to Evliya Çelebi in the 17th century, Lagari Hasan Çelebi launched himself in the air in a rocket, which was composed of a large cage with a conical top filled with gunpowder. The flight was accomplished as a part of celebrations performed for the birth of Ottoman Emperor Murad IV's daughter in 1633. He is said to have made a soft landing in the Bosporus by using the wings attached to his body after the gunpowder was consumed and was rewarded by the sultan with a valuable military position in the Ottoman army. The flight was estimated to have lasted about twenty seconds and the maximum height reached around 300 metres.^[6] Evliya Çelebi (اوليا چلبي; also known as DerviÅŸ Mehmed Zılli) (March 25, 1611–1682) was the most famous Ottoman traveler, having journeyed throughout the territories of the Ottoman Empire and the neighbouring lands over a period of forty years. ... Lagari Hasan Çelebi is considered the first person to have flown. ... A Soyuz rocket, at Baikanur launch pad. ... Motto دولت ابد مدت Devlet-i Ebed-müddet (The Eternal State) Anthem Ottoman imperial anthem Borders in 1680, see: list of territories Capital Söğüt (1299–1326) Bursa (1326–65) Edirne (1365–1453) Constantinople (Ä°stanbul, 1453–1922) Language(s) Ottoman Turkish Government Monarchy [[Category:Former monarchies}}|Ottoman Empire, 1299]] Sultans  - 1281–1326... Murad IV (Arabic: مراد الرابع) (June 16, 1612 – February 9, 1640) was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1623 to 1640, known both for restoring the authority of the state and for the brutality of his methods. ... Satellite image of the Bosporus, taken from the International Space Station in April 2004 Bosphorus Bridge Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge The Bosporus or Bosphorus, also known as the Istanbul Strait, (Turkish: Ä°stanbul BoÄŸazı or, for Ä°stanbuls inhabitants, simply BoÄŸaz; while the term BoÄŸaziçi denotes those... Motto دولت ابد مدت Devlet-i Ebed-müddet (The Eternal State) Anthem Ottoman imperial anthem Borders in 1680, see: list of territories Capital Söğüt (1299–1326) Bursa (1326–65) Edirne (1365–1453) Constantinople (Ä°stanbul, 1453–1922) Language(s) Ottoman Turkish Government Monarchy [[Category:Former monarchies}}|Ottoman Empire, 1299]] Sultans  - 1281–1326...

Astronomical instruments

Main article: Islamic astronomy

Muslim astronomers developed a number of astronomical instruments, including several variations of the astrolabe, which was originally invented by Hipparchus in the 2nd century BCE, but with considerable improvements made to the device in the Muslim world. This is a sub-article of Islamic science and astronomy. ... A 16th century astrolabe. ... For the Athenian tyrant, see Hipparchus (son of Pisistratus). ... Nations with a Muslim majority appear in green, while nations that are approximately 50% Muslim appear yellow. ...

Astrolabes

The earliest known example of an astrolabein muslim lands is dated to 315 AH in the Islamic calendar, corresponding to 927-928 CE. The first person credited with building a brass astrolabe is reportedly Fazari.^[7] The instruments were used to read the rise of the time of rise of the Sun and fixed stars. A 16th century astrolabe. ... The Islamic calendar or Muslim calendar (Arabic: التقويم الهجري; at-taqwīm al-hijrī; Persian: تقویم هجري قمری ‎ taqwīm-e hejri-ye qamari; also called the Hijri calendar) is the calendar used to date events in many predominantly Muslim countries, and used by Muslims everywhere to determine the proper day on which to celebrate... For other uses, see Brass (disambiguation). ... Abu abdallah Muhammad ibn Ibrahim al-Fazari was a Persian philosopher and mathematician. ... The Sun (Latin: Sol) is the star at the center of the Solar System. ...

Mechanical astrolabes were developed in the Muslim world, and were perfected by Ibn Samh. These can be considered as an ancestor of the mechanical clocks developed by later Muslim engineers.^[8] The massive clock on the Clock Tower of the Palace of Westminster, London (commonly known as Big Ben, although Big Ben is the bell inside - the picture is St Stephens Tower). ...

Abu Rayhan al-Biruni invented and wrote the earliest treatise on the orthographical astrolabe in the 1000s.^[9] (September 15, 973 in Kath, Khwarezm – December 13, 1048 in Ghazni) was a Persian [1][2][3] polymath and scientist of the 11th Century, whose experiments and discoveries were as significant and diverse as those of Leonardo da Vinci or Galileo, five hundred years before the Renaissance; al-Biruni was... Example of orthographic drawing from a US Patent (1913), showing two views of the same object. ... Events Sweyn I of Denmark invades England. ...

Arzachel of Andalusia constructed one such instrument in Islamic Spain which, unlike its predecessors, did not depend on the latitude of the observer, and could be used anywhere. This instrument became known in Europe as the Saphaea. For other meanings, see Arzachel (disambiguation) Al-Zarqali (in full Abu Ishaq Ibrahim ibn Yahya Al-Zarqali, Arzachel to Latin Europe), (1028–1087 CE), was a leading Arab mathematician and the foremost astronomer of his time. ... Motto: Andalucía por sí, para España y la humanidad (Andalusia by herself, for Spain, and for humankind) Capital Seville Official language(s) Spanish Area  â€“ Total  â€“ % of Spain Ranked 2nd  87,268 km²  17. ... Al-Andalus is the Arabic name given the Iberian Peninsula by its Muslim conquerors; it refers to both the Caliphate proper and the general period of Muslim rule (711–1492). ...

A famous work by Sharaf al-Dīn al-Tūsī is one in which he describes the linear astrolabe, sometimes called the "staff of al-Tusi", which he invented.^[10] (1135 - 1213) was a Persian mathematician of the Islamic Golden Age (during the Middle Ages). ... A 16th century astrolabe. ...

An armillary sphere had similar applications to a celestial globe. No early Islamic armillary spheres survive, but several treatises on “the instrument with the rings” were written. In this context, there is also an Islamic development, the spherical astrolabe, of which only one complete instrument, from the 14th century, has survived. Armillary sphere An armillary sphere (variations known as a spherical astrolabe, armilla, or armil) is a model of the celestial sphere, invented by the ancient Greek Eratosthenes in 255 BC. Its name comes from the Latin armilla (circle, bracelet), since it has a skeleton made of graduated metal circles linking... Chinese history, astronomers have created celestial globes to assist the observation of the stars. ... Armillary sphere An armillary sphere (variations known as a spherical astrolabe, armilla, or armil) is a model of the celestial sphere, invented by the ancient Greek Eratosthenes in 255 BC. The Chinese during the 1st century BC (Western Han Dynasty) also invented the armillary sphere, while the 2nd century Chinese...

Other instruments

The quadrant, as well as several other forms of it, were invented by Muslims in Iraq. Among them was the sine quadrant used for astronomical calculations and various forms of the horary quadrant, used to determine time (especially the times of prayer) by observations of the Sun or stars. A center of the development of quadrants was 9th century Baghdad.^[11] Look up Quadrant on Wiktionary, the free dictionary Quadrant can mean: HMS Quadrant (G11), a WW-II British/Australian warship. ... Mary Magdalene in prayer. ... Baghdad (Arabic: ) is the capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate. ...

The first sextant was constructed in Ray, Iran, by Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi in 994. It was a very large sextant that achieved a high level of accuracy for astronomical measurements, which he described his in his treatise, On the obliquity of the ecliptic and the latitudes of the cities.^[12] A sextant is a measuring instrument generally used to measure the angle of elevation of a celestial object above the horizon. ... Ray, is one of the oldest cities of Iran. ... Abu Mahmud Hamid ibn al-Khidr Al-Khujandi was a Persian (Tajik) astronomer and mathematician who lived in the late 10th century and helped build an observatory near in what is now Ray, Iran near Tehran. ... Events Otto III reaches his majority and begins to rule Germany in his own right. ... A giant Hubble mosaic of the Crab Nebula, a supernova remnant Astronomy (also frequently referred to as astrophysics) is the scientific study of celestial objects (such as stars, planets, comets, and galaxies) and phenomena that originate outside the Earths atmosphere (such as the cosmic background radiation). ...

The equatorium, one of the earliest astrometric devices, is an Islamic invention from Islamic Spain. The earliest known was probably made around 1015 CE. It is a mechanical device for finding the positions of the Moon, Sun, and planets, without calculation using a geometrical model to represent the celestial body's mean and anomalistic position. An Equatorium (plural Equatoria) was a medieval astrometic device used by astronomers. ... Astrometry is a part of Astronomy and deals with the positions of stars and other celestial bodies, their distances and movements. ... Al-Andalus is the Arabic name given the Iberian Peninsula by its Muslim conquerors; it refers to both the Caliphate proper and the general period of Muslim rule (711–1492). ... Apparent magnitude: up to -12. ... The Sun (Latin: Sol) is the star at the center of the Solar System. ... The eight planets and three dwarf planets of the Solar System. ... See lists of astronomical objects for a list of the various lists of astronomical objects in Wikipedia. ...

Abu Rayhan al-Biruni invented and wrote the first treatise on the planisphere, one of the earliest star charts, in the 1000s.^[9] (September 15, 973 in Kath, Khwarezm – December 13, 1048 in Ghazni) was a Persian [1][2][3] polymath and scientist of the 11th Century, whose experiments and discoveries were as significant and diverse as those of Leonardo da Vinci or Galileo, five hundred years before the Renaissance; al-Biruni was... A planisphere consists of a circular star chart attached at the center of the starchart to an opaque overlay that has a clear roundish window (or cutout hole) that is free to rotate about the pivot point. ... A star chart is a map of the night sky. ... Events Sweyn I of Denmark invades England. ...

Celestial globe were used primarily for solving problems in celestial astronomy. Today, 126 such instruments remain worldwide, the oldest from the 11th century. The altitude of the sun, or the Right Ascension and Declination of stars could be calculated with these by inputting the location of the observer on the meridian ring of the globe. Chinese history, astronomers have created celestial globes to assist the observation of the stars. ... The term celestial refers to the sky and/or Heaven. ... A giant Hubble mosaic of the Crab Nebula, a supernova remnant Astronomy (also frequently referred to as astrophysics) is the scientific study of celestial objects (such as stars, planets, comets, and galaxies) and phenomena that originate outside the Earths atmosphere (such as the cosmic background radiation). ... As a means of recording the passage of time, the 11th century was that century which lasted from 1001 to 1100. ... Equatorial Coordinates Right ascension (abbrev. ... In astronomy, declination (abbrev. ... On the earth, a meridian is a north-south line between the North Pole and the South Pole. ...

Camera technology

Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen), the "father of optics" and pioneer of the modern scientific method, invented the camera obscura and pinhole camera.

In ancient times, Euclid and Ptolemy believed that the eyes emitted rays which enabled us to see. The first person to realise that rays of light enters the eye, rather than leaving it, was the 10th century Muslim mathematician, astronomer and physicist Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen), who is regarded as the "father of optics".^[13] He is also credited with being the first man to shift physics from a philosophical activity to an experimental one, with his development of the scientific method. The word "camera" comes from the Arabic word qamara for a dark or private room.^[14] Image File history File linksMetadata Ibn_haithem_portrait. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Ibn_haithem_portrait. ... (Arabic: أبو علي الحسن بن الحسن بن الهيثم, Latinized: Alhacen or (deprecated) Alhazen) (965 – 1039), was a Muslim polymath, anatomist, astronomer, engineer, mathematician, mechanician, ophthalmologist, philosopher, physician, physicist, psychologist, and scientist, who made significant contributions to the principles of optics, as well as astronomy, analytic geometry, infinitesimal and integral calculus, mechanics, motion, number theory, and visual perception... For the book by Sir Isaac Newton, see Opticks. ... Scientific method is a body of techniques for investigating phenomena and acquiring new knowledge, as well as for correcting and integrating previous knowledge. ... The camera obscura (Lat. ... Principle of a pinhole camera. ... Euclid (Greek: ), also known as Euclid of Alexandria, was a Greek mathematician of the Hellenistic period who flourished in Alexandria, Egypt, almost certainly during the reign of Ptolemy I (323 BC-283 BC). ... A medieval artists rendition of Claudius Ptolemaeus Claudius Ptolemaeus (Greek: ; ca. ... (Arabic: أبو علي الحسن بن الحسن بن الهيثم, Latinized: Alhacen or (deprecated) Alhazen) (965 – 1039), was a Muslim polymath, anatomist, astronomer, engineer, mathematician, mechanician, ophthalmologist, philosopher, physician, physicist, psychologist, and scientist, who made significant contributions to the principles of optics, as well as astronomy, analytic geometry, infinitesimal and integral calculus, mechanics, motion, number theory, and visual perception... This article needs additional references or sources for verification. ... Scientific method is a body of techniques for investigating phenomena and acquiring new knowledge, as well as for correcting and integrating previous knowledge. ... Large format camera lens. ...

Pinhole camera

Ibn al-Haytham first described pinhole camera after noticing the way light came through a hole in window shutters.^[14] Principle of a pinhole camera. ...

Camera obscura

Ibn al-Haytham worked out that the smaller the hole, the better the picture, and set up the first camera obscura,^[14] a precursor to the modern camera. The camera obscura (Lat. ... Large format camera lens. ...

Chemical technology

Main article: Alchemy (Islam)

Geber, the father of chemistry, invented the alembic still and many chemicals, including distilled alcohol, and established the perfume industry.

Alchemy in Islam differs from the general alchemy in certain ways, one of which is that Muslim alchemists didnt believe in the creation of life in the laboratory. ... Download high resolution version (575x707, 204 KB)alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan, from a 15th c. ... Download high resolution version (575x707, 204 KB)alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan, from a 15th c. ... Jabir ibn Hayyan and Geber were also pen names of an anonymous 14th century Spanish alchemist: see Pseudo-Geber. ... Chemistry - the study of atoms, made of nuclei (conglomeration of center particles) and electrons (outer particles), and the structures they form. ... An alembic is an alchemical still consisting of two retorts connected by a tube. ... The term still is a contraction of the verb to distill. A still is an apparatus used to distill miscible or immiscible (eg. ... A chemical substance is any material substance used in or obtained by a process in chemistry: A chemical compound is a substance consisting of two or more chemical elements that are chemically combined in fixed proportions. ... Various distilled beverages in a Spanish bar A distilled beverage is a liquid preparation meant for consumption containing ethyl alcohol (ethanol) purified by distillation from a fermented substance such as fruit, vegetables, or grain. ... Perfume is a mixture of fragrant essential oils and aroma compounds, fixatives, and solvents used to give the human body, objects, and living spaces a pleasant smell. ...

Chemical processes

Distillation was known to the Babylonians, Greeks and Egyptians since ancient times, but chemists during the Islamic Golden Age made significant advances to the techniques of distillation and developed several different variations of it. Laboratory distillation set-up using, without a fractionating column 1: Heat source 2: Still pot 3: Still head 4: Thermometer/Boiling point temperature 5: Condenser 6: Cooling water in 7: Cooling water out 8: Distillate/receiving flask 9: Vacuum/gas inlet 10: Still receiver 11: Heat control 12: Stirrer speed... Babylonia was a state in the south part of Mesopotamia (in modern Iraq), combining the territories of Sumer and Akkad. ... A chemist is a scientist who specializes in chemistry. ...

One such advance was steam distillation invented by Avicenna in the early 11th century for the purpose of producing essential oils.^[15] Laboratory set-up for steam distillation Steam distillation is a special type of distillation (a separation process) for temperature sensitive materials like natural aromatic compounds. ... This article needs additional references or sources to facilitate its verification. ... As a means of recording the passage of time, the 11th century was that century which lasted from 1001 to 1100. ... An essential oil is a concentrated, hydrophobic liquid containing volatile aromatic compounds from plants. ...

The chemical processes of liquefaction, crystallisation, purification, oxidisation, evaporation, filtration were invented by Geber in the early 9th century.^[14] Liquefaction may refer to: Soil liquefaction, the process by which sediments are converted into suspension, as in earthquake liquefaction, quicksand, quick clay, and turbidity currents. ... Crystal (disambiguation) Insulin crystals A crystal is a solid in which the constituent atoms, molecules, or ions are packed in a regularly ordered, repeating pattern extending in all three spatial dimensions. ... Categories: Move to Wiktionary | Stub | Chemistry ... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... In chemistry, alchemy and water treatment, filtration is the process of using a filter to mechanically separate a mixture. ... Jabir ibn Hayyan and Geber were also pen names of an anonymous 14th century Spanish alchemist: see Pseudo-Geber. ...

Laboratory apparatus

Will Durant wrote in The Story of Civilization IV: The Age of Faith that the alembic, one of the earliest stills, was invented in the Islamic world,^[16] specifically by Geber. Will Durant William James Durant (November 5, 1885–November 7, 1981) was an American philosopher, historian, and writer. ... The Story of Civilization by Will and Ariel Durant (ISBN 0-671-21988-X) is an eleven-volume set of books. ... An alembic is an alchemical still consisting of two retorts connected by a tube. ... The term still is a contraction of the verb to distill. A still is an apparatus used to distill miscible or immiscible (eg. ... Jabir ibn Hayyan and Geber were also pen names of an anonymous 14th century Spanish alchemist: see Pseudo-Geber. ...

The chemical retort used for distillation was also invented by Muslim scientists, and was later introduced to the West by 1570.^[17] A beautiful retort. ... Laboratory distillation set-up using, without a fractionating column 1: Heat source 2: Still pot 3: Still head 4: Thermometer/Boiling point temperature 5: Condenser 6: Cooling water in 7: Cooling water out 8: Distillate/receiving flask 9: Vacuum/gas inlet 10: Still receiver 11: Heat control 12: Stirrer speed... This is a subarticle to Islamic studies and science. ...

Avicenna was the first to employ an air thermometer in his scientific experiments in the early 11th century.^[18] This article needs additional references or sources to facilitate its verification. ... It has been suggested that List of temperature sensors be merged into this article or section. ... In the scientific method, an experiment (Latin: ex-+-periri, of (or from) trying), is a set of actions concerning phenomena. ... As a means of recording the passage of time, the 11th century was that century which lasted from 1001 to 1100. ...

During his experiments on physics in the early 11th century, Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī invented the conical measure,^[19] in order to find the ratio between the weight of a substance in air and the weight of water displaced, and to accurately measure the specific weights of the gemstones and their corresponding metals, which are very close to modern measurements.^[20] In the scientific method, an experiment (Latin: ex-+-periri, of (or from) trying), is a set of actions concerning phenomena. ... This article needs additional references or sources for verification. ... As a means of recording the passage of time, the 11th century was that century which lasted from 1001 to 1100. ... (September 15, 973 in Kath, Khwarezm – December 13, 1048 in Ghazni) was a Persian [1][2][3] polymath and scientist of the 11th Century, whose experiments and discoveries were as significant and diverse as those of Leonardo da Vinci or Galileo, five hundred years before the Renaissance; al-Biruni was... A conical measure is a type of laboratory glassware which consists of a conical cup with a notch on the top to allow for the easy pouring of liquids. ... A spring scale measures the weight of an object In the physical sciences, weight is a measurement of the gravitational force acting on an object. ... A spring scale measures the weight of an object In the physical sciences, weight is a measurement of the gravitational force acting on an object. ... Hot metal work from a blacksmith In chemistry, a metal (Greek: Metallon) is an element that readily loses electrons to form positive ions (cations) and has metallic bonds between metal atoms. ...

Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī also invented the laboratory flask and pycnometer in the early 11th century.^[21] (September 15, 973 in Kath, Khwarezm – December 13, 1048 in Ghazni) was a Persian [1][2][3] polymath and scientist of the 11th Century, whose experiments and discoveries were as significant and diverse as those of Leonardo da Vinci or Galileo, five hundred years before the Renaissance; al-Biruni was... Erlenmeyer flasks from the Argonne National Laboratory glassblowing shop. ... The pycnometer or pyknometer is a device used for measuring fluid density, also known as a specific gravity bottle. ...

The hydrostatic balance and steelyard were invented by al-Khazini in 1121.^[21] The hydrostatic balance is a balance between the pressure gradient force and the force of gravity in the earths atmosphere. ... The Steelyard, from the German Stalhof, was in the Middle Ages the main trading base of the Hanseatic League in London. ... This article is about a 12th century scientist. ...

Chemical substances

Muslim chemists produced distilled alcohol from the 8th century and manufactured them on a large scale for use in chemistry and medicine from at least the 10th century.^[22] Alchemy in Islam differs from the general alchemy in certain ways, one of which is that Muslim alchemists didnt believe in the creation of life in the laboratory. ... Various distilled beverages in a Spanish bar A distilled beverage is a liquid preparation meant for consumption containing ethyl alcohol (ethanol) purified by distillation from a fermented substance such as fruit, vegetables, or grain. ... Chemistry - the study of atoms, made of nuclei (conglomeration of center particles) and electrons (outer particles), and the structures they form. ... medicines, see Medication. ...

Ahmad Y Hassan wrote: Ahmad Y. al Hassan (born 1925) Chevalier of the Legion d’Honneur: Historian of Islamic and Arabic science and technology. ...

"The distillation of wine and the properties of alcohol were known to Islamic chemists from the eighth century. The prohibition of wine in Islam did not mean that wine was not produced or consumed or that Arab alchemists did not subject it to their distillation processes. Jabir ibn Hayyan described a cooling technique which can be applied to the distillation of alcohol."^[23] Laboratory distillation set-up using, without a fractionating column 1: Heat source 2: Still pot 3: Still head 4: Thermometer/Boiling point temperature 5: Condenser 6: Cooling water in 7: Cooling water out 8: Distillate/receiving flask 9: Vacuum/gas inlet 10: Still receiver 11: Heat control 12: Stirrer speed... A glass of red wine This article is about the alcoholic beverage. ... Functional group of an alcohol molecule. ... For people named Islam, see Islam (name). ... A chemist pours from a round-bottom flask. ... For people named Islam, see Islam (name). ... Alchemy in Islam differs from the general alchemy in certain ways, one of which is that Muslim alchemists didnt believe in the creation of life in the laboratory. ... Jabir ibn Hayyan and Geber were also pen names of an anonymous 14th century Spanish alchemist: see Pseudo-Geber. ...

Uric acid and nitric acid were also invented by Geber (Jabir ibn Hayyan) in the early 9th century.^[14] Uric acid (or urate) is an organic compound of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen and hydrogen with the formula C5H4N4O3. ... The chemical compound nitric acid (HNO3), also known as aqua fortis and spirit of nitre, is an aqueous solution of hydrogen nitrate (anhydrous nitric acid). ... Jabir ibn Hayyan and Geber were also pen names of an anonymous 14th century Spanish alchemist: see Pseudo-Geber. ...

Al-Razi (Rhazes) used mercurial compounds as topical antiseptics, wrote various modern recipes for soap, and first described kerosene and kerosene lamps.

Kerosene was produced from the distillation of petroleum and was first described by al-Razi (Rhazes) in 9th century Baghdad. In his Kitab al-Asrar (Book of Secrets), he described two methods for the production of kerosene. One method involved using clay as an absorbent, while the other method involved using ammonium chloride (sal ammoniac).^[24] no copyright File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... no copyright File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... General Name, Symbol, Number mercury, Hg, 80 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 12, 6, d Appearance silvery Standard atomic weight 200. ... An antiseptic solution of iodine applied to a cut Antiseptics (Greek αντί, against, and σηπτικός, putrefactive) are antimicrobial substances that are applied to living tissue/skin to reduce the possibility of infection, sepsis, or putrefaction. ... SOAP (see below for name and origins) is a protocol for exchanging XML-based messages over computer networks, normally using HTTP/HTTPS. SOAP forms the foundation layer of the Web services stack, providing a basic messaging framework that more abstract layers can build on. ... Kerosene or paraffin oil (British English, not to be confused with the waxy solid also called paraffin wax or just paraffin) is a flammable hydrocarbon liquid. ... It has been suggested that Petromax be merged into this article or section. ... Kerosene or paraffin oil (British English, not to be confused with the waxy solid also called paraffin wax or just paraffin) is a flammable hydrocarbon liquid. ... Laboratory distillation set-up using, without a fractionating column 1: Heat source 2: Still pot 3: Still head 4: Thermometer/Boiling point temperature 5: Condenser 6: Cooling water in 7: Cooling water out 8: Distillate/receiving flask 9: Vacuum/gas inlet 10: Still receiver 11: Heat control 12: Stirrer speed... Pumpjack pumping an oil well near Lubbock, Texas Ignacy Łukasiewicz - inventor of the refining of kerosene from crude oil. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Baghdad (Arabic: ) is the capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate. ... The Gay Head cliffs in Marthas Vineyard are made almost entirely of clay. ... Absorption has a number of meanings: In physics, absorption is a process in which particles of some sort encounter another material and are taken up by or even disappear in it. ... Ammonium chloride or Sal Ammoniac (chemically ammonium chloride (NH4Cl); also salmiac, nushadir salt, zalmiak, sal armagnac, sal armoniac, salmiakki, salmiak and salt armoniack) is, in its pure form, a clear white water-soluble crystalline salt with a biting, slightly sour taste. ...

Al-Razi (Rhazes) also described the first kerosene lamps (naffatah), used for heating and lighting, in his Kitab al-Asrar (Book of Secrets).^[24] This article does not cite any references or sources. ... It has been suggested that Petromax be merged into this article or section. ... HVAC may also stand for High-voltage alternating current HVAC is an initialism that stands for heating, ventilation and air-conditioning. This is sometimes referred to as climate control. ... Lighting includes both artificial light sources such as lamps and natural illumination of interiors from daylight. ...

Essential oils were first produced by Avicenna in the early 11th century, using steam distillation, giving rise to aromatherapy.^[15] An essential oil is a concentrated, hydrophobic liquid containing volatile aromatic compounds from plants. ... This article needs additional references or sources to facilitate its verification. ... As a means of recording the passage of time, the 11th century was that century which lasted from 1001 to 1100. ... Laboratory set-up for steam distillation Steam distillation is a special type of distillation (a separation process) for temperature sensitive materials like natural aromatic compounds. ... It has been suggested that Aromatherapy Candles be merged into this article or section. ...

Muslim chemists were the first to produce petrol from crude oil, using the process of distillation.^[25] Gasoline, as it is known in North America, or petrol, in many Commonwealth countries (sometimes also called motor spirit) is a petroleum-derived liquid mixture consisting primarily of hydrocarbons, used as fuel in internal combustion engines. ... Pumpjack pumping an oil well near Sarnia, Ontario Petroleum (from Greek petra – rock and elaion – oil or Latin oleum – oil ) or crude oil is a thick, dark brown or greenish liquid. ... Laboratory distillation set-up using, without a fractionating column 1: Heat source 2: Still pot 3: Still head 4: Thermometer/Boiling point temperature 5: Condenser 6: Cooling water in 7: Cooling water out 8: Distillate/receiving flask 9: Vacuum/gas inlet 10: Still receiver 11: Heat control 12: Stirrer speed...

Will Durant wrote in The Story of Civilization IV: The Age of Faith: Will Durant William James Durant (November 5, 1885–November 7, 1981) was an American philosopher, historian, and writer. ... The Story of Civilization by Will and Ariel Durant (ISBN 0-671-21988-X) is an eleven-volume set of books. ...

"Chemistry as a science was almost created by the Moslems; for in this field, where the Greeks (so far as we know) were confined to industrial experience and vague hypothesis, the Saracens introduced precise observation, controlled experiment, and careful records. They invented and named the alembic (al-anbiq), chemically analyzed innumerable substances, composed lapidaries, distinguished alkalis and acids, investigated their affinities, studied and manufactured hundreds of drugs. Alchemy, which the Moslems inherited from Egypt, contributed to chemistry by a thousand incidental discoveries, and by its method, which was the most scientific of all medieval operations."^[16] Chemistry - the study of atoms, made of nuclei (conglomeration of center particles) and electrons (outer particles), and the structures they form. ... There is also a collection of Hadith called Sahih Muslim A Muslim (Arabic: مسلم, Persian: Mosalman or Mosalmon Urdu: مسلمان, Turkish: Müslüman, Albanian: Mysliman, Bosnian: Musliman) is an adherent of the religion of Islam. ... Look up Hypothesis in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... In older Western historical literature, the Saracens were the people of the Saracen Empire, another name for the Arab Caliphate under the rule of the Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties. ... Observation is an activity of a sapient or sentient living being (e. ... In the scientific method, an experiment (Latin: ex-+-periri, of (or from) trying), is a set of actions concerning phenomena. ... An alembic is an alchemical still consisting of two retorts connected by a tube. ... Look up substance in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... A lapidary (the word means concerned with stones) is an artisan who practices the craft of working, forming and finishing stone, mineral, gemstones, and other suitably durable materials (amber, shell, jet, pearl, copal, coral, horn and bone, glass and other synthetics) into functional and/or decorative, even wearable, items (e. ... In chemistry, an alkali (from Arabic: al-qalyالقلوي, القالي ) is a basic, ionic salt of an alkali metal or alkali earth metal element. ... Acidity redirects here. ... For other meanings, see Drug (disambiguation). ...

Robert Briffault wrote in The Making of Humanity: Robert Briffault (1876 - 11 December 1948) was a French novelist, social anthropologist and surgeon. ...

"Chemistry, the rudiments of which arose in the processes employed by Egyptian metallurgists and jewellers combining metals into various alloys and 'tinting' them to resemble gold processes long preserved as a secret monopoly of the priestly colleges, and clad in the usual mystic formulas, developed in the hands of the Arabs into a widespread, organized passion for research which led them to the invention of distillation, sublimation, filtration, to the discovery of alcohol, of nitric and sulphuric acids (the only acid known to the ancients was vinegar), of the alkalis, of the salts of mercury, of antimony and bismuth, and laid the basis of all subsequent chemistry and physical research."^[26] Metallurgy is a domain of materials science and of materials engineering that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metallic elements, their intermetallic compounds, and their mixtures, which are called alloys. ... Amber jewellery in the form of pendants Jewellery (also spelled jewelry, see spelling differences) is a personal ornament, such as a necklace, ring, or bracelet, made from jewels, precious metals or other substance. ... Hot metal work from a blacksmith In chemistry, a metal (Greek: Metallon) is an element that readily loses electrons to form positive ions (cations) and has metallic bonds between metal atoms. ... An alloy is a homogeneous mixture of two or more elements, at least one of which is a metal, and where the resulting material has metallic properties. ... Tinting generally refers to adding a color to a base, generlly through dye. ... General Name, Symbol, Number gold, Au, 79 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 11, 6, d Appearance metallic yellow Standard atomic weight 196. ... Languages Arabic other minority languages Religions Predominantly Sunni Islam, as well as Shia Islam, Greek Orthodoxy, Greek Catholicism, Alawite Islam, Druzism, Ibadi Islam, and Judaism Footnotes a Mainly in Antakya. ... Laboratory distillation set-up using, without a fractionating column 1: Heat source 2: Still pot 3: Still head 4: Thermometer/Boiling point temperature 5: Condenser 6: Cooling water in 7: Cooling water out 8: Distillate/receiving flask 9: Vacuum/gas inlet 10: Still receiver 11: Heat control 12: Stirrer speed... Sublimation of an element or compound is the change from a solid directly to a gas with no intermediate liquid stage. ... In chemistry, alchemy and water treatment, filtration is the process of using a filter to mechanically separate a mixture. ... Functional group of an alcohol molecule. ... The chemical compound nitric acid (HNO3), also known as aqua fortis and spirit of nitre, is an aqueous solution of hydrogen nitrate (anhydrous nitric acid). ... Sulfuric (or sulphuric) acid, H2SO4, is a strong mineral acid. ... Acidity redirects here. ... Vinegar is sometimes infused with spices or herbs—as here, with oregano. ... In chemistry, an alkali (from Arabic: al-qalyالقلوي, القالي ) is a basic, ionic salt of an alkali metal or alkali earth metal element. ... For other uses, see Salt (disambiguation). ... General Name, Symbol, Number mercury, Hg, 80 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 12, 6, d Appearance silvery Standard atomic weight 200. ... General Name, Symbol, Number antimony, Sb, 51 Chemical series metalloids Group, Period, Block 15, 5, p Appearance silvery lustrous grey Standard atomic weight 121. ... General Name, Symbol, Number bismuth, Bi, 83 Chemical series poor metals Group, Period, Block 15, 6, p Appearance lustrous reddish white Atomic mass 208. ...

There were also several advances in cosmetics. Early forms of cosmetics had been used since ancient times, but these were usually created primarily for the purpose of beautification and often used harmful substances. This changed with Muslim cosmetologists who emphasized hygiene, due to religious requirements, and invented various healthy and hygienic cosmetics that are still used today.^[27] For other uses, see Cosmetic. ... Note: Not to be confused with beatification Beautification is the process of making visual improvements in a town or city, typically to an urban area. ... Hygiene refers to practices associated with ensuring good health and cleanliness. ...

Hygiene products

Due to washing and bathing being religious requirements for Muslims, they perfected the modern recipe for soap which is still used today, and invented the modern soap bar. Earlier forms of soap were used since the ancient Egyptians, but it wasn't until the Middle Ages when the Arabs combined vegetable oils (such as olive oil) with sodium hydroxide and aromatics such as thyme oil to develop the modern formula for soap.^[14] SOAP (see below for name and origins) is a protocol for exchanging XML-based messages over computer networks, normally using HTTP/HTTPS. SOAP forms the foundation layer of the Web services stack, providing a basic messaging framework that more abstract layers can build on. ... Soap bar or Soapbar may refer to: A bar of soap, surfactant used in conjunction with water for washing and cleaning. ... SOAP (see below for name and origins) is a protocol for exchanging XML-based messages over computer networks, normally using HTTP/HTTPS. SOAP forms the foundation layer of the Web services stack, providing a basic messaging framework that more abstract layers can build on. ... Khafres Pyramid (4th dynasty) and Great Sphinx of Giza (c. ... Languages Arabic other minority languages Religions Predominantly Sunni Islam, as well as Shia Islam, Greek Orthodoxy, Greek Catholicism, Alawite Islam, Druzism, Ibadi Islam, and Judaism Footnotes a Mainly in Antakya. ... Vegetable oil redirects here. ... Olive oil is a fruit oil obtained from the olive (Olea europaea), a traditional tree crop of the Mediterranean Basin. ... Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), also known as lye or caustic soda or sodium hydrate, is a caustic metallic base. ... Aromaticity is a chemical property in which a conjugated ring of unsaturated bonds, lone pairs, or empty orbitals exhibit a stabilization stronger than would be expected by the stabilization of conjugation alone. ... Species About 350 species, including: Thymus adamovicii Thymus altaicus Thymus amurensis Thymus bracteosus Thymus broussonetii Thymus caespititius Thymus camphoratus Thymus capitatus Thymus capitellatus Thymus camphoratus Thymus carnosus Thymus cephalotus Thymus cherlerioides Thymus ciliatus Thymus cilicicus Thymus cimicinus Thymus comosus Thymus comptus Thymus curtus Thymus disjunctus Thymus doerfleri Thymus glabrescens Thymus... Synthetic motor oil An oil is any substance that is in a viscous liquid state (oily) at ambient temperatures or slightly warmer, and is both hydrophobic (immiscible with water, literally water fearing) and lipophilic (miscible with other oils, literally fat loving). This general definition includes compound classes with otherwise unrelated...

Sodium Lye (Al-Soda Al-Kawia) was used for the first time, and the formula hasn't changed from the current soap sold in the market. From the beginning of the 7th century, soap was produced in Nablus (Palestine), Kufa (Iraq) and Basra (Iraq). Soaps, as we know them today, are descendants of historical Arabian Soaps. Arabian Soap was perfumed and colored, while some of the soaps were liquid and others were solid. They also had special soap for shaving. It was commercially sold for 3 Dirhams (0.3 Dinars) a piece in 981 AD. A manuscript of Al-Razi (Rhazes) contains various modern recipes for soap. A recently discovered manuscript from the 13th century details more recipes for soap making, e.g. take some sesame oil, a sprinkle of potash, alkali and some lime, mix them all together, and boil. When cooked, they are poured into molds and left to set, leaving hard soap (soap bar).^[27] Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), also known as lye or caustic soda or sodium hydrate, is a caustic metallic base. ... Map of the West Bank, with Nablus in the center north. ... The Holy Land or Palestine Showing not only the Old Kingdoms of Judea and Israel but also the 12 Tribes Distinctly, and Confirming Even the Diversity of the Locations of their Ancient Positions and Doing So as the Holy Scriptures Indicate, a geographic map from the studio of Tobiae Conradi... Kufa (الكوفة al-Kufa in Arabic) is a city in Iraq, about 170 km south of Baghdad, and 10 km northeast of Najaf. ... This article is about the city of Basra. ... Perfume is a mixture of fragrant essential oils and aroma compounds, fixatives, and solvents used to give the human body, objects, and living spaces a pleasant smell. ... A liquid will usually assume the shape of its container A liquid is one of the main states of matter. ... For other uses, see Solid (disambiguation). ... A man shaving using a straight razor. ... A five-dinar note featuring Saddam Hussein The word Dinar (in Arabic and Persian: دينار) traces its origin back to the Roman currency, the denarius (pl. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Sesame oil (also known as gingelly oil and til oil) is an organic oil derived from sesames, noted to have the distinctive aroma and taste of its parent seed. ... Potash Potash (or carbonate of potash) is an impure form of potassium carbonate (K2CO3) mixed with other potassium salts. ... In chemistry, an alkali (from Arabic: al-qalyالقلوي, القالي ) is a basic, ionic salt of an alkali metal or alkali earth metal element. ... Lime has several meanings: Look up Lime in Wiktionary, the free dictionary Lime (mineral) - a group of calcium compounds and minerals in which they predominate, including: Limestone Agricultural lime - a mineral soil additive Calcium oxide (also quicklime) - a chemical compound Calcium hydroxide (also slaked lime) - a chemical compound Lime (fruit... It has been suggested that Toxic mold be merged into this article or section. ... Soap bar or Soapbar may refer to: A bar of soap, surfactant used in conjunction with water for washing and cleaning. ...

Shampoo was first developed by the Bengali Muslim Sake Dean Mahomet. He introduced it to England when he opened "Mahomed's Indian Vapour Baths" in Brighton seafront in 1759. He was later appointed as a "Shampooing Surgeon" to Kings George IV and William IV.^[14] Shampoo is a common hair care product used for the removal of oils, dirt, skin particles, dandruff, environmental pollutants and other contaminant particles that gradually build up in hair. ... The Bengali people are the ethnic community from Bengal (divided between India and Bangladesh) on the Indian subcontinent with a history dating back four millennia. ... Sake Dean Mahomet (or Mahomed; Shaykh Din Muhammad in Arabic ) (1759-1851) is thought to have been the first native East Indian to have written a book in the English language. ... Motto (French) God and my right Anthem No official anthem - the United Kingdom anthem God Save the Queen is commonly used England() – on the European continent() – in the United Kingdom() Capital (and largest city) London (de facto) Official languages English (de facto)1 Unified  -  by Athelstan 927 AD  Area  -  Total... Brighton is located on the south coast of England, and together with its immediate neighbour Hove forms the city of Brighton and Hove. ... George IV (George Augustus Frederick) (12 August 1762 – 26 June 1830) was king of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and Hanover from 29 January 1820 until his death. ... William IV (William Henry; 21 August 1765 – 20 June 1837) was King of the United Kingdom and of Hanover from 26 June 1830 until his death. ...

Perfumery

Al-Kindi invented a wide variety of scent and perfume products, and is considered the father of the perfume industry.

Islamic cultures contributed significantly to the development of perfumery in both perfecting the extraction of fragrances through steam distillation and by introducing new raw ingredients. Both the raw ingredients and distillation technology significantly influenced western perfumery and scientific developments, particularly chemistry. Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Abū-Yūsuf Ya’qūb ibn Ishāq al-Kindī (c. ... Olfaction, the sense of smell, is the detection of chemicals dissolved in air (or, by animals that breathe water, in water). ... Perfume is a mixture of fragrant essential oils and aroma compounds, fixatives, and solvents used to give the human body, objects, and living spaces a pleasant smell. ... Perfume is a mixture of fragrant essential oils and aroma compounds, fixatives, and solvents used to give the human body, objects, and