The Islamic conquest of Iran (637-651 CE) destroyed the Sassanid Empire and led to the eventual decline of the Zoroastrian religion in Iran. Over the centuries, most Iranians (Persians) became Muslims. However, the achievements of the previous Iranian civilizations were not lost, but were to a great extent absorbed by the new Islamic polity. The historyof Iran (Persia) covers thousands of years, from the ancient civilaztion in Iranian plateau, Mani civilization in Azarbaijan and Shar-e sookhteh in Zabol and ancient Kingdom of Jiroft, followed by established kingdom of Elam to the modern Islamic Republic of Iran. ... Elam (Persian: ایلام) is one of the first civilizations on record based in the far west and south-west of what is modern-day Iran (in the Ilam Province and the lowlands of Khuzestan). ... The Medes were an Iranian people, who lived in the western and north-western portion of present-day Iran. ... Achaemenid empire at its greatest extent The Achaemenid Dynasty (Hakamanishiya in the Old Persian (Avestan ??) language - transliterated Hakamanshee in Modern Persian) - was a dynasty in the ancient Persian Empire. ... The Seleucid Empire was one of several political states founded after the death of Alexander the Great, whose generals squabbled over the division of Alexanders empire. ... Parthian Empire at its greatest extent, c60 BC. The Parthian Empire was the dominating force on the Iranian plateau beginning in the late 3rd century BCE, and intermittently controlled Mesopotamia between ca 190 BCE and 224 CE. Parthia was the arch-enemy of the Roman Empire in the east and... The Sassanid Empire at the reign of Shapur I; the conquests west of the Euphrat were only temporally Official language Pahlavi (Middle Persian) Dominant Religion Zoroastrianism Capital Ctesiphon Sovereigns Shahanshah of the Iran (Eranshahr) First Ruler Ardashir I Last Ruler Yazdegerd III Establishment 224 AD Dissolution 651 AD Part of... The Tahirid dynasty ruled the northeastern Persian region of Khorasan between AD 821-873. ... The Saffarid dynasty of Persia ruled a short-lived empire centred on Seistan, a border district between modern-day Afghanistan and Iran, between AD 861-1003. ... Tomb of Ghaboos ebne Voshmgir, built in 1007AD, rises 160 ft from its base. ... The Sāmānid dynasty (819-999) was a Iranian dynasty in Central Asia, named after its founder Saman Khoda. ... The Buwayhids were a Shiite Muslim tribal confederation from the southern shore of the Caspian Sea. ... The Ghaznavid Empire was a state in the region of todays Afghanistan that existed from 963 to 1187. ... The Seljuks (also Seldjuk, Seldjuq, Seljuq; in Persian سلجوقيان SaljÅ«qiyān, in Turkish Selçuklu; in Arabic سلجوق SaljÅ«q, or السلاجقة al-Salājiqa;) were a major branch of the Oghuz Turkics and a dynasty that ruled parts of Central Asia and the Middle East from the 11th to 14th centuries. ... The Khwarezmid Empire (also known as the Khwarezmian Empire) was a Muslim state formed by Oghuz Turks in the 11th century in Khwarezmia that lasted until the Mongol invasion in 1220. ... Khanates of Mongolian Empire: Il-Khanate, Chagatai Khanate, Empire of the Great Khan (Yuan Dynasty), Golden Horde The Ilkhanate (also spelled Il-khanate or Il Khanate) was one of the four divisions within the Mongol Empire. ... The Muzaffarids were a Sunni Arab family that came to power in Iran following the breakup of the Ilkhanate in the 14th century. ... Timurids Map The Timurids were a mixed Turkic-Mongol and Persian (Turco-Persian) dynasty of Central Asia established by Timur (Tamerlane). ... The Safavid Empire at its 1512 borders. ... Tomb of Nader Shah Afshar, a popular tourist attraction in Mashad. ... Vakeel mosque, Shiraz. ... Mullahs in the royal presence. ... The Pahlavi dynasty was the ruling dynasty of Iran from 1925 to 1979, from which two Shahs were drawn. ... Protestors take to the street in support of Ayatollah Khomeini. ... Head of king Shapur II (Sasanian dynasty A.D. 4th century). ... Zoroastrianism was adapted from an earlier, polytheistic faith by Zarathushtra (Zoroaster) in Persia very roughly around 1000 BC (although, in the absence of written records, some scholars estimates are as late as 600 BC). ... A Muslim (Arabic: مسلم) (sometimes also spelled Moslem) is an adherent of Islam. ... Islām is described as a dÄ«n, meaning way of life and/or guidance. Six articles of belief There are six basic beliefs shared by all Muslims: 1. ...

Persia (Iran) before the conquest

Since the 1st century BCE, the border between the Roman (later Byzantine) and Parthian (later Sassanid) empires had been the Euphrates river. The border was constantly contested. Most battles, and thus most fortifications, were concentrated in the hilly regions of the north, as the vast Arabian or Syrian Desert separated the rival empires in the south. The only dangers expected from the south were occasional raids by nomadic Arab tribesmen. Both empires therefore allied themselves with small, semi-independent Arab principalities, which served as buffer states and protected Byzantium and Persia from Bedouin attacks. The Byzantine clients were the Ghassanids; the Persian clients were the Lakhmids. The Ghassanids and Lakhmids feuded constantly -- which kept them occupied, but did not greatly affect the Byzantines or Iranians. (Redirected from 1st century BCE) (2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century - other centuries) The 1st century BC starts on January 1, 100 BC and ends on December 31, 1 BC. An alternative name for this century is the last century BC. (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st... The Roman Empire is the term conventionally used to describe the Ancient Roman polity in the centuries following its reorganization under the leadership of Octavian (better known as Caesar Augustus), until its radical reformation in what was later to be known as the Byzantine Empire. ... The Byzantine Empire is the term conventionally used to describe the Greek-speaking Roman Empire during the Middle Ages, centered at its capital in Constantinople. ... Reproduction of a Parthian warrior as depicted on Trajans Column The Parthian Empire was the dominating force on the Iranian plateau beginning in the late 3rd century BCE, and intermittently controlled Mesopotamia between ca 190 BCE and 224 CE. Origins Bust of Parthian soldier, Esgh-abad Museum, Turkmenia. ... Head of king Shapur II (Sasanian dynasty A.D. 4th century). ... Length 2,800 km Elevation of the source 4,500 m Average discharge 818 m³/s Area watershed 765,831 km² Origin  Eastern Turkey Mouth  Shatt al Arab Basin countries Turkey Syria Iraq Boat on the Shatt-al-Arab The Euphrates (the traditional Greek name for the river, which is... The Syrian Desert is a combination of steppe and true desert that is located in parts of the nations of Syria, Jordan, and Iraq. ... The Arabs (Arabic: عرب Ê»arab) are a large ethnic group widespread in the Middle East and North Africa, originating in the Arabian Peninsula of southwest Asia. ... Bedouin resting at Mount Sinai Bedouin, derived from the Arabic badawi بدوي, a generic name for a desert-dweller, is a term generally applied to Arab nomadic groups, who are found throughout most of the desert belt extending from the Atlantic coast of the Sahara via the Western Desert, Sinai, and... The Ghassanids were Arab Christians that emigrated in 250 CE from Yemen to the Hauran, in southern Syria. ... The Lakhmids (Arabic: ) or Muntherids (Arabic: ) were Arab Christians that lived in Iraq,al-Hirah became their capital in (266 AD). ...

In the 6th and 7th centuries CE, various factors destroyed the balance of power that had held for so many centuries. This Buddhist stela from China, Northern Wei period, was built in the early 6th century. ... // Events Islam starts in Arabia, the Quran is written, and Syria, Iraq, Persia, North Africa and Central Asia convert to Islam. ...

Balance between Persia and Byzantium swings wildly

See also: Fall of Sassanid dynasty The Sassanid era is considered to be one of the most important and influential historical periods in Iran (Persia). ...

The Persian ruler Khusrau II defeated a dangerous rebellion within his own empire (the Mazdak rebellion). He afterwards turned his energies outwards, upon the traditional Byzantine enemies. For a few years, he succeeded gloriously. From 613 to 614, he extended the Persian borders as far west as the great Byzantine cities of Antioch, Damascus, and Jerusalem. Parvez, the Victorious (Khosau II), king of Persia, son of Hormizd IV, grandson of Khosrau I, 590 - 628. ... Mazdak (in Persian مزدک) (died c. ... The city of Antioch-on-the-Orontes (modern Antakya; Greek Αντιοχεια ἡ επι Δαφνη; see also List of traditional Greek place names) is located in what is now Turkey. ... Damascus by night, pictured from Jabal Qasioun; the green spots are minarets Damascus (Arabic officially دمشق Dimashq, colloquially ash-Sham الشام) is the capital city of Syria. ... Jerusalem and the Old City. ...

The Byzantines regrouped and pushed back. Khusrau was defeated at a great battle near Nineveh in 627, and the Byzantines took back all of Syria and penetrated far into the Persian provinces of Mesopotamia. The Battle of Nineveh was the climactic battle of the last of the wars between the Eastern Roman Empire and the Sassanid Persian Empire, in 627. ... Sumerian list of gods in cuneiform script, ca. ...

Assassination of Khusrau II and a succession of weak rulers

Khusrau was assassinated in 628 CE. There were numerous claimants to the throne; from 628 to 632 there were ten kings of Persia. The last, Yazdegerd III, was a grandson of Khusrau II and was said to be a mere child. However, no date of birth is known. Yazdegerd III, (also Yazdgird III) (made by God, Izdegerdes), king of Persia, a grandson of Khosrau II, who had been murdered by his son Kavadh II in 628, was raised to the throne in 632 after a series of internal conflicts. ...

Revolt of the Arab client states

The Byzantine clients, the Arab Ghassanids, converted to the Monophysite form of Christianity, which was regarded as heretical by the established Byzantine Orthodox Church. The Byzantines attempted to suppress the heresy, alienating the Ghassanids and sparking rebellions on their desert frontiers. Monophysitism (from the Greek monos meaning one and physis meaning nature) is the christological position that Christ has only one nature, as opposed to the Chalcedonian position which holds that Christ has two natures, one divine and one human. ... See also: Timeline of Christianity Beliefs Jesus crucifixion as portrayed by Diego Velázquez. ... Heresy, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, is a theological or religious opinion or doctrine maintained in opposition, or held to be contrary, to the ‘catholic’ or orthodox doctrine of the Christian Church, or, by extension, to that of any church, creed, or religious system, considered as orthodox. ... The Vladimir Icon, one of the most venerated of Orthodox Christian icons of Mary. ...

The Lakhmids also revolted against the Persian king Khusrau II. After Khusrau's assassination, the Persian empire fractured and the Lakhmids were effectively independent.

Rise of the Islamic empire

By the time of Muhammad's death in 632 CE, most of what is now considered Arabia was united under the new religion of Islam. However, as Fred Donner argues in his 1981 book The Early Islamic Conquests, Arabic-speaking nomads or villagers roamed over or settled on the edge of the Syrian steppe as well. Any regime that aimed to unite all Arabs would have to conquer the Syrian steppe. Under Muhammad's successor Abu Bakr, the first caliph, the Muslims first re-established their control over Arabia (the Ridda Wars) and then launched campaigns against the remaining Arabs of Syria and Palestine. Muhammad is a common Muslim male name. ... Events Abu Bakr becomes first caliph or Successor of the Prophet, leader of Islam Abu Bakr defeats Mosailima in the Battle of Akraba. ... The Arabian Peninsula The Arabian Peninsula is a mainly desert peninsula in Southwest Asia at the junction of Africa and Asia and an important part of the greater Middle East. ... Islām is described as a dÄ«n, meaning way of life and/or guidance. Six articles of belief There are six basic beliefs shared by all Muslims: 1. ... Arabic (; , less formally, ) is the largest member of the Semitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family (classification: South Central Semitic) and is closely related to Hebrew and Aramaic. ... A steppe in Western Kazakhstan in early spring In physical geography, a steppe (from Russian step) is a plain without trees (apart from those near rivers and lakes); it is similar to a prairie, although a prairie is generally considered as being dominated by tall grasses, while short grasses are... Abu Bakr As Siddiq (Arabic ابو بكر الصديق, alternative spellings, Abubakar, Abi Bakr, Abu Bakar) (c. ... This article is on the highest religious and/or temporal title, aspiring universal authority, in Islam; for lower-ranking, notably gubernatorial, uses of the Arabic title khalifa, see that article. ... The Ridda wars were a set of military campaigns against apostasy in Arabia during 632 and 633 AD, following the death of Muhammad. ... Map of the British Mandate of Palestine. ...

However, this put the nascent Islamic empire on a collision course with the Byzantine and Sassanid empires, which had been disputing these very territories for centuries. The wars soon became a matter of conquest, rather than mere consolidation of the Arab tribes.

Islamic conquest of Persian Mesopotamia

The Age of the Caliphs

The collapse of the Sassanid polity after the death of Khusrau II left the Persians in a weak position vis-a-vis Arab invaders. At first the Muslims merely attempted to consolidate their rule over the fringes of the desert and the Lakhmid Arabs. The border town of Hira fell to the Muslims in 633. Image File history File links Age_of_Caliphs. ... Image File history File links Age_of_Caliphs. ... The Cave of Hira is the location where Muhammad, according to Islam, received his first revelations from the angel Gabriel(جبريل ). It is located at the peak of Jabal al-Nour (Mountain of Light) in Saudi Arabia. ...

The Sassanids had reorganized under a new king, Yazdegerd III, and mounted a counterattack. They won a major victory at the Battle of the Bridge in October 634.

After a decisive Muslim victory against the Byzantines, in Syria at the Battle of Yarmuk in 636, the second caliph, Umar, was able to transfer forces to the east and resume the offensive against the Sassanians. The Battle of Yarmuk (also spelled Yarmuq or Hieromyax) took place between the Muslim Arabs and the Byzantine Empire in 636. ... For other uses of the name, see Umar (disambiguation). ...

The Battle of al-Qādisiyyah

Main article: Battle of al-Qādisiyyah

Around the year 636 CE, Rostam Farrokhzād, advisor and general for Yazdgird III (r. 632 - 651 CE) led an army said to number 100 000 men across the Euphrates River to al-Qādisiyyah, near the present-day city of Hilla in Iraq. Some have criticised him for this decision to face the Arabs on their own ground — on the fringes of the desert — and surmised that the Persians could have held their own if they had stayed on the opposite bank of the Euphrates. The Battle of al-Qādisiyyah (in Arabic: معارك القادسيّة, alternate spellings: Qadisiyya, Qadisiyyah, Kadisiya) was the decisive engagement between the Arab Muslim army and the Sāsānian Persian army during the first period of Islamic expansion which resulted in the Islamic conquest of Iran. ... The Battle of al-Qādisiyyah (in Arabic: معارك القادسيّة, alternate spellings: Qadisiyya, Qadisiyyah, Kadisiya) was the decisive engagement between the Arab Muslim army and the Sāsānian Persian army during the first period of Islamic expansion which resulted in the Islamic conquest of Iran. ... Rostam Farrokhzād (رستم فرّخزاد in Persian) was the commander of the Sāsānian Empires armed forced under the reign of Yazdgird III, r. ... Yazdegerd III, (also Yazdgird III) (made by God, Izdegerdes), king of Persia, a grandson of Khosrau II, who had been murdered by his son Kavadh II in 628, was raised to the throne in 632 after a series of internal conflicts. ... The Euphrates (the traditional Greek name for the river, which is in Old Persian Ufrat, Aramaic Prâth/Frot, in Arabic الفرات, in Turkish Fırat and in ancient Assyrian language Pu-rat-tu) is the westernmost of the two great rivers that define Mesopotamia (Bethnahrin in Aramaic), the other being the... The Battle of al-Qādisiyyah (in Arabic: معارك القادسيّة, alternate spellings: Qadisiyya, Qadisiyyah, Kadisiya) was the decisive engagement between the Arab Muslim army and the Sāsānian Persian army during the first period of Islamic expansion which resulted in the Islamic conquest of Iran. ... Al Hillah is a city in central Iraq on the river Euphrates, 100km (62 miles) south of Baghdad, with an estimated population of 364,700 in 1998. ...

The Caliph `Umar dispatched 30 000 Arab cavalrymen under the command of Sa`d ibn Abī Waqqās aganst the Persian army. The Battle of al-Qādisiyyah followed, with the Persians prevailing at first, but on the third day of fighting, the Muslims gained the upper hand. The Persians attempted to flee. The Persian general Rostam Farrokhzād was caught and beheaded. According to some Muslim sources, the Persian losses were enormous, but the Arabs lost only 7500 men. The size of the forces and the disparity of the losses may be later exaggerations, but the fact that the Muslims won this battle is undisputed. This article is on the highest religious and/or temporal title, aspiring universal authority, in Islam; for lower-ranking, notably gubernatorial, uses of the Arabic title khalifa, see that article. ... For other uses of the name, see Umar (disambiguation). ... Saad was from the Banu Zuhrah clan of the Quraish tribe. ... The Battle of al-Qādisiyyah (in Arabic: معارك القادسيّة, alternate spellings: Qadisiyya, Qadisiyyah, Kadisiya) was the decisive engagement between the Arab Muslim army and the Sāsānian Persian army during the first period of Islamic expansion which resulted in the Islamic conquest of Iran. ... Rostam Farrokhzād (رستم فرّخزاد in Persian) was the commander of the Sāsānian Empires armed forced under the reign of Yazdgird III, r. ...

Following the Battle, the Arab Muslim armies pushed forward toward the Persian capital of Ctesiphon (also called Madā'in in Arabic), which was quickly evacuated by Yazdgird after a brief siege. After seizing and sacking the city, they continue their drive eastwards, following Yazdgird and his remaining troops. Within a short space of time, the Arab armies defeated a major Sāsānian counter-attack in the Battle of Jalūlā', as well as other engagements at Qasr-e Shirin, and Masabadhan. By the mid-7th Century, the Arabs controlled all of Mesopotamia, including the area that is now the Iranian province of Khuzestan. Ctesiphon (Parthian: Tyspwn as well as Tisfun) is one of the great cities of ancient Mesopotamia and the capital of the Iranian Parthian Empire and its successor, the Sassanid Empire, for more than 800 years located in ancient Iranian province of Khvarvaran. ... Map showing Khuzestan in Iran Domes like this are quite common in Khuzestan province. ...

Conquest of the Iranian plateau

It is said that the caliph Umar did not wish to send his troops through the Zagros mountains and onto the Iranian plateau. One tradition has it that he wished for a "wall of fire" to keep the Arabs and Persians apart. Later commentators explain this as a common-sense precaution against over-extension of his forces. The Arabs had only recently conquered large territories that still had to be garrisoned and administered. The Zagros Mountains are Irans second largest range in territory. ...

Umar's generals and warriors pushed for further action. They argued that Yazdegerd could again become a threat if he were left undisturbed while raising more troops. The continued existence of the Persian government was an incitement to revolt in the conquered territories. Finally, those Arabs who felt slighted in the distribution of land and booty from the Mesopotamian conquests pushed for further raids.

Umar relented. Arab raiding parties passed over the Zagros mountains separating Mesopotamia and the Iranian plateau, raiding, looting, and beating down all resistance.

Yazdegerd, the Sassanid king, made yet another effort to regroup and defeat the invaders. By 641 he had raised a new force, which took a stand at Nihavand, some forty miles south of Hamadan in modern Iran. Sa'ad ibn-Abi-Waqqas and his cavalry attacked and again defeated the Persian forces. Ganj nameh, Darius the Great inscriptions (5th century BC) This page is about the city of Hamedan. ...

Yazdegerd was unable to raise another army and became a hunted fugitive. He fled from one district to another until at last he was discovered and killed at Merv in 651. Merv (Persian name: مرو), in current-day Turkmenistan, was a major oasis-city in Central Asia, on the historical Silk Road, located near todays Mary. ... Events End of Yazdegard IIIs attempts to drive out the Saracens. ...

Yazdegerd's heirs could not continue the resistance. His daughter, Shahr Banu, was married to the grandson of Muhammad, Husayn ibn Ali, and gave birth to the fourth Shi'a Imam, Ali Zayn al Abidin. His son Firouz fled to China. Shahr Banu was a daughter of the last Sassanid emperor, Yazdegerd III. After the defeat of her father, she was taken captive by the Arab armies and sent to Medina where she was married to Husayn ibn Ali, the grandson of Muhammad. ... Imaginary portrait of Husayn ibn Ali, by contemporary Iranian artist. ... Shia Islam or Shi`ism (from the Arabic word شيعة, short for the historic phrase shi`at `Ali شيعة علي, meaning the supporters of Ali) is the second-largest denomination of the religion of Islam. ... Ali ibn Husayn, Zainul Abideen, (658 - 713) (alternative spellings include bin, ben for the middle word and Hussain, Husain, Hussein, etc. ...

The Islamic forces established a garrison town at Merv. By 674, they had conquered Afghanistan, Transoxania, and the portion of India then known as Sind on the west bank of the Indus river. For many centuries, this was the easternmost limit of Muslim rule. Events Dagobert II and Theuderic I succeed Childeric II as king(s) of the Franks First glass windows placed in English Churches Arabic siege of Constantinople begins Cenfus and then Aescwine succeed to the throne of Wessex Births Deaths Wulfhere, king of Mercia Seaxburh, queen of Japan - Temmu Emperor of... Transoxiana (sometimes also spelled Transoxania) is the now-largely obsolete name used for the portion of Central Asia corresponding approximately with modern-day Uzbekistan and southwest Kazakhstan. ... Sindh (Sind) is one of the four provinces of Pakistan. ... The Indus is a river; the Indus River. ...

Occupation

Under Umar and his immediate successors, the Arab conquerors attempted to maintain their political and cultural cohesion despite the attractions of the civilizations they had conquered. The Arabs were to settle in the garrison towns rather than on scattered estates. They were not to marry non-Arabs, or learn their language, or read their literature. The new non-Muslim subjects, or dhimmi, were to pay a special tax, the jizya, and be subject to various restrictions of occupation, worship, and dress (Bashear 1997, p. 117). Mass conversions were neither desired nor allowed, at least in the first few centuries of Arab rule. Later such restrictions disappeared. A Dhimmi, or Zimmi (Arabic ذمّي), as defined in classical Islamic legal and political literature, is a person living in a Muslim state who is a member of an officially tolerated non-Islamic religion. ... In states ruled by Islamic law, jizya or jizyah (Arabic: جزْية) is a per capita tax imposed on non-Muslim adult males. ...

Muhammad, the Islamic prophet, had made it clear that the "People of the Book", Jews and Christians, were to be tolerated so long as they submitted to Muslim rule. It was at first unclear as to whether or not the Sassanid state religion, Zoroastrianism, was entitled to the same tolerance. Some Arab commanders destroyed Zoroastrian shrines and prohibited Zoroastrian worship; others tolerated the native Iranian beliefs. After some dispute, Zoroastrians were accepted as People of the Book. Some authorities identified them as the mysterious Sabeans mentioned in the Qur'an and thus entitled to tolerance. The People of the Book is a term in Islam for peoples who, according to the Quran, have received divine scriptures —referring to the Taurat (the Torah) and Injeel (the New Testament), as well as the Quran. ... Faravahar (or Ferohar), the depiction of the human soul before birth and after death. ... Harran, also known as Carrhae, is an archeological site in present day southeastern Turkey, 24 miles (39 kilometers) southeast of Sanli Urfa. ... The Quran (Arabic: al-qurān, literally the recitation; also called Al Qurān Al Karīm or The Noble Quran; or transliterated Quran, Koran, and less commonly Alcoran) is the holy book of Islam. ...

Before the conquest, the Persians had been mainly Zoroastrian. However, there were also large and thriving Christian and Jewish communities. Adherents of all three faiths were allowed to practice their faith under the restrictions imposed by the Arab conquerors. However, there was a slow but steady movement of the population toward Islam. The nobility and city-dwellers were the first to convert; Islam spread more slowly among the peasantry and the dihqans, or landed gentry. By the 9th century, the majority of Iranians had become Muslim. Most Iranian Muslims were Sunni Muslims. Though Iran is known today as a stronghold of the Shi'a Muslim faith, it did not become so until much later around the 15th century. This earthenware dish was made in 9th century Iraq. ... There are several branches of Islam. ... (14th century - 15th century - 16th century - other centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 15th century was that century which lasted from 1401 to 1500. ...

In addition to adopting Islam, Persians also incorporated much Arabic vocabulary into their language, as well as switching from the old Pahlavi alphabet to one based on Arabic characters. Islām is described as a dīn, meaning way of life and/or guidance. Six articles of belief There are six basic beliefs shared by all Muslims: 1. ...

Contemporary Iranians and Arabs

The conquest is still a live issue for many Iranians and Arabs, even 1300 years later. The Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein invoked the Battle of al-Qādisiyyah when he launched his 1980 invasion of Iran, urging his primarily Arab army to emulate the deeds of their ancestors. Many Iranians, in their turn, still view the conquest in emotional terms. They see the Arabs as brutal barbarian invaders, as well as racists who would not accept Persians as their equals. They view the achievements of Islamic civilization as due primarily to Persians and dismiss the contributions of the Arabs as trifling. From this point of view, the Arab boast of a cultured past is but a theft of Persian achievements. Saddam Hussein Saddam Hussein Abd al-Majid al-Tikriti, (Arabic: صدام حسين عبد المجيد التكريتي), born April 28, 1937 , was President of Iraq from 1979 until his removal and capture after the 2003 invasion of Iraq. ...

Contemporary historians

From a non-Iranian and non-Arab point of view (as is held by the majority of Western academic scholars), the collision between the Persian empire and their Arab conquerors had great consequences for both peoples, with influence flowing both ways.

Historians would say that the Arab religion, vocabulary, and alphabet influenced the Persians; Persian learning, art, and administrative practices had great influence on the Arabs. The caliphs adopted such practices as coinage, the office of vizier, or minister, and the divan, a bureaucracy for collecting taxes and giving state stipends. Indeed, Persians themselves largely became the administrators. The caliphs adopted Sassanid court dress and ceremony, and many elements of Sassanid art and architecture. Persian scholars, writing in Arabic, contributed greatly to Islamic learning and literature. The influence of the Academy of Gundishapur is particularly worthy of note. A Vizier (وزير, sometimes also spelled Vizir, Wasir, Wazir, Wesir - grammatical vowel changes are common in many oriental languages) is an oriental, originally Persian, term for a high-ranking political (and sometimes religious) advisor or Minister, often to a Muslim monarch such as a Caliph, Amir, Malik (king) or Sultan. ... This article should be split into multiple articles accessible from a disambiguation page. ... Open Directory Project: Literature World Literature Electronic Text Archives Magazines and E-zines Online Writing Writers Resources Libraries, Digital Cataloguing, Metadata Distance Learning Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Classicism in Literature The Universal Library, by Carnegie Mellon University Project Gutenberg Online Library Abacci - Project Gutenberg texts matched with Amazon... The Academy of Gundishapur (also Jondishapoor, Jondishapur, and Jondishapour, Gondeshapur, GONDÊ SHÂPÛR, etc. ...

See also

• History of Iran
• Fall of Sassanid dynasty
• Islamic conquests

The historyof Iran (Persia) covers thousands of years, from the ancient civilaztion in Iranian plateau, Mani civilization in Azarbaijan and Shar-e sookhteh in Zabol and ancient Kingdom of Jiroft, followed by established kingdom of Elam to the modern Islamic Republic of Iran. ... The Sassanid era is considered to be one of the most important and influential historical periods in Iran (Persia). ... The initial Islamic conquests (632-732) began with the death of Muhammad, were followed by a century of rapid Arab and Islamic expansion, and ended with the Battle of Tours—resulting in a vast Islamic empire and area of influence that stretched from India, across the Middle East and North...

References

• Bashear, Suliman -- Arabs and Others in Early Islam, Darwin Press, 1997
• Daniel, Elton -- The History of Iran, Greenwood Press, 2001
• Donner, Fred -- The Early Islamic Conquests, Princeton, 1981
• Sicker, Martin -- The Islamic World in Ascendancy: From the Arab Conquests to the Siege of Vienna, Praeger, 2000
• Zarrin’kub, Abd al-Husayn -- Ruzgaran : tarikh-i Iran az aghz ta saqut saltnat Pahlvi, Sukhan, 1999. ISBN 964-6961-11-8
• THE PARSEES, THEIR HISTORY, MANNERS, CUSTOMS AND RELIGION. DOSABHOY FRAMJEE. First Published LONDON: SMITH, ELDER and CO., 65, CORNHILL: 1858.

Abdolhossein Zarrinkoub, prominent historian of Persian literature. ...

External links