NationMaster - Encyclopedia: Islamic empire

The Ottoman Empire (1299 - 29 October 1923) (Ottoman Turkish: Devlet-i Aliye-yi Osmaniyye; literally, "The Sublime Ottoman State", modern Turkish: Osmanlı İmparatorluğu), is also known in the West as the Turkish Empire. Events Osman I declares the independence of the Ottoman Principality The County of Holland is annexed by the County of Hainaut April 1, 1299 Kings Towne on the River Hull granted city status by Royal Charter of King Edward I of England. ... October 29 is the 302nd day of the year (303rd in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 63 days remaining. ... 1923 (MCMXXIII) was a common year starting on Monday (link will take you to calendar). ... Ottoman Turkish (Turkish: OsmanlÄ±ca or OsmanlÄ± TÃ¼rkÃ§esi, Ottoman Turkish: Ù„Ø³Ø§Ù† Ø¹Ø«Ù…Ø§Ù†ÛŒ - lisÃ¢n-i OsmÃ¢nÃ®) is the variant of the Turkish language that was used as the administrative and literary language of the Ottoman Empire. ... Turkish (TÃ¼rkÃ§e) is a Turkic language spoken natively by the Turkish people in Turkey, Cyprus, Bulgaria, Greece, Republic of Macedonia and other countries of the former Ottoman Empire, as well as by several million emigrants in the European Union. ... See Occident (movement) for the French political movement. ...

At its height, the tricontinental Ottoman Empire controlled much of Southeastern Europe, the Middle East and North Africa, keeping most of its possessions until the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th centuries. The Balkans is the historic and geographic name used to describe southeastern Europe (see the Definitions and boundaries section below). ... A map showing countries commonly considered to be part of the Middle East The Middle East is a region comprising the lands around the southern and eastern parts of the Mediterranean Sea, a territory that extends from the eastern Mediterranean Sea to the Persian Gulf. ... Northern Africa (UN subregion) geographic, including above North Africa or Northern Africa is the northernmost region of the African continent. ...

At present, 39 nation-states (40 including TRNC) have emerged from the former territories of the Ottoman Empire, which stretched from the vicinity of the Strait of Gibraltar in the west to the Caspian Sea and Persian Gulf in the east, from the gates of Vienna and the hinterland beyond Kiev in the north to Sudan and Yemen in the south. The Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus(TRNC) {NOTE: the name is not accepted by UN} , in Turkish Kuzey Kıbrıs Türk Cumhuriyeti, is a self-proclaimed state occupying the northern third of the island of Cyprus in the eastern Mediterranean. ... The Strait of Gibraltar as seen from space. ... The Caspian Sea is the largest lake on Earth by both area and volume,[1] with a surface area of 371,000 square kilometres (143,244 miÂ²) and a volume of 78,200 cubic kilometres (18,761 miÂ³).[2] It is a landlocked endorheic body of water and lies between... It has been suggested that Persian Gulf States be merged into this article or section. ... Vienna (German: Wien ) is the capital of Austria, and also one of the nine States of Austria. ... Location Map of Ukraine with Kiev highlighted. ...

With its capital city in Constantinople (Istanbul), it was the final great Mediterranean Empire and heir to the legacy of Rome and Byzantium in this respect. Map of Constantinople. ... Istanbul (Turkish: , Greek: , see other names) is Turkeys most populous city, and its cultural, and economic centre. ... The Mediterranean Sea is an intercontinental sea positioned between Europe to the north, Africa to the south and Asia to the east, covering an approximate area of 2. ... The Roman Empire was a phase of the ancient Roman civilization characterized by an autocratic form of government. ... Byzantine Empire (native Greek name: - Basileia tÅn RomaiÅn) is the term conventionally used since the 19th century to describe the Greek-speaking Roman Empire of the Middle Ages, centered at its capital in Constantinople. ...

In the 16th and 17th centuries, the Ottoman Empire reached the peak of its power and twice laid siege on Vienna while raiding the coasts of Spain and Italy, among others. The Ottomans dominated much of the Mediterranean Sea, and exercised complete control over the Black Sea, the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf and parts of the Indian Ocean. The Ottoman Navy was seen in lands as distant as the British Isles, the Faroe Islands and Iceland in the west, and India, Indonesia and Malaysia in the east. Vienna (German: Wien ) is the capital of Austria, and also one of the nine States of Austria. ... Satellite image The Mediterranean Sea is a part of the Atlantic Ocean almost completely enclosed by land, on the north by Europe, on the south by Africa, and on the east by Asia. ... Map of the Black Sea. ... Location of the Red Sea Image:Red Seaimage. ... It has been suggested that Persian Gulf States be merged into this article or section. ... Seal of the Turkish Navy Branch of Turkish Armed Forces, Turkish Navy (Turkish: TÃ¼rk Deniz Kuvvetleri) can participate in international operations and exercises beyond Mediterranean Sea. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into British and Irish Isles. ...

After a long period of waning influence, the Ottoman Empire met its demise in World War I. Ottoman forces won important early victories such as the Battle of Gallipoli and the Siege of Kut, and held the initiative in the first two years of the war, despite the lack of money and adequate equipment. The tide eventually turned against the Ottomans with the Arab Revolt in 1916. The Ottoman Empire surrendered its Middle Eastern territories with the Armistice of Mudros on October 30, 1918 (including Yemen and Azerbaijan which were still under Ottoman control at the end of the war). The victors of WWI sent their warships to Turkey and took control of Turkish ports, while the Ottoman Army was officially dissolved. Combatants Allied Powers: British Empire Canada France Italy Russian Empire United States Central Powers: Austria-Hungary Bulgaria German Empire Ottoman Empire Commanders Douglas Haig John Jellicoe Sir Arthur Currie Ferdinand Foch Nicholas II Woodrow Wilson John Pershing Wilhelm II Reinhard Scheer Franz Josef I Oskar Potiorek Ä°smail Enver Ferdinand I... Combatants British Empire France India Australia New Zealand Newfoundland Ottoman Empire Commanders Sir Ian Hamilton Otto von Sanders Mustafa Kemal Strength 5 divisions (initial) 14 divisions (final) 6 divisions (initial) 14 divisions (final) Casualties 252,000 (205,000 British, 47,000 French) 253,000[citation needed] The Battle of Gallipoli... Combatants Britain, British India Ottoman Empire Commanders General Townshend Baron von der Goltzâ€ , Khalil Pasha Strength 30,000 50,000 Casualties 23,000 10,000 The Siege of Kut-al-Amara (December 7, 1915 â€“ April 29, 1916) was part of the Mesopotamian Campaign in World War I. The British Mesopotamian... Flag of the Arab Revolt This article is about the Arab Revolt of 1916. ... 1916 (MCMXVI) was a leap year starting on Saturday (link will take you to calendar). ... The Armistice of Mudros was signed between the Ottoman Empire (represented by the Ottoman Minister of Marine Affairs Rauf Beg) and the Allies (represented by the British Admiral Arthur Calthorpe), in the Mudros port in the island of Lemnos on 30 October 1918. ... October 30 is the 303rd day of the year (304th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 62 days remaining. ... 1918 (MCMXVIII) was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar (see link for calendar) or a common year starting on Wednesday of the Julian calendar. ... WWI may be an acronym for: World War I World Wrestling Industry This is a disambiguation page â€” a navigational aid which lists pages that might otherwise share the same title. ...

The demise of the Ottoman Empire was followed immediately by the rise of Turkish nationalism, which led to the expulsion of foreign forces with the Turkish War of Independence, and to the birth of the Republic of Turkey. The Sultan and his family (Ottoman Dynasty) were declared persona non grata of Turkey and exiled. Fifty years later, in 1974, the Grand National Assembly of Turkey granted descendants of the former dynasty the right to acquire Turkish citizenship. Ertuğrul Osman V, ancestral head of the House of Ottoman, returned to Turkey in 2004. Combatants Turkish Revolutionaries Triple Entente, Greece, Armenia Commanders Mustafa Kemal Ismet Inonu Kazim Karabekir Ali Fuat Cebesoy Fevzi Ã‡akmak Papoulas Hatzianestis The Turkish War of Independence (Turkish: KurtuluÅŸ SavaÅŸÄ±), or sometimes referred to as birth of a nation was part of the political and military events that began with the... The Ottoman Dynasty (or the Imperial House of Osman) ruled the Ottoman Empire from 1281 to 1923, beginning with Osman I (not counting his father, ErtuÄŸrul), though the dynasty was not proclaimed until 1383 when Murad I declared himself sultan. ... After the Turkish War of Independence, the Republic of Turkey presented 600 names which they accepted as persona non grata to the Conference of Lausanne, later only 150 of these names made to the Treaty of Lausanne. ... The Grand National Assembly (TÃ¼rkiye BÃ¼yÃ¼k Millet Meclisi in Turkish) is the unicameral parliament of Turkey which carries out legislative functions. ... His Imperial Highness Prince Ertugrul Osman V (Full name: Devletlu Najabatlu ErtuÄŸrul Osman Efendi Hazretleri) (born August 18, 1912), is the 43rd Head of the Imperial House of Osman, which ruled the Ottoman Empire from 1281 to 1923, when Turkey became a republic. ... The Osmanli Dynasty, also the House of Osmani, ruled the Ottoman Empire from 1281 to 1923, beginning with Osman I (not counting his father, ErtuÄŸrul), though the dynasty was not proclaimed until 1383 when Murad I declared himself sultan. ... 2004 (MMIV) was a leap year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ...

History

Template:History of Islamic Empire islamic Archives}} The history of the Islamic Empire starts with muhamed. For other persons named Muhammad, see Muhammad (disambiguation). ...

The history of the Ottoman Empire spans more than 13 century, and primary documentation of the empire's relations with other powers is to be found in the archives of Islamic nations. Earlier historiography of the empire was based largely upon analysis of jihad victories and defeats; current approaches take a wider perspective, the scope of which includes the social dynamics of territorial growth and dissolution, and examination of economic factors and their role in the empire's eventual stagnation and decline. Jihad, sometimes spelled Jahad, Jehad, Jihaad, Djehad or Cihad, (Arabic: â€Ž ) is an Islamic term, from the Arabic root (to exert utmost effort, to strive, struggle), which connotes a wide range of meanings: anything from an inward spiritual struggle to attain perfect faith to a political or military struggle. ...

Origins

Entering Anatolia with the historic victory at Manzikert in 1071, the Turks established the Anatolian Seljuk Sultanate which was later divided among many Turkish principalities (called Beylik) from which the Ottoman Beylik emerged as the most powerful one. Through military conquests, strategic alliances and royal marriages, the Ottoman Beylik united all the other Turkish Beyliks (principalities) of Anatolia under a single flag and became known as the Ottoman Empire, eventually spreading its power and expanding its territory with military conquests across Europe, the Middle East and North Africa. Asia Minor lies east of the Bosporus, between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean. ... The Battle of Manzikert, or The Battle of Malazgirt, was fought between the Byzantine Empire and Seljuk forces led by Alp Arslan on August 26, 1071 near Manzikert, Armenia (modern Malazgirt, Turkey). ... Events Byzantine Empire loses Battle of Manzikert to Turkish army under Alp Arslan. ... This article or section needs additional references or sources. ... Bey is the Turkish word for chieftain, traditionally applied to the leaders of small tribal groups In historical accounts, many Turkish and Persian leaders are titled bey, beg or beigh. ... Asia Minor lies east of the Bosporus, between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean. ... World map showing Europe Political map Europe is one of the seven traditional continents of Earth; the term continent here referring to a cultural and political distinction, rather than a physiographic one, thus leading to various perspectives about Europes precise borders. ... A map showing countries commonly considered to be part of the Middle East The Middle East is a region comprising the lands around the southern and eastern parts of the Mediterranean Sea, a territory that extends from the eastern Mediterranean Sea to the Persian Gulf. ... Northern Africa (UN subregion) geographic, including above North Africa or Northern Africa is the northernmost region of the African continent. ...

The ancestors of the Ottoman Dynasty were part of the westward Turkic migrations from Central Asia, which began during the 10th century. One of the main groups, the Kai tribe (tr:Kayı) of Oghuz Turks, established what became known as the Ottoman Beylik in western Anatolia. When the Kayı first settled in Anatolia in the 12th century, they were under the suzerainty of the Anatolian Seljuk Sultanate. Following the Mongol invasion of Anatolia and the collapse of the Anatolian Seljuk Sultanate, the Kayı became a vassal of the Il Khanate of the Mongols. The Seljuk system offered the Kayı protection from outsiders, which allowed them to develop their own internal structure; moreover, their position on the far western fringe of the Seljuk state enabled them to build military power through cooperation with the non-Turkic populations of western Anatolia, among whom were many Christians. The Ottoman Dynasty (or the Imperial House of Osman) ruled the Ottoman Empire from 1281 to 1923, beginning with Osman I (not counting his father, ErtuÄŸrul), though the dynasty was not proclaimed until 1383 when Murad I declared himself sultan. ... This article is about the various peoples speaking one of the Turkic languages. ... Map of Central Asia showing three sets of possible boundaries for the region Central Asia located as a region of the world Central Asia is a vast landlocked region of Asia. ... The Kai tribe (tr:KayÄ± boyu) are a Turkic people and a sub branch of the Bozok tribe (Bozok kolu). ... This article needs copyediting (checking for proper English spelling, grammar, usage, tone, style, and voice). ... The Oghuz Turks (also with various alternate spellings, including Oguz, OÄŸuz, Ouz, Okuz, Oufoi, Guozz and Ghuzz) are regarded as one of the major branches of Turkic peoples. ... Asia Minor lies east of the Bosporus, between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean. ... The Sultanate of RÃ»m was a Seljuk sultanate in Anatolia from 1077 to 1307. ... Mongol Empires approximate largest extent coloured in blue. ... Asia Minor lies east of the Bosporus, between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean. ... The Sultanate of RÃ»m was a Seljuk sultanate in Anatolia from 1077 to 1307. ... Look up vassal in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Khanates of Mongolian Empire: Il-Khanate, Chagatai Khanate, Empire of the Great Khan (Yuan Dynasty), Golden Horde The Ilkhanate (also spelled Il-khanate or Il Khanate) was one of the four divisions within the Mongol Empire. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Christianity. ...

In 1299, Osman I declared the independence of the Ottoman Beylik. The history of the tribe before Osman I extended back to Osman's father Ertuğrul, who immediately gained the favour of the Seljuks, as he and his 400 horsemen chivalrously chose to aid the losing side in a skirmish on the Seljuk borders. They turned out to be the Seljuks, and Ertuğrul was granted a Beylik to the northwest of Anatolia. Sultan Osman I Osman I (1258â€“1326) (Ottoman: Ø¹Ø«Ù…Ø§Ù† Ø¨Ù† Ø£Ø±Ø·ØºÙ„) was born in 1258 and inherited the title bey (chief) from his father, ErtuÄŸrul, as the ruler of the village of SÃ¶ÄŸÃ¼t in 1281. ... ErtuÄŸrul (Ø£Ø±Ø·ØºÙ„), also ErtoÄŸrul (with title ErtuÄŸrul Gazi), (1198-1281) was the father of Osman I, the founder of the Ottoman Empire. ... Asia Minor lies east of the Bosporus, between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean. ...

Rise (622–637)

The Ottoman state existed before Osman I (Arabic: Uthmān); hence the name Ottoman Empire). However, he is regarded as the founder of the Empire, as he named it and was the first Bey (the equivalent of Duke in Europe) to declare his independence. He extended the frontiers of Ottoman settlement towards the Byzantine Empire, while other Turkish beyliks suffered from internal fighting. Under Osman I, the Ottoman capital moved to Bursa. In centuries to come, his age would be recalled with the phrase, "May he be as good as Osman". Osman was also given the nickname Kara for his courage. Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (1576x2158, 262 KB) Portrait of Mehmed II by Venetian artist Gentile Bellini File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Mehmed II Ottoman Empire Template talk:Infobox Ethnic group... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (1576x2158, 262 KB) Portrait of Mehmed II by Venetian artist Gentile Bellini File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Mehmed II Ottoman Empire Template talk:Infobox Ethnic group... Mehmed II (also known as el-Fatih (Ø§Ù„ÙØ§ØªØ), the Conqueror, in Ottoman Turkish, or, in modern Turkish, Fatih Sultan Mehmet) (March 30, 1432 â€“ May 3, 1481) (Arabic: Ù…ØÙ…Ø¯ Ø§Ù„Ø«Ø§Ù†ÙŠ) was first the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire for a short time from 1444 to 1446, and later from 1451 to 1481. ... Combatants Byzantine Empire Ottoman Empire Commanders Constantine XIâ€ Mehmed II Strength 7,000 100,000 Casualties Entire garrison killed or captured Unknown, but heavy The Fall of Constantinople was the conquest of the Byzantine capital by the Ottoman Empire under the command of Sultan Mehmed II, on Tuesday, May 29... The Arabic language (Arabic: â€Ž translit: ), or simply Arabic (Arabic: â€Ž translit: ), is the largest member of the Semitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family (classification: South Central Semitic) and is closely related to Hebrew and Aramaic. ... Bey is the Turkish word for chieftain, traditionally applied to the leaders of small tribal groups. ... Duke is a title of nobility which refers to the sovereign male ruler of a Continental European duchy, to a nobleman of the highest grade of the British peerage, or to the highest rank of nobility in various other European countries, including Portugal, Spain and France (in Italy, principe is... Byzantine Empire (native Greek name: - Basileia tÅn RomaiÅn) is the term conventionally used since the 19th century to describe the Greek-speaking Roman Empire of the Middle Ages, centered at its capital in Constantinople. ... Bursa (formerly known as Brusa, Greek Prusa, Î ÏÎ¿ÏÏƒÏƒÎ±) is a city in northwestern Turkey and the capital of Bursa Province. ...

Ottoman historians attached great importance to "Osman's Dream" and its supposed significance in the foundation of the Empire. The dream is also an example of medieval Turkish oral tradition. The historian von Hammer cites the story. This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Joseph Freiherr von Hammer-Purgstall (June 9, 1774â€“November 23, 1856) was an Austrian orientalist. ...

It was in this period that a formal Ottoman government was created; it was to last in the form in which it was instituted for nearly four centuries before being reformed. In contrast to many contemporary states, the Ottoman bureaucracy tried to avoid military rule, (see: millet). Although the Ottoman Empire was primarily a military state, its civics and economy did not reflect a policy of aggression. The expansionist policies of the Ottoman Empire were not undertaken with the aim of destruction, but with the goal of Ottoman settlement in the area. ^[1] Ottoman cultural artifacts are distributed throughout the Balkans with a direct relation to the time of ruling. To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Expansionism is the doctrine of expanding the territorial base (or economic influence) of a country, usually by means of military aggression. ...

The strategic conquest of Constantinople was crucial for Ottoman rule to extend over the Eastern Mediterranean and Balkans. In 1389, the Ottoman victory at the Battle of Kosovo effectively marked the end of Serbian power in the region, and paved the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe. Mehmed II was only 12 years old when he became sultan for the first time, but enjoyed the full support of the empire, and used this to reorganize the structure of both the state and the military. He demonstrated his military prowess by the capture of Constantinople on May 29, 1453 (which marked the final defeat and collapse of the Byzantine Empire); the city became the new capital of the Ottoman Empire, being renamed Istanbul (see: Istanbul (Etymology)). Combatants Byzantine Empire Ottoman Empire Commanders Constantine XIâ€ Mehmed II Strength 7,000 100,000 Casualties Entire garrison killed or captured Unknown, but heavy The Fall of Constantinople was the conquest of the Byzantine capital by the Ottoman Empire under the command of Sultan Mehmed II, on Tuesday, May 29... Combatants Ottoman Empire Serbia, Bosnia Commanders Murad I â€ , Bayezid I, Yakub Lazar HrebeljanoviÄ‡ â€ , Vuk BrankoviÄ‡, Vlatko VukoviÄ‡ Strength ~40,000 / 50,000 ~25,000 The Battle of Kosovo Polje (ÐšÐ¾ÑÐ¾Ð²ÑÐºÐ¸ Ð±Ð¾Ñ˜ or Ð‘Ð¾Ñ˜ Ð½Ð° ÐšÐ¾ÑÐ¾Ð²Ñƒ) was fought on St Vitus Day (28 June) 1389 between Serbia and the Ottoman Empire. ... Serbs (Serbian: Ð¡Ñ€Ð±Ð¸, Srbi) are a South Slavic people who live mainly in Serbia, Montenegro, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and, to a lesser extent, in Croatia. ... Mehmed II (also known as el-Fatih (Ø§Ù„ÙØ§ØªØ), the Conqueror, in Ottoman Turkish, or, in modern Turkish, Fatih Sultan Mehmet) (March 30, 1432 â€“ May 3, 1481) (Arabic: Ù…ØÙ…Ø¯ Ø§Ù„Ø«Ø§Ù†ÙŠ) was first the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire for a short time from 1444 to 1446, and later from 1451 to 1481. ... The Sultan in Disneys Aladdin A Sultan (Arabic: Ø³Ù„Ø·Ø§Ù†) is an Islamic title, with several historical meanings. ... Combatants Byzantine Empire Ottoman Empire Commanders Constantine XIâ€ Mehmed II Strength 7,000 100,000 Casualties Entire garrison killed or captured Unknown, but heavy The Fall of Constantinople was the conquest of the Byzantine capital by the Ottoman Empire under the command of Sultan Mehmed II, on Tuesday, May 29... Byzantine Empire (native Greek name: - Basileia tÅn RomaiÅn) is the term conventionally used since the 19th century to describe the Greek-speaking Roman Empire of the Middle Ages, centered at its capital in Constantinople. ... Istanbul (Turkish: , Greek: , see other names) is Turkeys most populous city, and its cultural, and economic centre. ... It has been suggested that Tsargrad be merged into this article or section. ...

Growth (637–750)

There are two reasonably distinct periods in this era. From the conquest of Istanbul in 1453 to the death of Suleiman I (the Magnificent) in 1566, the Ottoman state grew to its zenith as a dynamic engine of conquest and government. The Sultans of this era were committed and effective leaders, and under their guidance, innovative and disciplined military, social and bureaucratic structures were established. In the second period after Suleiman's death, these structures were put under strain by diminishing territorial gains, economic difficulties and a protracted period of weak Sultans. Nonetheless, the empire remained a major expansionist power until the Battle of Vienna in 1683 which was the first major Ottoman defeat on European soil and was officialized with the Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699 after 14 years of war between 1683 and 1697. Image File history File links Ottoman_small_animation. ... Image File history File links Ottoman_small_animation. ... Istanbul (Turkish: , Greek: , see other names) is Turkeys most populous city, and its cultural, and economic centre. ... Suleiman I (Modern Turkish: SÃ¼leyman; Arabic: â€Ž SulaymÄn) (November 6, 1494 â€“ September 5/6, 1566), was the tenth Osmanli Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, and its longest-serving, reigning from 1520 to 1566. ... Combatants Holy League: Habsburgs, Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Saxony, Bavaria, Other allies Ottoman Empire, Khanate of Crimea, Central Hungary, Transylvania, Wallachia, Moldavia Commanders John III Sobieski, Charles V of Lorraine Kara Mustafa Pasha Strength 70,000, (10,000 during siege) 138,000, (200,000 during siege) Casualties 4,000 killed 15... Events June 6 - The Ashmolean Museum opens as the worlds first university museum. ... The Treaty of Karlowitz was signed in 1699 in Sremski Karlovci (a city in modern-day Serbia and Montenegro) (German: Karlowitz, Turkish:KarlofÃ§a), concluding the Austro-Ottoman War of 1683â€“1697 in which the Ottoman side was defeated. ... Events January 26 - Treaty of Karlowitz signed March 30 - the tenth Sikh Master, Guru Gobind Singh created the Khalsa. ...

Expansion and apogee (1453–1566)

Sultan Selim I (1512–1520) dramatically expanded the empire's eastern and southern frontiers, defeating the young Safavid Shah of Persia, Ismail I, in the Battle of Chaldiran, establishing Ottoman rule in Egypt and a naval presence in the Red Sea. Selim's successor, Suleiman the Magnificent (1520–1566), further expanded upon Selim's conquests. After capturing Belgrade in 1521, Suleiman conquered the Hungary with the Battle of Mohacs in 1526. He then laid siege to Vienna in 1529, but failed to take the city, being forced to retreat before the onset of winter. Selim I (October 10, 1465 â€“ September 22, 1520); also known as the Grim or the Brave, (Yavuz in Turkish; Arabic: Ø³Ù„ÙŠÙ… Ø§Ù„Ø£ÙˆÙ„) was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1512 to 1520. ... The Safavid Empire at its 1512 borders. ... Shah is an Iranian & Pakistani/Indian term in Persian language & Urdu (Ø´Ø§Ù‡), for a monarch (king or emperor), and has also been adopted in many other languages. ... For other uses of this term see: Persia (disambiguation) The Persian Empire is the name used to refer to a number of historic dynasties that have ruled the country of Persia (Iran). ... Shah Ismail I, the founder of the Safavid State. ... The Battle of Chaldiran was a military conflict that occurred on 23 August 1514 and ended with a decisive military victory of the Ottoman Empire over the Safavids. ... Location of the Red Sea Image:Red Seaimage. ... Suleiman I (Modern Turkish: SÃ¼leyman; Arabic: â€Ž SulaymÄn) (November 6, 1494 â€“ September 5/6, 1566), was the tenth Osmanli Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, and its longest-serving, reigning from 1520 to 1566. ... Belgrade (Serbian: Ð‘ÐµÐ¾Ð³Ñ€Ð°Ð´ or Beograd ) is the capital and largest city of the Republic of Serbia. ... This article explains the more well known Battle of Mohacs of 1526. ... Events January 14 - Treaty of Madrid. ... Combatants Austria with Bohemian, German & Spanish mercenaries Ottoman Empire Commanders Nicholas, Graf von Salm Suleiman I Strength 20,000 and 72 guns 120,000 (108,000 ottoman infantry and cavalry, 12,000 janissaries) and 300 guns Casualties Unknown 20,000-25,000 The Siege of Vienna of 1529, as distinct... Events April 22 - Treaty of Saragossa divides the eastern hemisphere between Spain and Portugal, stipulating that the dividing line should lie 297. ...

Soon Transylvania, Walachia and, intermittently, Moldavia became tributary principalities of the Ottoman Empire. In the east, Suleiman took Baghdad from the Persians in 1535, giving the Ottomans control of Mesopotamia and naval access to the Persian Gulf. Image File history File linksMetadata First_Siege_of_Vienna_1529. ... Image File history File linksMetadata First_Siege_of_Vienna_1529. ... Combatants Austria with Bohemian, German & Spanish mercenaries Ottoman Empire Commanders Nicholas, Graf von Salm Suleiman I Strength 20,000 and 72 guns 120,000 (108,000 ottoman infantry and cavalry, 12,000 janissaries) and 300 guns Casualties Unknown 20,000-25,000 The Siege of Vienna of 1529, as distinct... Map of Romania with Transylvania in yellow Transylvania (Romanian: or Transilvania; Hungarian: ; German: ; Serbian: or Erdelj / Ð•Ñ€Ð´ÐµÑ™) is a historical region in the center of Romania. ... Map of Romania with Wallachia in yellow. ... Moldavia (Moldova in Romanian) was a Romanian principality, originally created in the Middle Ages, now divided between Romania, Moldovan Republic and Ukraine. ... Baghdad (Arabic: â€Ž translit: ) is the capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate. ... For other uses of this term see: Persia (disambiguation) The Persian Empire is the name used to refer to a number of historic dynasties that have ruled the country of Persia (Iran). ... Events January 18 - Lima, Peru founded by Francisco Pizarro April - Jacques Cartier discovers the Iroquois city of Stadacona, Canada (now Quebec) and in May, the even greater Huron city of Hochelaga June 24 - The Anabaptist state of MÃ¼nster (see MÃ¼nster Rebellion) is conquered and disbanded. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... It has been suggested that Persian Gulf States be merged into this article or section. ...

Under Selim and above all Suleiman, the empire became a highly proficient and dominant naval force, controlling much of the Mediterranean Sea. The Ottoman admiral Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha ended the Spanish occupation of Tunis and Algeria. During the Spanish Inquisition, he evacuated Muslims and Jews from Spain to the safety of Ottoman lands, particularly Salonica, Cyprus, and the newly conquered capital city of Istanbul. In 1543 the forces of the French king Francis I (whose mother had requested the help of the Ottoman Sultan against the Holy Roman Empire, underlining the religious divisions in Europe at the time) and Barbarossa combined to capture Nice on behalf of France. France was the empire's major European ally in this period; their mutual opposition to Hapsburg Spain united both powers, and the Ottomans' grant of the right to trade within their empire without levy of taxation was an economic boon for France. Satellite image The Mediterranean Sea is a part of the Atlantic Ocean almost completely enclosed by land, on the north by Europe, on the south by Africa, and on the east by Asia. ... Barbarossa Khair ad Din Pasha Barbarossa Khair ad Din Pasha (circa 1475-1546) was an Ottoman-Turkish admiral and privateer who served in the Ottoman Empire and in the Barbary Coast. ... // Pedro Berruguete. ... The White Tower The Arch of Galerius Map showing the Thessaloníki prefecture Thessaloníki (Θεσσαλονίκη) is the second-largest city of Greece and is the principal city and the capital of the Greek region of Macedonia. ... Istanbul (Turkish: , Greek: , see other names) is Turkeys most populous city, and its cultural, and economic centre. ... Francis I (FranÃ§ois Ier in French) (September 12, 1494 â€“ March 31, 1547), called the Father and Restorer of Letters (le PÃ¨re et Restaurateur des Lettres), was crowned King of France in 1515 in the cathedral at Reims and reigned until 1547. ... City flag City coat of arms Motto: [1] (Latin: Nice the city) Coordinates : , Time Zone : CET (GMT +1) Administration DÃ©partement Alpes-Maritimes (06) RÃ©gion Provence-Alpes-CÃ´te dAzur Mayor Jacques Peyrat (UMP) (since 1995) Intercommunality Community of Agglomeration Nice CÃ´te dAzur City (commune) Characteristics... Habsburg (sometimes spelled Hapsburg, but never so in official use) was one of the major ruling houses of Europe. ...

The newly global reach allowed by improved naval capability, and the need to balance the influence of the European states, saw efforts to combat the European sea powers (particularly Portugal) in the Persian Gulf, Indian Ocean and the Spice Islands. The strain on the empire's resources, and the logistics of maintaining lines of supply and communication across such vast distances, rendered these efforts unsustainable and ultimately unsuccessful. Crucially, the empire's two main theatres of war, Austria-Hungary and Persia, lay in opposite directions from the capital, Istanbul, at grueling distances. The overriding military need for defense in these areas, which marked the western and eastern frontiers of the empire, rendered effective long-term engagement elsewhere impossible. Nevertheless, the Ottomans' strategic vision in this period, and their partial success in global campaigning, was striking and ambitious. With the Ottomans blockading sea-lanes to the East and South, the European powers were driven to find another way to the ancient Silk and Spice routes, now under absolute Ottoman control. Image File history File links Battle_of_Preveza. ... Image File history File links Battle_of_Preveza. ... Barbarossa Khair ad Din Pasha Barbarossa Khair ad Din Pasha (circa 1475-1546) was an Ottoman-Turkish admiral and privateer who served in the Ottoman Empire and in the Barbary Coast. ... Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Aragon and Castile. ... Andrea Doria (November 30, 1466-November 25, 1560) was a Genoese condottiero and admiral. ... The naval Battle of Preveza took place on 28 September 1538 near Preveza in northwest Greece and was an important victory for an Ottoman fleet commanded by Khair ad Din (Barbarossa) over a Spanish-Venetian fleet commanded by the great Genoese admiral Andrea Doria fleet despite the allies having a... It has been suggested that Persian Gulf States be merged into this article or section. ... Spice Islands most commonly refers to the Maluku Islands (formerly the Moluccas), which lie on the equator, between the Celebes and the New Guinea islands in what is now Indonesia. ... Austria-Hungary, also known as the Dual monarchy (or: the k. ... For other uses of this term see: Persia (disambiguation) The Persian Empire is the name used to refer to a number of historic dynasties that have ruled the country of Persia (Iran). ... Istanbul (Turkish: , Greek: , see other names) is Turkeys most populous city, and its cultural, and economic centre. ...

The Ottoman Empire reached its apogee during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent. It was by now a highly significant and accepted part of the European political sphere and entered into an alliance with France, England and Holland against Hapsburg Spain, Italy and Hapsburg Germany. Suleiman I (Modern Turkish: SÃ¼leyman; Arabic: â€Ž SulaymÄn) (November 6, 1494 â€“ September 5/6, 1566), was the tenth Osmanli Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, and its longest-serving, reigning from 1520 to 1566. ... Motto: (French for God and my right) Anthem: Multiple unofficial anthems Capital London Largest city London Official language(s) English Government Constitutional monarchy - Queen Queen Elizabeth II - Prime Minister Tony Blair MP Unification - by Athelstan AD927 Area - Total 130,395 kmÂ² (1st in UK) 50,346 sq mi - Water (%) Population... Holland is a region in the central-western part of the Netherlands. ...

Revolts and Revival (1566–1683)

The Ottoman blockade of eastern trade routes was a factor in driving European exploration of previously unknown areas of the world (this exploration was one of the causes of European technological advancements in this era) and in forging a coalition of European powers allied against the Ottomans. The Ottoman defeat at the naval Battle of Lepanto (1571) weakened their grip on the waters of the Mediterranean Sea, and was considered by earlier historians to mark the beginning of Ottoman decline. By the end of the 16th century, the era of sweeping conquest and territorial expansion by the empire was over. The Hapsburg frontier in particular became a more or less permanent border until the late 19th century, with only relatively minor battles, mostly concentrated on the possession of individual fortresses. This was partly a reflection of simple geographical limits: in the pre-mechanised age, Vienna marked the furthest point that an Ottoman army could effectively reach from Istanbul during the early-spring-to-late-autumn campaigning season, as Suleiman had discovered. It also reflected the difficulties imposed by the military need of the Ottomans to maintain two separate fronts, against both Austria and the persistent ideological and territorial threat posed by the Shi'ite Safavid empire of Persia. Image File history File links Vienna_Battle_1683. ... Image File history File links Vienna_Battle_1683. ... Combatants Holy League: Habsburgs, Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Saxony, Bavaria, Other allies Ottoman Empire, Khanate of Crimea, Central Hungary, Transylvania, Wallachia, Moldavia Commanders John III Sobieski, Charles V of Lorraine Kara Mustafa Pasha Strength 70,000, (10,000 during siege) 138,000, (200,000 during siege) Casualties 4,000 killed 15... Combatants Holy League: Republic of Venice Habsburg Spain Papal States Kingdom of Naples Genoa Savoy Knights of Malta Ottoman Empire Commanders Don John of Austria Ali Pasha Strength 206 galleys 6 galleasses 220-230 galleys 50-60 galliots Casualties 9,000 dead or wounded 12 galleys lost 30,000 dead... Satellite image The Mediterranean Sea is a part of the Atlantic Ocean almost completely enclosed by land, on the north by Europe, on the south by Africa, and on the east by Asia. ... Habsburg (sometimes spelled Hapsburg, but never so in official use) was one of the major ruling houses of Europe. ... Vienna (German: Wien ) is the capital of Austria, and also one of the nine States of Austria. ... Istanbul (Turkish: , Greek: , see other names) is Turkeys most populous city, and its cultural, and economic centre. ... Shia Islam ( Arabic شيعى follower; English has traditionally used Shiite or Shiite) is the second largest Islamic denomination; some 20-25% of all Muslims are said to follow a Shia tradition. ... The Safavids were a long-lasting Turkic-speaking Iranian dynasty that ruled from 1501 to 1736 and first established Shiite Islam as Persias official religion. ... For other uses of this term see: Persia (disambiguation) The Persian Empire is the name used to refer to a number of historic dynasties that have ruled the country of Persia (Iran). ...

On the battlefield, the Ottomans were gradually falling behind Europe in military technology as growing religious and intellectual conservatism stifled the innovation that had marked the empire's forceful expansion. The Sipahi cavalry was becoming an obsolescent force, and relaxations of recruitment policy and excessive growth of the Janissary corps to the detriment of other Ottoman military units led to chronic problems in maintaining the discipline and unit cohesion necessary for effective military performance. Woodcut by Melchior Lorch (1646), originally engraved in 1576. ... Chamberlain of Sultan Murad IV with janissaries The Janissaries (or janizaries; in Turkish: YeniÃ§eri (yeni Ã§eri, meaning new soldier); in Greek: Î“ÎµÎ½Î¯Ï„ÏƒÎ±ÏÎ¿Î¹; in Bulgarian: ÑÐ½Ð¸Ñ‡Ð°Ñ€Ð¸; in Croatian and Bosnian: JanjiÄari; in Slovenian: JanjiÄarji; in Hungarian: JanicsÃ¡rok; in Serbian :ÐˆÐ°ÑšÐ¸Ñ‡Ð°Ñ€Ð¸; in Romanian: ieniceri; in Arabic: Ø§Ù„Ø§Ù†ÙƒØ´Ø§Ø±ÙŠØ©) comprised infantry units that formed...

Economically, the huge inflow of Spanish silver from the New World caused a sharp devaluation of the Ottoman currency and rampant inflation. This had serious negative consequences across all strata of Ottoman society, including widespread lawlessness and rebellion in Anatolia in the late 16th and early 17th centuries (commonly known as the Celali rebellions), and Janissary revolts that toppled Sultans and ministers. Jelali (Turkish Celalî), are a series of rebellions in Anatolia against the Ottoman Empire in 16th and 17th centuries. ...

Nevertheless, modern historians have been reassessing the conventional view of the 17th century as an era of pure stagnation and decline, instead viewing it as the key period in which the Ottoman state and its structures began to adapt to new pressures and new realities, internal and external. The relative ineffectiveness of most individual Sultans led to actual governance devolving to various proxies; at first to powerful members of the Harem, and, later, to the Grand Viziers, important among whom were the sternly reactionary Mehmed Köprülü (1656-1661), and his more moderate son Fazıl Ahmed Koprülü (1661-1676), under whom the state reasserted itself with some vigour. The warrior Sultan Murad IV (1612–1640), who recaptured Yerevan (1635) and Baghdad (1639) from the Safavids, is the only example in this era of a Sultan who managed to wrest back control of the empire. Murad IV was the last Ottoman emperor who went to war in front of his army. In the Arab tradition, imitated by other Muslim cultures, the harÃ®m ØØ±ÙŠÙ… (compare haram) is the part of the household forbidden to male strangers. ... A Vizier (وزير, sometimes also spelled Wazir) is an Arabic term for a high-ranking religious and political advisor, often to a king or sultan. ... The KÃ¶prÃ¼lÃ¼ (also Kiuprili, Koprili Kuprili and Kuprilic) was an Ottoman noble family of Albanian origin. ... The KÃ¶prÃ¼lÃ¼ (also Kiuprili, Koprili Kuprili and Kuprilic) was an Ottoman noble family of Albanian origin. ... Murad IV (Arabic: Ù…Ø±Ø§Ø¯ Ø§Ù„Ø±Ø§Ø¨Ø¹) (June 16, 1612 â€“ February 9, 1640) was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1623 to 1640, known both for restoring the authority of the state and for the brutality of his methods. ... Yerevan (Armenian: ÔµÖ€Õ¥Ö‚Õ¡Õ¶ or ÔµÖ€Ö‡Õ¡Õ¶; sometimes written as Erevan; former names include Erebuni and Erivan) (population: 1,088,300 (2004 estimate) [1]) is the largest city and capital of Armenia. ... Baghdad (Arabic: â€Ž translit: ) is the capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate. ... The Safavid Empire at its 1512 borders. ... Murad IV (Arabic: Ù…Ø±Ø§Ø¯ Ø§Ù„Ø±Ø§Ø¨Ø¹) (June 16, 1612 â€“ February 9, 1640) was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1623 to 1640, known both for restoring the authority of the state and for the brutality of his methods. ...

Despite internal conflict within the Ottoman bureaucracy and military, the 17th century saw the empire expand its frontiers to their furthest reach, with notable gains under the Köprülü administration in Crete, Southern Ukraine and Podolia. The KÃ¶prÃ¼lÃ¼ (also Kiuprili, Koprili Kuprili and Kuprilic) was an Ottoman noble family of Albanian origin. ... Crete (Greek: ÎšÏÎ®Ï„Î· KrÃti; Turkish: Girit) is the largest of the Greek islands and the fifth largest in the Mediterranean Sea. ... Historical arms of Podilia The region of Podolia (also spelt Podilia or Podillya) is a historical region in the west-central and south-west portions of present-day Ukraine, corresponding to Khmelnytskyi Oblast and Vinnytsia Oblast. ...

The defeat of Ottoman forces led by Grand Vizier Kara Mustafa Pasha at the Second Siege of Vienna in 1683, at the hands of the combined armies of Poland and the Holy Roman Empire under Jan III Sobieski was the decisive event that swung the balance of power in the region in favour of the European nations. Under the terms of the Treaty of Karlowitz, which ended the Great Turkish War in 1699, the Ottomans ceded nearly all of Hungary, Transylvania, the Morea and Podolia. They also acknowledged, for the first time in their history, that the Austrian Empire could treat with them on equal terms. Headstone of Kara Mustafa, Edirne, Turkey Merzifonlu Kara Mustafa Pasha (1634/1635 â€“ December 25, 1683) was an Ottoman military leader and vizier who was a central character in the empires last attempts at expansion into central and eastern Europe. ... Combatants Holy League: Habsburgs, Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Saxony, Bavaria, Other allies Ottoman Empire, Khanate of Crimea, Central Hungary, Transylvania, Wallachia, Moldavia Commanders John III Sobieski, Charles V of Lorraine Kara Mustafa Pasha Strength 70,000, (10,000 during siege) 138,000, (200,000 during siege) Casualties 4,000 killed 15... Events June 6 - The Ashmolean Museum opens as the worlds first university museum. ... The Holy Roman Empire and from the 16th century on also The Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation was a political conglomeration of lands in Central Europe in the Middle Ages and the early modern period. ... Jan III Sobieski (1629-1696) (also known in English literature as John Sobieski) was one of the most notable monarchs of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania from 1674 until his death. ... The Treaty of Karlowitz was signed in 1699 in Sremski Karlovci (a city in modern-day Serbia and Montenegro) (German: Karlowitz, Turkish:KarlofÃ§a), concluding the Austro-Ottoman War of 1683â€“1697 in which the Ottoman side was defeated. ... The Great Turkish War was a series of conflicts between the Ottoman Empire and European powers at the time (joined into a Holy League) during the second half of the 17th century. ... Events January 26 - Treaty of Karlowitz signed March 30 - the tenth Sikh Master, Guru Gobind Singh created the Khalsa. ... Map of Romania with Transylvania in yellow Transylvania (Romanian: or Transilvania; Hungarian: ; German: ; Serbian: or Erdelj / Ð•Ñ€Ð´ÐµÑ™) is a historical region in the center of Romania. ... The Morea and surrounding states carved from the Byzantine Empire, as they were in 1265 (William R. Shepherd, Historical Atlas, 1911) The name Morea (Μωρέας) for Peloponnesos first appears in the 10th century in Byzantine chronicles. ... Historical arms of Podilia The region of Podolia (also spelt Podilia or Podillya) is a historical region in the west-central and south-west portions of present-day Ukraine, corresponding to Khmelnytskyi Oblast and Vinnytsia Oblast. ... Flag of the Habsburg Monarchy The Crown of the Austrian Emperor For the history of these states before 1804, see Holy Roman Empire, Habsburg Monarchy, and articles on each of the component countries. ...

Decline (1699–1908)

The decline era is generally divided into two main periods; first, an era of attempts at reform, and, second, an era of modernization. The military and political details of this period are covered in two separate articles; the stagnation of the Ottoman Empire (1699–1827), when the empire began to lose territory along its western borders, but managed to maintain its stature as a great regional power, and the decline of the Ottoman Empire(1828–1908), when the empire lost territory on all fronts, and there was administrative instability due to the breakdown of centralized government. The Battle of Vienna of 1683 was the real point at which the Empire began its decline. ... This article details the decline and fall of the Ottoman Empire in the 17th to 20th centuries. ...

Reform (1699–1827)

Further wars were lost, and territories ceded, to Austria in the Balkans. Certain areas of the empire, such as Egypt and Algeria, became independent in all but name, and subsequently came under the influence of Britain and France. The 18th century saw centralized authority giving way to varying degrees of provincial autonomy enjoyed by local governors and leaders. A series of wars were fought between the Russian and Ottoman empires from the 17th to the 19th centuries. The technological and scientific advantages the Ottomans had once enjoyed over the European powers (as a result of the medieval synthesis of classical learning with Islamic philosophy and mathematics by Ottoman scholars and the guilds of writers, and knowledge of such Chinese advances in technology as gunpowder and the magnetic compass) had long since evaporated. The regressive influence of conservative guilds of writers (who denounced the technology as "the Devil's Invention") was also responsible for the 100-year lag between the invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg in Europe and its introduction to the Ottoman society. The Battle of Vienna of 1683 was the real point at which the Empire began its decline. ... Image File history File links 20pxOttomanicon. ... The Battle of Vienna of 1683 was the real point at which the Empire began its decline. ... Image File history File links Timeline_icon. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Studies on scientific, cultural and intellectual aspects of Ottoman history is very new area. ... A guild is an association of persons of the same trade or pursuits, formed to protect mutual interests and maintain standards of morality or conduct. ... A guild is an association of persons of the same trade or pursuits, formed to protect mutual interests and maintain standards of morality or conduct. ... Johannes Gensfleisch zur Laden zum Gutenberg (circa 1398 - February 3, 1468), a German metal-worker and inventor, achieved fame for his contributions to the technology of printing during about the 1450s, including a type metal alloy and oil-based inks, a mold for casting type accurately, and a new kind... World map showing Europe Political map Europe is one of the seven traditional continents of Earth; the term continent here referring to a cultural and political distinction, rather than a physiographic one, thus leading to various perspectives about Europes precise borders. ...

During the "Tulip Era" (or Lâle Devri in Turkish), named for Sultan Ahmed II's love of the tulip flower and its use to symbolize his peaceful reign, the empire's policy towards Europe underwent a shift. The region was peaceful between 1718–1730, after the Ottoman victory against Russia in the Pruth Campaign in 1712 and the subsequent Treaty of Passarowitz brought a period of pause in warfare. The empire began to improve the fortifications of cities bordering the Balkans to act as a defense against European expansionism. Other tentative reforms were also enacted: taxes were lowered; there were attempts to improve the image of the Ottoman state; and the first instances of private investment and entrepreneurship occurred. The Tulip Era is an important period for the Ottoman Empire. ... Species See text Tulip (Tulipa) is a genus of about 100 species of flowering plants in the family Liliaceae. ... The Russo-Turkish War of 1710-1711 was the southernmost theatre of the Great Northern War. ... // Events Treaty of Aargau signed between Catholic and Protestants. ... The Treaty of Passarowitz was the peace treaty signed in PoÅ¾arevac, Serbia (German: Passarowitz, Turkish PasarofÃ§a, Hungarian: PozsarevÃ¡c) on July 21, 1718 between the Ottoman Empire on one side and the Habsburg Monarchy of Austria and the Republic of Venice on the other. ... -1...

Ottoman military reform efforts Sultan Selim III (1789-1807) made the first major attempts to modernize the army along European lines. These efforts, however, were hampered by reactionism, partly from the religious leadership, but primarily from the Janissary corps, who had become anarchic and ineffectual, jealous of their privileges and firmly opposed to change. Selim's efforts cost him his throne and his life, but were resolved in spectacular and bloody fashion by his successor, the dynamic Mahmud II, who massacred the Janissary corps in 1826. Later on in Ottoman history there were educational and technological reforms, including the establishment of higher education institutions such as Istanbul Technical University; but decline continued despite these measures. When Selim III came to the throne in 1789 an ambitious effort of military reform was launched, geared towards securing the Ottoman Empire. ... Sultan Selim III Selim III (December 24, 1761 â€“ July 28/29, 1808) was a sultan of the Ottoman Empire (1789â€“1807). ... Chamberlain of Sultan Murad IV with janissaries The Janissaries (or janizaries; in Turkish: YeniÃ§eri (yeni Ã§eri, meaning new soldier); in Greek: Î“ÎµÎ½Î¯Ï„ÏƒÎ±ÏÎ¿Î¹; in Bulgarian: ÑÐ½Ð¸Ñ‡Ð°Ñ€Ð¸; in Croatian and Bosnian: JanjiÄari; in Slovenian: JanjiÄarji; in Hungarian: JanicsÃ¡rok; in Serbian :ÐˆÐ°ÑšÐ¸Ñ‡Ð°Ñ€Ð¸; in Romanian: ieniceri; in Arabic: Ø§Ù„Ø§Ù†ÙƒØ´Ø§Ø±ÙŠØ©) comprised infantry units that formed... Sultan Mahmud II Animation showing the structure of the Tughra of Mahmud II Mahmud II (in Arabic Ù…ØÙ…ÙˆØ¯Ø§Ù„Ø«Ø§Ù†Ù‰ ) (July 20, 1785â€“July 1, 1839) was the sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1808 until his death. ... The oldest surviving photograph, NicÃ©phore NiÃ©pce, circa 1826 1826 (MDCCCXXVI) was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Tuesday of the 12-day-slower Julian calendar). ... Studies on scientific, cultural and intellectual aspects of Ottoman history is very new area. ... Ä°stanbul Teknik Ãœniversitesi (ITU, English Istanbul Technical University) is an international technical university, located in Istanbul, Turkey. ...

Modernization (1828–1908)

The period of the Ottoman Empire's decline was characterised by the reorganization and transformation of most of the empire's structures in an attempt to bolster the empire against increasingly powerful rivals. This article details the decline and fall of the Ottoman Empire in the 17th to 20th centuries. ... Image File history File links 20pxOttomanicon. ... This article details the decline and fall of the Ottoman Empire in the 17th to 20th centuries. ... While the industrial revolution had swept through western Europe, the Ottoman Empire was still relying mainly on medieval technologies. ... Image File history File links Timeline_icon. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Sultan_Mahmud_II.jpgâ€Ž Sultan Mahmud II started the modernization of Turkey with the Edict of Tanzimat in 1839 This image is in the public domain because its copyright has expired in the United States and those countries with a copyright term of life of the author... Image File history File linksMetadata Sultan_Mahmud_II.jpgâ€Ž Sultan Mahmud II started the modernization of Turkey with the Edict of Tanzimat in 1839 This image is in the public domain because its copyright has expired in the United States and those countries with a copyright term of life of the author... Sultan Mahmud II Animation showing the structure of the Tughra of Mahmud II Mahmud II (in Arabic Ù…ØÙ…ÙˆØ¯Ø§Ù„Ø«Ø§Ù†Ù‰ ) (July 20, 1785â€“July 1, 1839) was the sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1808 until his death. ... Graphical timeline Caricature; changes in the form, not in the mind The Tanzimat was a period of reform in the Ottoman Empire that lasted from 1839 to 1876. ... 1839 was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ...

The Tanzimat period (from Turkish Tanzîmât, meaning "reorganisation") lasted from 1839 to 1876. During this period, many significant changes were implemented: a fairly modern conscripted army was organized; the banking system was reformed; and the guilds were replaced with modern factories. Economically, the empire had difficulty in repaying its loans to European banks; at the same time, it faced military challenges in defending itself against foreign invasion and occupation: Egypt, for instance, was occupied by the French in 1798, while Cyprus was loaned to the British in 1878 in exchange of Britain's favours at the Congress of Berlin following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire at the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78. In a significant shift in military and diplomatic policy, the empire ceased to enter conflicts on its own and began to forge alliances with European countries. There were a series of such alliances with France, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and Russia. As an example, in the Crimean War the Ottomans united with the British, French, and others against Russia. Graphical timeline Caricature; changes in the form, not in the mind The Tanzimat was a period of reform in the Ottoman Empire that lasted from 1839 to 1876. ... A guild is an association of people of the same trade or pursuits (with a similar skill or craft), formed to protect mutual interests and maintain standards of workmanship and ethical conduct. ... A factory (previously manufactory) or manufacturing plant is a large industrial building where workers manufacture goods or supervise machines processing one product into another. ... The Congress of Berlin was a meeting of the European Great Powers and the Ottoman Empires leading statesmen in Berlin in 1878. ... The Russo-Turkish Wars were a series of ten wars fought between the Russian Empire and the Turkish-ruled Ottoman Empire during the seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries. ... Combatants United Kingdom France Ottoman Empire Kingdom of Sardinia Russian Empire Casualties 17,500 British 90,000 French 35,000 Turkish 2,050 Sardinian killed, wounded and died of disease 256,000 killed, wounded and died of disease The Crimean War lasted from 28 March 1853 until 1 April 1856...

The rise of nationalism swept through many countries during the 19th century, and the Ottoman Empire was not immune. A burgeoning national consciousness, together with a growing sense of ethnic nationalism, made nationalistic thought one of the most significant Western ideas imported by the Ottoman empire, as it was forced to deal with nationalism-related issues both within and beyond its borders. There was a significant increase in the number of revolutionary political parties. Uprisings in Ottoman territory had many far-reaching consequences during the 19th century and determined much of Ottoman policy during the early 20th century. Many Ottoman Turks questioned whether the policies of the state were to blame: some felt that the sources of ethnic conflict were external, and unrelated to issues of governance. While this era was not without some successes, the ability of the Ottoman state to have any effect on ethnic uprisings was seriously called into question. With the rise of national states and their histories, it is very hard to find reliable sources on the Ottoman concept of a nation. ... Liberty Leading the People by EugÃ¨ne Delacroix Nationalism is an ideology [1] that holds that a nation is the fundamental unit for human social life, and takes precedence over any other social and political principles. ... Ethnic nationalism is the form of nationalism in which the state derives political legitimacy from historical cultural or hereditary groupings (ethnicities); the underlying assumption is that ethnicities should be politically distinct. ... List of parties in Ottoman Empire gives an overview of parties in Ottoman Empire. ... An ethnic war is a war between ethnic groups often as a result of ethnic nationalism. ...

Despite the empire's label as the "Sick man of Europe", from an economic perspective, the empire's actual weakness did not reside in its developing economy, but the cultural gap which separated it from the European powers. The empire's problems were, in fact, the result of an inability to deal with the new problems created by the conflict between external imperialism and rising internal nationalism. (See socioeconomics during the Ottoman reformation era.) In the 19th century the Ottoman Empire was dismissed by Nicholas I of Russia as the sick man of Europe because it was increasingly falling under the financial control of the European powers and had lost territory in a series of disastrous wars. ... Imperialism is a policy of extending control or authority over foreign entities as a means of acquisition and/or maintenance of empires. ... Liberty Leading the People by EugÃ¨ne Delacroix Nationalism is an ideology [1] that holds that a nation is the fundamental unit for human social life, and takes precedence over any other social and political principles. ... While the industrial revolution had swept through western Europe, the Ottoman Empire was still relying mainly on medieval technologies. ...

The era of the empire's First Constitutional government (or Birinci Meşrûtiyet Devri in Turkish), was short-lived; however, the idea behind it (Ottomanism), proved influential. A wide-ranging group of reformers known as the Young Ottomans, primarily educated in Western universities, believed that a constitutional monarchy would provide an answer to the empire's growing social unrest. Through a military coup in 1876, they forced Sultan Abdülaziz (1861-1876) to abdicate in favour of Murad V. However, Murad V was mentally ill, and was deposed within a few months. His heir-apparent Abdülhamid II (1876-1909) was invited to assume power on the condition that he would accept to declare a constitutional monarchy, which he did on 23 November 1876. However, the subsequent constitution, called the Kanûn-ı Esâsî (meaning "Basic Law" in Ottoman Turkish), written by members of the Young Ottomans, survived for only two years. Image File history File links Ottoman-Empire-first-parlement. ... Image File history File links Ottoman-Empire-first-parlement. ... Graphical timeline The First Constitutional Era of the Ottoman Empire was the period of constitutional monarchy from the promulgation of a Basic Law by AbdÃ¼lhamid II on 23 November 1876 until 13 February 1878 when the constitution was suspended. ... Ottomanism - Belief in an empire founded on comfortable footrests. ... The Young Ottomans (Turkish: Yeni Osmanlilar) were a group of Turkish nationalist intellectuals formed in 1865, influenced by such Western thinkers as Montesquieu and Rousseau and the French Revolution. ... Representation of a university class, 1350s. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... A coup détat, or simply a coup, is the sudden overthrow of a government, usually done by a small group that just replaces the top power figures. ... 1876 (MDCCCLXXVI) was a leap year starting on Saturday. ... Sultan Abd-ul-Aziz Abd-ul-aziz (February 9, 1830 â€“ 1876) was the sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1861 to May 30, 1876. ... Sultan Mehmed Murad V (September 21, 1840 â€“ August 29, 1904) (Arabic: Ù…Ø±Ø§Ø¯ Ø§Ù„Ø®Ø§Ù…Ø³) was the sultan of the Ottoman Empire who reigned from May 30, 1876 to August 31 of the same year. ... Sultan Abdul Hamid II Abd-ul-Hamid II also Abdulhamid, AbdÃ¼lhemit, Abdul Hamid, Abd al-Hamid II, or Abdul-Hamid (Arabic: Ø¹Ø¨Ø¯ Ø§Ù„ØÙ…ÙŠØ¯ Ø§Ù„Ø«Ø§Ù†ÙŠ) (September 21, 1842 â€“ February 10, 1918) was the sultan of the Ottoman Empire, from August 31, 1876 â€“ April 27, 1909. ... November 23 is the 327th day of the year (328th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 38 days remaining. ... 1876 (MDCCCLXXVI) was a leap year starting on Saturday. ... The KanÃ»n-Ä± EsÃ¢sÃ® (Ù‚Ø§Ù†ÙˆÙ† Ø§Ø³Ø§Ø³Ù‰) was the first constitution of the Ottoman Empire. ... This is a list of articles about the fundamental constitutional laws, known as Basic Laws, of various jurisdictions. ... The Young Ottomans (Turkish: Yeni Osmanlilar) were a group of Turkish nationalist intellectuals formed in 1865, influenced by such Western thinkers as Montesquieu and Rousseau and the French Revolution. ...

These reforms did not halt the rise of nationalism in the Danubian Principalities and Serbia, which had been semi-independent for almost 6 decades; in 1875 Serbia, Montenegro, Bosnia, Bulgaria, Wallachia and Moldova declared their independence from the Empire; and following the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78, independence was formally granted to Serbia, Bulgaria, Romania and Montenegro, with the other Balkan territories remaining under Ottoman control. The Danubian Principalities was a conventional name given to the Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia which emerged in the late 13th century and became the basis for the Romanian nation. ... Motto: none Anthem: BoÅ¾e pravde (English: God of Justice) Capital Belgrade Largest city Belgrade Official language(s) Serbian1 Government Republic - President Boris TadiÄ‡ - Prime Minister Vojislav KoÅ¡tunica Formation and independence - Formation of Serbia 814 - Formation of the Serbian Empire 1345 - Independence from the Ottoman Empire July 13, 1878... 1875 (MDCCCLXXV) was a common year starting on Friday (see link for calendar). ... Motto: none Anthem: BoÅ¾e pravde (English: God of Justice) Capital Belgrade Largest city Belgrade Official language(s) Serbian1 Government Republic - President Boris TadiÄ‡ - Prime Minister Vojislav KoÅ¡tunica Formation and independence - Formation of Serbia 814 - Formation of the Serbian Empire 1345 - Independence from the Ottoman Empire July 13, 1878... Motto: None Anthem: Oj, svijetla majska zoro Capital Podgorica Largest city Podgorica Official language(s) Serbian of the Ijekavian dialect1 Government Republic - President Filip VujanoviÄ‡ - Prime Minister Milo ÄukanoviÄ‡ Independence From Serbia and Montenegro - Declared June 3, 2006 - Recognised June 8, 2006 Area - Total 14,026 kmÂ² (159th) 5,414... The Province of Bosnia was a key Ottoman province, the westernmost one, based on the territory of the present day state of Bosnia and Herzegovina. ... This article is about the region in what is now Southern Romania. ... The Russo-Turkish Wars were a series of ten wars fought between the Russian Empire and the Turkish-ruled Ottoman Empire during the seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries. ... Motto: none Anthem: BoÅ¾e pravde (English: God of Justice) Capital Belgrade Largest city Belgrade Official language(s) Serbian1 Government Republic - President Boris TadiÄ‡ - Prime Minister Vojislav KoÅ¡tunica Formation and independence - Formation of Serbia 814 - Formation of the Serbian Empire 1345 - Independence from the Ottoman Empire July 13, 1878... Motto: None Anthem: Oj, svijetla majska zoro Capital Podgorica Largest city Podgorica Official language(s) Serbian of the Ijekavian dialect1 Government Republic - President Filip VujanoviÄ‡ - Prime Minister Milo ÄukanoviÄ‡ Independence From Serbia and Montenegro - Declared June 3, 2006 - Recognised June 8, 2006 Area - Total 14,026 kmÂ² (159th) 5,414...

Dissolution (1908–1922)

The period of the Ottoman Empire's final dissolution began with the onset of the Second Constitutional Era (or İkinci Meşrûtiyet Devri in Turkish). This era is dominated by the Committee of Union and Progress (or İttihâd ve Terakkî Cemiyeti in Turkish) and the movement that would become known as the "Young Turks" (or Jön Türkler in Turkish). The Young Turk Revolution began on 3 July 1908 and quickly spread throughout the empire, resulting in the sultan's announcement of the restoration of the 1876 constitution and the reconvening of parliament. // Balkan Wars The Ottoman army in the balkans was large and appeared on the surface to be modern. ... Image File history File links 20pxOttomanicon. ... // Balkan Wars The Ottoman army in the balkans was large and appeared on the surface to be modern. ... While the industrial revolution had swept through western Europe, the Ottoman Empire was still relying mainly on medieval technologies. ... Image File history File links Timeline_icon. ... Image File history File links Ottoman-Empire-Public-Demo. ... Image File history File links Ottoman-Empire-Public-Demo. ... Public Demonstration The Second Constitutional Era in the Ottoman Empire began with the 1908 Young Turk Revolution, shortly after which Sultan Abdul Hamid II restored the 1876 Constitution suspended since 1878. ... Foundation: 1890 Dissolved: 1918, Court Martialed Head: Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) (Turkish: Ä°ttihad ve Terakki Cemiyeti) was a political organization during the dissolution period of the Ottoman Empire which came to power between 1908 and 1918. ... The Young Turks (Turkish JÃ¶ntÃ¼rk (singular), JÃ¶ntÃ¼rkler (plural), from French Jeunes Turcs) were a Turkish patriotic constitutionalist society, officially known as the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) (Ä°ttihat ve Terakki Cemiyeti in Turkish) â€” whose leaders led a rebellion against Sultan Abdul Hamid II (who was... The 1908 Young Turk Revolution even though a popular constitutional movement, was a watershed in the history of the late Ottoman Empire. ... July 3 is the 184th day of the year (185th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 181 days remaining. ... 1908 (MCMVIII) was a leap year starting on Wednesday (link will take you to calendar). ...

The Balkan Wars of 1912-13, following the Italian occupation of Libya in 1911, were the first real test for the Committee of Union and Progress. The new Balkan states which were formed at the end of the 19th century sought additional territories from the Ottoman provinces of Albania, Macedonia, and Thrace, on the grounds of ethnic nationalism. Initially, with Russia acting as an intermediary, agreements were concluded between Serbia and Bulgaria in March 1912, and between Greece and Bulgaria in May 1912. Montenegro subsequently concluded agreements between Serbia and Bulgaria in October 1912. The Serbian-Bulgarian agreement specifically called for the partition of Macedonia, which was the chief casus belli of the First Balkan War. The main cause of the Second Balkan War was the disputes between the former Balkan allies over their newly gained territories; this then gave the Turks an opportunity to take back some of their lost territories in Thrace. The political repercussions of the Balkan Wars led to the coup of 1913, and the subsequent rule of the Three Pashas. The outcome as of April 1913 Boundaries on the Balkans after the First and the Second Balkan War (1912-1913) Distribution of races in the Balkan Peninsula and Asia Minor in 1923, Historical Atlas by William R. Shepherd, New York (The map does not reflect the results of the 1923... Combatants Italy Ottoman Empire Commanders Luigi Caneva Ismail Enver Strength 100,000 25,000 Casualties 3,380 4,220 wounded 14,000 The Italo-Turkish or Turco-Italian War (also known in Italy as guerra di Libia, the Libyan war ) was fought between the Ottoman Empire and Italy from September... 1911 (MCMXI) was a common year starting on Sunday (click on link for calendar). ... ... Thrace (Bulgarian: Ð¢Ñ€Ð°ÐºÐ¸Ñ, Trakiya; Greek: Î˜ÏÎ¬ÎºÎ·, ThrÃ¡kÄ“; Latin: Thracia or Threcia, Turkish: Trakya, Macedonian: Ð¢Ñ€Ð°ÐºÐ¸Ñ˜Ð°) is a historical and geographic area in southeast Europe. ... Motto: none Anthem: BoÅ¾e pravde (English: God of Justice) Capital Belgrade Largest city Belgrade Official language(s) Serbian1 Government Republic - President Boris TadiÄ‡ - Prime Minister Vojislav KoÅ¡tunica Formation and independence - Formation of Serbia 814 - Formation of the Serbian Empire 1345 - Independence from the Ottoman Empire July 13, 1878... Motto: None Anthem: Oj, svijetla majska zoro Capital Podgorica Largest city Podgorica Official language(s) Serbian of the Ijekavian dialect1 Government Republic - President Filip VujanoviÄ‡ - Prime Minister Milo ÄukanoviÄ‡ Independence From Serbia and Montenegro - Declared June 3, 2006 - Recognised June 8, 2006 Area - Total 14,026 kmÂ² (159th) 5,414... Combatants Ottoman Empire Balkan League (Serbia), (Montenegro), (Greece), (Bulgaria) Commanders Nazim Pasha, Zekki Pasha, Esat Pasha, Abdulach Pasha Constantine I of Greece, Vladimir Vazov, Petar Bojovic, Radomir Putnik, Pavlos Kountouriotis Strength 350,000 men Greece 115,000 men, Bulgaria 300,000 men, Serbia 220,000 men, Montenegro 35,000 men... The Second Balkan War was fought in 1913 between Bulgaria on one side and Greece and Serbia on the other side. ... Coup of January 1913 in the Ottoman Empire replaced Kiamil Pasha. ... The Three Pashas are the famous Pashas who enabled the Ottoman Empire to enter the WWI. Talat, along with Enver Pasha and Djemal Pasha formed a group called the three pashas. ...

The Ottoman Empire took part in the Middle Eastern theatre of World War I, under the terms of the Ottoman-German Alliance. The Ottomans managed to win important victories in the early years of the war, particularly at the Battle of Gallipoli and the Siege of Kut; but there were setbacks as well, such as the disastrous Caucasus Campaign against the Russians. The Russian Revolution of 1917 gave the Ottomans the opportunity to regain lost ground and Ottoman forces managed to take Azerbaijan in the final stages of the war, but the Empire was forced to cede these gains at the end of WWI. Image File history File links Turkish_trenches_at_Gallipoli. ... Image File history File links Turkish_trenches_at_Gallipoli. ... Mustafa Kemal AtatÃ¼rk (IPA: ; 1881â€“November 10, 1938), until 1934 Gazi Mustafa Kemal Pasha, Turkish army officer and revolutionary statesman, was the founder and the first President of the Republic of Turkey. ... Combatants British Empire France India Australia New Zealand Newfoundland Ottoman Empire Commanders Sir Ian Hamilton Otto von Sanders Mustafa Kemal Strength 5 divisions (initial) 14 divisions (final) 6 divisions (initial) 14 divisions (final) Casualties 252,000 (205,000 British, 47,000 French) 253,000[citation needed] The Battle of Gallipoli... Combatants Ottoman Empire Triple Entente Strength 2,850,000 2 Casualties 550,000 KIA 3 891,000 WIA 240,000 Sickness 103,731 MIO 250,000 POW 1 1 Ottoman casualties are from Republic of Turkey gov. ... Combatants Allied Powers: British Empire Canada France Italy Russian Empire United States Central Powers: Austria-Hungary Bulgaria German Empire Ottoman Empire Commanders Douglas Haig John Jellicoe Sir Arthur Currie Ferdinand Foch Nicholas II Woodrow Wilson John Pershing Wilhelm II Reinhard Scheer Franz Josef I Oskar Potiorek Ä°smail Enver Ferdinand I... Ottoman-German Alliance is the alliance established between Ottoman Empire and Germany before WWI. There was a strong favore toward alliance with the Allied powers. ... Combatants British Empire France India Australia New Zealand Newfoundland Ottoman Empire Commanders Sir Ian Hamilton Otto von Sanders Mustafa Kemal Strength 5 divisions (initial) 14 divisions (final) 6 divisions (initial) 14 divisions (final) Casualties 252,000 (205,000 British, 47,000 French) 253,000[citation needed] The Battle of Gallipoli... Combatants Britain, British India Ottoman Empire Commanders General Townshend Baron von der Goltzâ€ , Khalil Pasha Strength 30,000 50,000 Casualties 23,000 10,000 The Siege of Kut-al-Amara (December 7, 1915 â€“ April 29, 1916) was part of the Mesopotamian Campaign in World War I. The British Mesopotamian... Combatants Ottoman Empire Russian Empire, First Republic of Armenia Commanders Enver Pasha, Vehip Pasha, Kerim Pasha, Mustafa Kemal Nikolai Yudenich The Caucasus Campaign was fought from 1914 until 1918 in the Caucasus during World War I between the Russian Empire a member of the Allied Powers and the Ottoman Empire... The Russian Revolution of 1917 was a series of political events in Russia, which, after the elimination of the Russian autocracy system, and the Provisional Government (Duma), resulted in the establishment of the Soviet power under the control of the Bolshevik party. ... WWI may be an acronym for: World War I World Wrestling Industry This is a disambiguation page â€” a navigational aid which lists pages that might otherwise share the same title. ...

A significant event in this conflict was the creation of an Armenian resistance movement in the province of Van. The core Armenian resistance group formed an independent provisional government in May 1915, prompting the Ottoman government to accuse the Armenians of being in collaboration with the invading Russian forces in eastern Anatolia, against their native state. Combatants Ottoman Empire Armenian residents of Van Commanders Jevdet Bey Armenak Yekaryan Strength 12,000 1,500 Casualties ? 12,000 ? (mass civilian casualties) The Van Resistance or Van Rebellion was a reaction of the Armenian population in the city of Van to the measures taken by its governor--Jevdet Bey. ... Shows the Location of the Province Van Van is a province in eastern Turkey, between Lake Van and the Iranian border. ... Foundation: May 1915 - Dec 1917 Head: Aram Manougian With the Armenian Revolution, Armenian provisional government with the progressive autonomous region [1] that initially set up around of Lake Van, which later at the end of WWI officiated as Wilsonian Armenia in Treaty of SÃ¨vres. ... Collaborationism, as a pejorative term, can describe the treason of cooperating with enemy forces occupying ones country. ...

The eventual Ottoman defeat came from a) a combination of coordinated attacks on strategic targets by British forces commanded by Edmund Allenby; and b) the Arab Revolt. The initial ceasefire agreement was the Armistice of Mudros; under the terms of the subsequent Treaty of Sèvres, the empire was to submit to a complete partition of its Middle Eastern territories under the mandates of Britain and France, cede the Turkish Mediterranean coast to Italy, the Turkish Aegean coast to Greece, cede the Turkish Straits and Sea of Marmara to the Allied powers as an international zone, and recognize a large Republic of Armenia in eastern Anatolia (in an area which was mostly inhabited by Turks and Kurds). The terms of this treaty were later superseded by the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne. Britain obtained virtually everything it had sought under the secret Sykes-Picot Agreement it had made with France in 1916 for the partitioning of the Middle East. The other powers of the Triple Entente, however, soon became entangled in the Turkish War of Independence. Field Marshal Edmund Henry Hynman Allenby, 1st Viscount Allenby ( April 23, 1861 - May 14, 1936) was a British soldier most famous for his role during World War I, in which he led the Egyptian Expeditionary Force in the conquest of Palestine and Syria in 1917 and 1918. ... Flag of the Arab Revolt This article is about the Arab Revolt of 1916. ... The Armistice of Mudros was signed between the Ottoman Empire (represented by the Ottoman Minister of Marine Affairs Rauf Beg) and the Allies (represented by the British Admiral Arthur Calthorpe), in the Mudros port in the island of Lemnos on 30 October 1918. ... The Treaty of SÃ¨vres of August 10, 1920, was a peace treaty between the Entente and Associated Powers[1] and the Ottoman Empire after World War I. The treaty was signed by the Ottoman Government, but Sultan Mehmed VI never signed that treaty. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Conference of Lausanne. ... Zones of French and British influence and control established by the Sykes-Picot Agreement The Sykes-Picot Agreement of May 16, 1916 was a secret understanding between the governments of Britain and France defining their respective spheres of post-World War I influence and control in the Middle East. ... 1916 (MCMXVI) was a leap year starting on Saturday (link will take you to calendar). ... European military alliances in 1915. ... Combatants Turkish Revolutionaries Triple Entente, Greece, Armenia Commanders Mustafa Kemal Ismet Inonu Kazim Karabekir Ali Fuat Cebesoy Fevzi Ã‡akmak Papoulas Hatzianestis The Turkish War of Independence (Turkish: KurtuluÅŸ SavaÅŸÄ±), or sometimes referred to as birth of a nation was part of the political and military events that began with the...

During WWI, the Ottoman government also faced difficulties on the home front, including isolated Armenian rebellions in eastern Anatolia, which first led to the April 24 circular and then to the Tehcir Law deportations of June 1-1915 to February 8-1916. Most academics define the events of this period as the Armenian Genocide, and the Ottoman Archives have recorded the deaths of nearly 300,000 Armenians during the deportations. Researchers like Arnold J. Toynbee who were appointed by the Allied forces to investigate the death toll, however, estimated that the true number was between 600,000 and 800,000, as expressed in the peace conferences following World War I. Encyclopædia Britannica also accepts this figure as the most realistic estimate for the death toll during the deportations. However, there has been and still is a great deal of dispute between the Western scholars, who consider it the first genocide of the 20th century, and the Turkish authorities, who believe that both sides killed each other in that period, making special reference to the atrocities committed by the Armenian militant organizations such as Dashnak and Henchak in eastern Anatolia, who were aided by the invading Russian forces. The Turkish goverment claims that the Tehcir Law was not the only reason for Armenian mortality during WWI and the claim for an organized crime to "destroy all Armenians" by the Teşkilati Mahsusa or the special organization are also in dispute, as the Armenians living away from the Russo-Turkish war zone (such as the Armenians living in western Turkey) were not deported. However, the very poor conditions of the Armenians (and the Muslims in that region during the war) are not disputed and accepted by all sides. The turmoil of this period, including civil war among the Kurdish and Armenian populations of the region, pushed the Armenian and Muslim population, back-and-forth around the war zone. WWI may be an acronym for: World War I World Wrestling Industry This is a disambiguation page â€” a navigational aid which lists pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... Armenian rebellions were the rebellions of ethnic Armenian citizens of the Ottoman Empire. ... April 24 circular[1] on opposition was the most famous circular passed on April 24, 1915 by Talat Pasha (turkce: Dahiliye NazÄ±rÄ± Talat PaÅŸa) which authorized the governers of the Ottoman Empire to arrest the members of Armenian Revolutionary Federation, and Hentchak and collect the documents from the... the Tehcir Law Tehcir Law (Immigration law) of the parliament of 1912 of the Ottoman Empire was passed on May 27, 1915, begin to be enforced on June 1-1915 with the publication in the Takvim-I Vakayi until February 8-1916. ... June 1 is the 152nd day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (153rd in leap years), with 213 days remaining. ... 1915 (MCMXV) was a common year starting on Friday (see link for calendar). ... February 8 is the 39th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 1916 (MCMXVI) was a leap year starting on Saturday (link will take you to calendar). ... Armenian Genocide photo. ... Arnold Joseph Toynbee (April 14, 1889 - October 22, 1975) was a British historian whose twelve-volume analysis of the rise and fall of civilizations, A Study of History, 1934-1961, was a synthesis of world history, a metahistory based on universal rhythms of rise, flowering and decline. ... European military alliances in 1915. ... Combatants Allied Powers: British Empire Canada France Italy Russian Empire United States Central Powers: Austria-Hungary Bulgaria German Empire Ottoman Empire Commanders Douglas Haig John Jellicoe Sir Arthur Currie Ferdinand Foch Nicholas II Woodrow Wilson John Pershing Wilhelm II Reinhard Scheer Franz Josef I Oskar Potiorek Ä°smail Enver Ferdinand I... 1913 advertisement for the 11th edition of EncyclopÃ¦dia Britannica, with the slogan When in doubtâ€”look it up in the EncyclopÃ¦dia Britannica The EncyclopÃ¦dia Britannica (properly spelled with Ã¦, the ae-ligature) was first published in 1768â€“1771 as The Britannica was an important early English-language general... (19th century - 20th century - 21st century - more centuries) Decades: 1900s 1910s 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s As a means of recording the passage of time, the 20th century was that century which lasted from 1901–2000 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar (1900–1999... This page is a candidate for speedy deletion, because: it is patent nonsense. ... the Tehcir Law Tehcir Law (Immigration law) of the parliament of 1912 of the Ottoman Empire was passed on May 27, 1915, begin to be enforced on June 1-1915 with the publication in the Takvim-I Vakayi until February 8-1916. ... WWI may be an acronym for: World War I World Wrestling Industry This is a disambiguation page â€” a navigational aid which lists pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... Teskilati Mahsusa (ottoman: TeÅŸkilat-i Mahsusa) is an Ottoman imperial government organization established under war department, which dealed with both Arab separatism and Western imperialism. ... Special Organization was name given to a three member executive committee established by the Committee of Union and Progress of the Ottoman Empire. ... A civil war is a war in which parties within the same culture, society or nationality fight for political power or control of an area. ... now. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Combatants Ottoman Empire Russian Empire, First Republic of Armenia Commanders Enver Pasha, Vehip Pasha, Kerim Pasha, Mustafa Kemal Nikolai Yudenich The Caucasus Campaign was fought from 1914 until 1918 in the Caucasus during World War I between the Russian Empire a member of the Allied Powers and the Ottoman Empire...

The Turkish War of Independence was a response to the actions of the victorious Allies, in particular the harsh terms of the peace settlement. The Turks, angered by the Sèvres agreement (which even partitioned ethnic-Turkish zones of the country which had not been lost during WWI), organized a national resistance movement under the command of Mustafa Kemal (Atatürk), who was a famous and trusted national figure due to his success at the Battle of Gallipoli. The Turks established a Grand National Assembly (Büyük Millet Meclisi) in Ankara on 23 April 1920, refused to recognize the Ottoman government in Istanbul and the invading forces in Turkey, raised a "people's army" and expelled the invading Greek, Italian and French forces. They took back the Turkish provinces which were given to the Republic of Armenia with the Treaty of Sèvres, and threatened the British forces controlling the Turkish Straits. Turkish revolutionaries eventually freed the Turkish Straits and Istanbul, and abolished the Ottoman sultanate on 1 November 1922. The last sultan, Mehmed VI Vahdettin (1918-1922), left the country on November 17, 1922, and the Republic of Turkey was officially declared with the Treaty of Lausanne on 29 October 1923. The Caliphate was constitutionally abolished several months later, on 3 March 1924. Combatants Turkish Revolutionaries Triple Entente, Greece, Armenia Commanders Mustafa Kemal Ismet Inonu Kazim Karabekir Ali Fuat Cebesoy Fevzi Ã‡akmak Papoulas Hatzianestis The Turkish War of Independence (Turkish: KurtuluÅŸ SavaÅŸÄ±), or sometimes referred to as birth of a nation was part of the political and military events that began with the... WWI may be an acronym for: World War I World Wrestling Industry This is a disambiguation page â€” a navigational aid which lists pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... Mustafa Kemal AtatÃ¼rk (1881â€“10 November 1938), until 1934 Gazi Mustafa Kemal Pasha, Turkish army officer and revolutionist statesman, was the founder and the first President of the Republic of Turkey. ... Combatants British Empire France India Australia New Zealand Newfoundland Ottoman Empire Commanders Sir Ian Hamilton Otto von Sanders Mustafa Kemal Strength 5 divisions (initial) 14 divisions (final) 6 divisions (initial) 14 divisions (final) Casualties 252,000 (205,000 British, 47,000 French) 253,000[citation needed] The Battle of Gallipoli... The Grand National Assembly (TÃ¼rkiye BÃ¼yÃ¼k Millet Meclisi in Turkish) is the unicameral parliament of Turkey which carries out legislative functions. ... Ankara is the capital of Turkey and the countrys second largest city after Istanbul. ... April 23 is the 113th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (114th in leap years). ... 1920 (MCMXX) was a leap year starting on Thursday (link will take you to calendar) // Events January January 3 - Babe Ruth is traded by the Boston Red Sox to the New York Yankees for $125,000, the largest sum ever paid for a player at that time. ... The Treaty of SÃ¨vres of August 10, 1920, was a peace treaty between the Entente and Associated Powers[1] and the Ottoman Empire after World War I. The treaty was signed by the Ottoman Government, but Sultan Mehmed VI never signed that treaty. ... November 1 is the 305th day of the year (306th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 60 days remaining. ... 1922 (MCMXXII) was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... Sultan Mehmed VI Mehmed VI, original name Mehmed Vahdettin or Mehmed Vahideddin, (January 14, 1861 â€“ May 16, 1926) was the last Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, reigning from 1918â€“1922. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Conference of Lausanne. ... October 29 is the 302nd day of the year (303rd in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 63 days remaining. ... 1923 (MCMXXIII) was a common year starting on Monday (link will take you to calendar). ... An Anglicized/Latinized version of the Arabic word خليفة or Khalīfah, Caliph ( listen?) is the term or title for the Islamic leader of the Ummah, or community of Islam. ... March 3 is the 62nd day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (63rd in leap years). ... 1924 (MCMXXIV) was a leap year starting on Tuesday (link will take you to calendar). ...

Ultimately, the fall of the Ottoman Empire can be attributed to the failure of its economic structure; the size of the empire created difficulties in economically integrating its diverse regions. Also, the empire's communication technology was not developed enough to reach all territories. In many ways, the circumstances surrounding the Ottoman Empire's fall closely paralleled those surrounding the fall of the Roman Empire, particularly in terms of the ongoing tensions between the empire's different ethnic groups, and the various governments' inability to deal with these tensions. In the case of the Ottomans, the introduction of a parliamentary system during the Tanzimat proved to be too late to reverse the trends that had been set in place. Fall of the Ottoman Empire summarize the reasons why it could not revert the path that ended with its dissolution. ... The know-how that goes into a given medium. ... Romulus Augustus, the last of the Western Roman Emperors. ... Graphical timeline Caricature; changes in the form, not in the mind The Tanzimat was a period of reform in the Ottoman Empire that lasted from 1839 to 1876. ...

Economic History

The economic structure of the Empire was defined by its geopolitical structure. The Ottoman Empire stood between the West and the East, thus blocking the land route eastward and forcing Spanish and Portuguese navigators to set sail in search of a new route to the Orient. The empire controlled the spice route that Marco Polo once used. When Christopher Columbus first journeyed to America in 1492, the Ottoman Empire was at its zenith; an economic power which extended over three continents. Modern Ottoman studies think that the change in relations between the Ottomans and central Europe was indeed caused by the opening of the new sea routes. It is possible to see the decline in significance of the land routes to the East (as Western Europe opened the ocean routes that bypassed the Middle East and Mediterranean) as parallelling the decline of the Ottoman Empire itself. Economic history of the Ottoman Empire covers the time period, between 1299- 1923. ... Image File history File links 20pxOttomanicon. ... Economic history of the Ottoman Empire covers the time period, between 1299- 1923. ... Imperial motto (Ottoman Turkish) Ø¯ÙˆÙ„Øª Ø§Ø¨Ø¯ Ù…Ø¯Øª Devlet-i Ebed-mÃ¼ddet (The Eternal State) The Ottoman Empire at the height of its power (1683) Official language Ottoman Turkish Capital SÃ¶ÄŸÃ¼t (1299-1326), Bursa (1326-1365), Edirne (1365-1453), Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul) (1453-1922) Imperial anthem Ottoman imperial anthem Sovereigns Padishah... This article covers the sociopolical structure of Ottoman Empire. ... While the industrial revolution had swept through western Europe, the Ottoman Empire was still relying mainly on medieval technologies. ... Capitulations of the Ottoman Empire are contracts between Ottoman Empire and European powers. ... Marco Polo (b. ... Christopher Columbus portrait, painted by Alejo FernÃ¡ndÃµ between 1505 and 1536. ...

State

In diplomatic circles, the empire was often referred to as the "Sublime Porte", a literal translation of the Ottoman Turkish Bâb-ı Âlî, which was the only gate of the imperial Topkapı Palace that was open to foreigners, and was where the sultan greeted ambassadors. The Ottoman Empire developed a highly advanced organisation of state over the centuries. ... Image File history File links 20pxOttomanicon. ... The Ottoman Empire developed a highly advanced organisation of state over the centuries. ... Imperial motto (Ottoman Turkish) Ø¯ÙˆÙ„Øª Ø§Ø¨Ø¯ Ù…Ø¯Øª Devlet-i Ebed-mÃ¼ddet (The Eternal State) The Ottoman Empire at the height of its power (1683) Official language Ottoman Turkish Capital SÃ¶ÄŸÃ¼t (1299-1326), Bursa (1326-1365), Edirne (1365-1453), Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul) (1453-1922) Imperial anthem Ottoman imperial anthem Sovereigns Padishah... House of Osman is the name to the administrative structure of the Ottoman Dynasty, which is part of state organization of the Ottoman Empire, however directly linked to dynasty. ... Specific position in the state organisation of the Ottoman Empire. ... This article should be split into multiple articles accessible from a disambiguation page. ... Imperial Government of the Ottoman Empire is the goverment structure added to the Ottoman governing structure during Second Constitutional Era. ... Synonym of the government of the Ottoman Empire. ... Entrance of Topkapi Palace, Babu-s Selam Topkapi Palace Courtyard, Tower of Justice in the rear TopkapÄ± Palace (TopkapÄ± SarayÄ± in Turkish, literally the Cannongate Palace - named after a nearby gate), located in Istanbul (Constantinople), was the administrative center of the Ottoman Empire from 1465 to 1853. ...

Unlike many states, the Ottoman Empire was happy to use the talents of Greeks (and other Christians), Muslims and Jews, in revolutionizing its administrative system. The rapidly expanding empire utilized loyal, skilled subjects to manage the empire, whether Phanariot Greeks, Armenians, Serbs, Bosniaks, Hungarians or others. From the perspective of the West, this eclectic administration was apparent even in the diplomatic correspondence of the empire, which was initially undertaken in the Greek language. Like the Byzantines before them, the Ottomans practised a system in which the state had control over the clergy. The nomadic Turkic forms of land tenure were largely retained —with a number of unique adjustments— in the Ottoman period. Certain pre-Islamic Turkish traditions that had survived the adoption of administrative and legal practices from Islamic Iran continued to be important in Ottoman administrative circles. In the Ottoman judiciary, for example, the courts were run by Kadı, i.e. religious judges appointed by the sultan who exercised direct control over members of the religious establishment. Ultimately, the Ottoman administrative system was a blend of influences derived from the Turks, the Byzantines, and the Islamic world. Image File history File links Ottoman-Empire-public-office. ... Image File history File links Ottoman-Empire-public-office. ... Phanariotes or Phanariot Greeks (Greek: Î¦Î±Î½Î±ÏÎ¹ÏŽÏ„ÎµÏ‚, Romanian: FanarioÅ£i) - were the members of those principal Greek families who resided in Phanar (Fener in Turkish, from the Greek word Î¦Î±Î½Î¬ÏÎ¹, Phanari - Lighthouse), the chief Greek quarter of Istanbul - where the ecumenical patriarchate is situated. ... Serbs (Serbian: Ð¡Ñ€Ð±Ð¸, Srbi) are a South Slavic people who live mainly in Serbia, Montenegro, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and, to a lesser extent, in Croatia. ... The Bosniaks (Bosnian: BoÅ¡njaci, IPA: [bÉ”ÊƒÉ²aËtÍ¡si]) are a South Slavic people living mainly in Bosnia and Herzegovina and the SandÅ¾ak region of Serbia and Montenegro, with a smaller autochthonous population also present in Kosovo. ... Greek (, IPA â€” Hellenic) has a documented history of 3,500 years, the longest of any single language within the Indo-European family. ...

The Ottomans were primarily administrators and not producers, in the sense that the empire did not employ a program of economic exploitation (as did the colonial empires of the modern European states). Its economic outlook (fiscalism) stressed abundance and regulated prices within the marketplace to ensure social stability, and the state never developed a Western mercantile outlook of maximum production, leaving commerce very largely in the hands of the non-Muslim population. According to Ottoman understanding, the state's primary responsibility was to defend and extend the land of the Muslims and to ensure security and harmony within its borders within the overarching context of orthodox Islamic practice and dynastic sovereignty. Fiscalism is the economic theory that the government should limit its constraints on the economy to fiscal policy. ... Sunni Islam (Arabic سنّة) is the largest denomination of Islam. ...

House of Osman

The Ottoman sultan, also known as the pâdişâh (or "lord of kings"), served as the empire's sole regent and was considered to be the embodiment of its government, though he did not always exercise complete control. The Ottoman Dynasty (or the Imperial House of Osman) ruled the Ottoman Empire from 1281 to 1923, beginning with Osman I (not counting his father, ErtuÄŸrul), though the dynasty was not proclaimed until 1383 when Murad I declared himself sultan. ... House of Osman is the name to the administrative structure of the Ottoman Dynasty, which is part of state organization of the Ottoman Empire, however directly linked to dynasty. ... History of Islamic monarchies Padishah, Badishah, or Badshah is a very prestigious title derived from the Persian word PÄdishÄh, which is based on the better-known title ShÄh King, assumed by several Islamic monarchs, notably these rulers, the first three commanding major Muslim empires: The Shahanshah of...

Throughout Ottoman history, however —despite the supreme de jure authority of the sultans and the occasional exercise of de facto authority by Grand Viziers— there were many instances in which local governors acted independently, and even in opposition to the ruler. On eleven occasions, the sultan was deposed because he was perceived by his enemies as a threat to the state. New sultans were always chosen from among the sons of the previous sultan, but there was a strong educational system in place that was geared towards eliminating the unfit and establishing support amongst the ruling elite for the son before he was actually crowned. There were only two failed attempts in the whole of Ottoman history to unseat the ruling Osmanlı dynasty, which is suggestive of a political system which for an extended period was able to manage its revolutions without unnecessary instability. Look up De jure in Wiktionary, the free dictionary The terms de jure and de facto are used instead of in principle and in practice, respectively, when one is describing political situations. ... De facto is a Latin expression that means in fact or in practice. It is commonly used as opposed to de jure (meaning by law) when referring to matters of law or governance or technique (such as standards), that are found in the common experience as created or developed without...

Imperial Harem

The Harem was one of the most important powers of the Ottoman court. It was ruled by the Valide Sultan (also known as the Baş Kadın, or "Chief Lady"), mother of the reigning sultan, who held supreme power over the Harem and thus a powerful position in the court. On occasion, the Valide Sultan would become involved in state politics and through her influence could diminish the power and position of the sultan. For a period of time beginning in the 16th century and extending into the 17th, the women of the Harem effectively controlled the state in what was termed the "Sultanate of Women" (Kadınlar Saltanatı). Concubine places The Imperial Harem or Harem was one of the most important powers of the Ottoman court. ... In traditional Arab culture, the harÃ®m ØØ±ÙŠÙ… (cf. ... The Valide Sultan was the mother of a ruling sultan in the Ottoman Empire. ... The Sultanate of Women (Turkish: KadÄ±nlar SultanatÄ±) is the nearly 130-year period, in the 16th and 17th centuries, during which the women of the Harem of the Ottoman Empire exerted extraordinary political influence. ...

The harem had its own internal organization and order of formulating policies. Beneath the Valide Sultan in the hierarchy was the Haseki Sultan, the mother of the sultan's first-born son, who had the best chance of becoming the next Valide Sultan. The sultan also had four other official wives, who were each called Haseki Kadın. Next in rank below the sultan's wives were his eight favourite concubines (ikbâls or hâs odalıks), and then the other concubines whom the sultan favoured and who were termed gözde. Next in rank were the concubines of other court officials. Pupils (acemî) and novices (câriye or şâhgird) were younger women who were either waiting to be married off to someone or who had not yet graduated out of the Harem School. Concubinage is either the state of a couple living together as lovers with no obligation created by vows, legal marriage, or religious ceremony, or the state of a woman supported by a male lover who is married to, and usually living with, someone else. ... Odalisque with a slave by Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres, painted 1840. ...

Palace schools

The palace schools were where young male Christian slaves (devşirme), taken as tribute from conquered Christian lands, were trained. There were palace schools in the old palace in Edirne, one in the Galata Palace north of the Istanbul's Golden Horn, and one in Ibrahim Pasha Palace in the Hippodrome area of Istanbul. The boys would graduate from these schools after seven years, and were then ready to become servants to the sultan or other notables, to serve in the Six Divisions of Cavalry, or to serve as Janissaries. Some of the most talented devşirme would come to Topkapı Palace, where they were trained for high positions within the Ottoman court or military. Devshirmeh (Turkish devÅŸirme, Greek, paedomazoma) refers to the system used by the Ottoman sultans to tax newly conquered states, and build a loyal slave army and class of administrators: the Janissaries. ... Selimiye Mosque, built by Sinan in 1575 Edirne is a city in Thrace, the westernmost part of Turkey, close to the borders with Greece and Bulgaria. ... Galata or Galatae is a district in Istanbul, the largest city of Turkey. ... View of Golden Horn from Eyup Sultan Cemetery The Golden Horn (in Turkish HaliÃ§, in Greek Khrysokeras or Chrysoceras or Î§ÏÏ…ÏƒÎ¿ÎºÎµÏÎ±Ï‚) is an estuary dividing the city of Istanbul. ... Entrance of Topkapi Palace, Babu-s Selam Topkapi Palace Courtyard, Tower of Justice in the rear TopkapÄ± Palace (TopkapÄ± SarayÄ± in Turkish, literally the Cannongate Palace - named after a nearby gate), located in Istanbul (Constantinople), was the administrative center of the Ottoman Empire from 1465 to 1853. ...

The Divan (Council)

Though the sultan was the supreme monarch, he had a number of advisors and ministers. The most powerful of these were the viziers of the Divan, led by the Grand Vizier. The Divan was a council where the viziers met and debated the politics of the empire. It was the Grand Vizier's duty to inform the sultan of the opinion of the divan. The sultan often took his vizier's advices under consideration, but he by no means had to obey the Divan. The Divan consisted of three viziers in the 14th century; by the 17th century, the number had grown to eleven, four of whom served as Viziers of the Dome (the most important ministers after the Grand Vizier). This article should be split into multiple articles accessible from a disambiguation page. ... A Vizier (وزير, sometimes also spelled Wazir) is an Arabic term for a high-ranking religious and political advisor, often to a king or sultan. ... A Vizier (ÙˆØ²ÙŠØ±, sometimes also spelled Vizir, Wasir, Wazir, Wesir, Wezir - grammatical vowel changes are common in many oriental languages) is an oriental, originally Persian, term for a high-ranking political (and sometimes religious) advisor or Minister, often to a Muslim monarch such as a Caliph, Amir, Malik (king) or Sultan. ... This article should be split into multiple articles accessible from a disambiguation page. ... A Vizier (وزير, sometimes also spelled Wazir) is an Arabic term for a high-ranking religious and political advisor, often to a king or sultan. ... A Vizier (وزير, sometimes also spelled Wazir) is an Arabic term for a high-ranking religious and political advisor, often to a king or sultan. ...

Imperial Government

Though the state apparatus of the Ottoman Empire underwent many reforms during its long history, a number of its basic structures remained essentially the same. Chief among these was the primacy of the sultan. Despite important decisions usually being made by the Divan, ultimate authority always rested with the sultan. Imperial Government of the Ottoman Empire is the goverment structure added to the Ottoman governing structure during Second Constitutional Era. ... Ottoman Empire, 1481-1683 The Ottoman Empire existed from 1299 to 1922 and, at the height of its power in the 16th century, it included nearly 20 million kmÂ² in Anatolia (Asia Minor), the Middle East, parts of North Africa, and much of south-eastern Europe, and the Caucasus. ... Grand viziers Chief ministers Grand viziers Jun 1882 - November 1882 Küçük Mehmed Said Pasha (1st time) (s. ... Image File history File links Ottoman-Empire-Divan. ... Image File history File links Ottoman-Empire-Divan. ... Synonym of the government of the Ottoman Empire. ...

The Divan, in the years when the Ottoman state was still a Beylik, was composed of the elders of the tribe. Its composition was later modified to include military officers and local elites (such as religious and political advisors). These individuals became known as viziers. Later still, beginning in the year 1320, a Grand Vizier (or Sadrazam) was appointed in order to assume certain of the sultan's responsibilities. The Sublime Porte, which became synonymous with the Ottoman government, was in fact the gate to the Grand Vizier's headquarters, and the place where the sultan formally greeted foreign ambassadors. At times throughout Ottoman history, the authority of the Grand Vizier was to equal, or even on some occasions surpass, that of the sultan. A Vizier (ÙˆØ²ÙŠØ±, sometimes also spelled Vizir, Wasir, Wazir, Wesir, Wezir - grammatical vowel changes are common in many oriental languages) is an oriental, originally Persian, term for a high-ranking political (and sometimes religious) advisor or Minister, often to a Muslim monarch such as a Caliph, Amir, Malik (king) or Sultan. ... Synonym of the government of the Ottoman Empire. ...

After the Young Turk Revolution of 1908, the Ottoman state became a constitutional monarchy without executive powers, and a parliament was formed, with representatives chosen from the provinces.

At the height of its power, the Ottoman Empire contained 29 provinces, in addition to the tributary principalities of Moldavia, Transylvania, and Wallachia. Moldavia (Moldova in Romanian) was a Romanian principality, originally created in the Middle Ages, now divided between Romania, Moldovan Republic and Ukraine. ... Map of Romania with Transylvania in yellow Transylvania (Romanian: or Transilvania; Hungarian: ; German: ; Serbian: or Erdelj / Ð•Ñ€Ð´ÐµÑ™) is a historical region in the center of Romania. ... This article is about the region in what is now Southern Romania. ...

Insignia

The Tughra were calligraphic monograms, or signatures, of the Ottoman Sultans, of which there were 35. Carved on the Sultan's seal, they bore the names of the Sultan and his father. The prayer/statement “ever victorious” was also present in most. The earliest belonged to Orhan Gazi. The ornately stylized Tughra spawned a branch of Ottoman-Turkish calligraphy. Animation showing the structure of the Tughra of Mahmud II A tughra (طغراء) is a Turkish paisley-like calligraphic seal or signature used at the beginning of sultans decrees. ... Ottoman Flag refers to the flag that was used by the Ottoman Dynasty, or Sultans as its common term. ... Animation showing the structure of the Tughra of Mahmud II A tughra (طغراء) is a Turkish paisley-like calligraphic seal or signature used at the beginning of sultans decrees. ... Calligraphy in a Latin Bible of AD 1407 on display in Malmesbury Abbey, Wiltshire, England. ...

Society

One of the successes of the Ottoman Empire was the unity that it brought about among its highly varied populations. While the main reason for this was the Empire's military strength and use of intimidation as a means of control in newly conquered territories, it may also be ascribed in part to the laws of Islam, which stated that Muslims, Christians, and Jews —who constituted the vast majority of the Ottoman population— were all related in that they were "People of the Book" (Ahl al-Kitâb). As early as the rule of Mehmed II, the Ottomans had foreseen the results of such policies: Mehmed II, for instance, granted extensive rights to Phanariot Greeks and invited many Jews to settle in Ottoman territory. This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Phanariotes or Phanariot Greeks (Greek: Î¦Î±Î½Î±ÏÎ¹ÏŽÏ„ÎµÏ‚, Romanian: FanarioÅ£i) - were the members of those principal Greek families who resided in Phanar (Fener in Turkish, from the Greek word Î¦Î±Î½Î¬ÏÎ¹, Phanari - Lighthouse), the chief Greek quarter of Istanbul - where the ecumenical patriarchate is situated. ...

Concept of Nation

Under Ottoman rule the major religious groups were allowed to establish their own communities, called millets, each retaining its own religious laws, traditions, and language under the general protection of the sultan. Millets were led by religious chiefs, who served as secular as well as religious leaders and thus had a substantial interest in the continuation of Ottoman rule. Mehmed II used the conquering army to restore the physical structure of the city. Old buildings were repaired, streets, aqueducts, and bridges were constructed, sanitary facilities were modernised, and a vast supply system was established to provide for the city's inhabitants. This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Ottomanism - Belief in an empire founded on comfortable footrests. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Mehmed II (also known as el-Fatih (Ø§Ù„ÙØ§ØªØ), the Conqueror, in Ottoman Turkish, or, in modern Turkish, Fatih Sultan Mehmet) (March 30, 1432 â€“ May 3, 1481) (Arabic: Ù…ØÙ…Ø¯ Ø§Ù„Ø«Ø§Ù†ÙŠ) was first the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire for a short time from 1444 to 1446, and later from 1451 to 1481. ...

Ultimately, the Ottoman Empire's relatively high degree of tolerance for ethnic differences proved to be one of its greatest strengths in integrating the new regions until the rise of nationalism (this non-assimilative policy became a weakness during the dissolution of the empire that neither the first or second parliaments could successfully address). With the rise of national states and their histories, it is very hard to find reliable sources on the Ottoman concept of a nation. ... // Balkan Wars The Ottoman army in the balkans was large and appeared on the surface to be modern. ... Graphical timeline The First Constitutional Era of the Ottoman Empire was the period of constitutional monarchy from the promulgation of a Basic Law by AbdÃ¼lhamid II on 23 November 1876 until 13 February 1878 when the constitution was suspended. ... Public Demonstration The Second Constitutional Era in the Ottoman Empire began with the 1908 Young Turk Revolution, shortly after which Sultan Abdul Hamid II restored the 1876 Constitution suspended since 1878. ...

"...the Ottoman family was ethnically Turkish in its origins, as were some of its supporters and subjects. But ... the dynasty immediately lost this "Turkish" ethnic identification through intermarriage with many different ethnicities. As for a "Turkish empire", state power relied on a similarly heterogeneous mix of peoples. The Ottoman empire succeeded because it incorporated the energies of the vastly varied peoples it encountered, quickly transcending its roots in the Turkish nomadic migrations from Central Asia into the Middle East."^[2]

Slavery

The Ottomans came from a nomadic people among whom slavery was little practised. Also, from the Islamic perspective, the Qur'an specifically states "everyone is same"^[3], although the practice showed differences based on cultures (Islam and Slavery covers these perspectives). Specifically, Ottoman application on their domain was not approved. However, the Ottoman policies were based on a millet perspective in which each millet had the right to govern their own domain. Trafficking in slaves is expressively forbidden by the Ottoman application of sharia, or Islamic law. For example, by the terms of the sharia, any slaves who were taken could not be kept in the status of slaves if they converted to Islam. It was, in fact, considered an insult to term an Ottoman man as a slave-master, and there were incidents in which Ottomans responded unsympathetically to any who even mentioned the idea of slavery to them.^[4] Devshirmeh (Turkish devÅŸirme, Greek, paedomazoma) refers to the system used by the Ottoman sultans to tax newly conquered states, and build a loyal slave army and class of administrators: the Janissaries. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... The QurÄn [1] (Arabic: , literally the recitation; also called The Noble Quran; also transliterated as Quran, Koran (the traditional term in English), and Al-Quran), is the central religious text of Islam. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Arab slave trade. ... Sharia ( translit: ) refers to the body of Islamic law. ...

Slavery was usually confined to domestic services, including odalıks. Many were captives of war and cross-border raids. In the Mediterranean, such enslaved captives manned the galley oars in the navy. By the era of Tanzimat, the Ottoman Empire aimed to gradually limit the scope of slavery. However, slavery was not formally abolished until the proclamation of the Republic. Odalisque with a slave by Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres, painted 1840. ... Graphical timeline Caricature; changes in the form, not in the mind The Tanzimat was a period of reform in the Ottoman Empire that lasted from 1839 to 1876. ...

The Devşirme system can be considered as a form of slavery considering the Sultans' absolute power over its members, but the high status of the 'slave' or kul (subject) of the Sultan within Ottoman society, encompassing the highest officers of state and the military elite, all well remunerated, makes 'slavery' as understood in the West a potentially misleading term. Devshirmeh (Turkish devÅŸirme, Greek, paedomazoma) refers to the system used by the Ottoman sultans to tax newly conquered states, and build a loyal slave army and class of administrators: the Janissaries. ... The word Kul has several meanings: Kul Tigin was a Turkic leader in early Middle Ages KUL is also an abbreviation of Katolicki Uniwersytet Lubelski in Lublin, Poland KUL is also an abbreviation of Katholieke Universiteit Leuven in Leuven, Belgium This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which...

Rural slavery was largely a Caucasian phenomenon, carried to Anatolia and Rumelia after the Circassian migration in 1864. Conflicts emerged within the immigrant community and the Ottoman Establishment, at times, intervened on the side of the slaves.^[5] The Entholinguistic patchwork of the modern Caucasus - CIA map The Caucasus, a region bordering Asia Minor, is located between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea which includes the Caucasus Mountains and surrounding lowlands. ... Circassian language is used in a number of ways: as a synonym for the Adyghe language; as a synonym for the Kabardian language; as a term for a distinct language that includes both Adyghe and Kabardian. ... 1864 (MDCCCLXIV) was a leap year starting on Friday (see link for calendar) of the Gregorian calendar or a leap year starting on Sunday of the 12-day-slower Julian calendar. ...

Culture

Many different cultures lived under the umbrella of the Ottoman Empire, and as a result, a specifically "Ottoman" culture can be difficult to define. To some extent, there existed a Turkish Ottoman culture, a Greek Ottoman culture, an Armenian Ottoman culture, and so on. However, there was also, to a great extent, a specific intersecting multi-ethnic culture that can be said to have reached its highest levels among the Ottoman elite, who—far from being monolithic—were in fact composed of a myriad of different ethnic and religious groups. Early on as the Ottoman Turks drove out the Byzantines from Anatolia and later pursued them into Europe, the pursuit was a part of the Jihad (or Holy War) against Christianity, and the first Ottoman rulers called themselves Gazi, or Holy Warriors. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... The prose of the Ottoman Empire can, roughly, be divided along the lines of two broad periods: early Ottoman prose, written prior to the 19th century CE and exclusively nonfictional in nature; and later Ottoman prose, which extended from the mid-19th century Tanzimat period of reform to the final... Turkic people emigration from Asia to Anatolia caused many cultures to integrate. ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (1169x500, 882 KB) Summary Licensing File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Ottoman Empire ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (1169x500, 882 KB) Summary Licensing File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Ottoman Empire ...

One of the roots of Ottoman culture comes from the Oghuz Turks with their Central Asian Turkic nomadic culture. As the Oghuz passed into Anatolia through Persia over a period of a few hundred years they absorbed many elements of Persian culture. Following Sultan Mehmed II's capture of Istanbul in 1453, many aspects of Byzantine—and, more broadly, European—culture began to be integrated into Ottoman culture. As the empire expanded in subsequent years, different cultures were brought into this mix, enriching it still further. Safavid era painting kept at The Grand Shah Abbas Caravanserai Hotel in Isfahan. ...

This Ottoman multicultural perspective reflects on their policies. One of the reasons that the Ottoman Empire lasted as long as it did was the highly tolerant policies pursued originating from their nomadic inheritance. This statement should be taken as a comparison to assimilative medieval times (east and west). The Ottoman State pursued multi-cultural and multi-religious policies - accommodating different perspectives. Two examples of this are the Ottoman justice system and the regional governors. As the Ottomans moved further west, the Ottoman leaders themselves absorbed some of the culture of conquered regions. In addition, with intercultural marriages, new cultural structures were gradually added to the Ottomans, creating the characteristic Ottoman elite culture. When compared to common Turkish arts (folkloric), the assimilation of the Ottoman elites to these new cultures is apparent. The Middle Ages formed the middle period in a traditional schematic division of European history into three ages: the classical civilization of Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and modern times, beginning with the Renaissance. ... J.L. Urban, statue of Lady Justice at court building in Olomouc, Czech Republic (1896-1901) Justice is the ideal, morally correct state of things and persons. ... A marriage is a relationship between or among individuals, usually recognized by civil authority and/or bound by the religious beliefs of the participants. ...

Architecture

Ottoman architecture influenced by Seljuk, Byzantine and Islamic architecture, came to develop a style all of its own. The years 1300-1453 (Rise Period) constitute the early or first Ottoman period, when Ottoman art was in search of new ideas. The years 1453-1600, which is named the classical period, coinciding with the growth period, constitutes the strongest period. During the years of the stagnation period, principles of architecture deviated from classical times. During the Tulip Era, it was under the influence of the excessive decorations of the west; Baroque, Rococo, Empire and other styles intermingled. Water Fountain in Istanbul, 1878 Ottoman architecture is the architecture of the Ottoman Empire which emerged in Bursa and Edirne in 14th and 15th centuries. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (3138x2187, 1519 KB) Summary Overall plan of the Bey Hamam in Thessaloniki (1444). ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (3138x2187, 1519 KB) Summary Overall plan of the Bey Hamam in Thessaloniki (1444). ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Seljuk (in Arabic SaljÅ«q; in Turkish SelÃ§uk; also Seldjuk, Seldjuq, Seljuq) was the bey (chieftain) of a branch of Oghuz Turks known as the Seljuk Turks. ... Byzantine architecture is the architecture of the Byzantine Empire. ... Islamic architecture, a part of the Islamic studies, is the entire range of architecture that has evolved within Muslim culture in the course of the history of Islam. ... In the late 13th century the Seljuq empire had collapsed and Anatolia was divided into many small states. ... This article is in need of attention. ... The Battle of Vienna of 1683 was the real point at which the Empire began its decline. ... The Tulip Era is an important period for the Ottoman Empire. ... Adoration, by Peter Paul Rubens. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Empire is an early 19th century style of architecture and furniture design that and originates from Napoleons rule of France. ...

Concepts of Ottoman architecture mainly circles around the mosque. The society and mosque was being envisioned as an entity interconnected with city planning and communal life. Beside the mosque, there were soup kitchens, theological schools, hospitals, Turkish baths and tombs. The Badshahi Masjid in Lahore, Pakistan with an iwan at center, three domes, and five visible minarets A mosque is a place of worship for followers of the Islamic faith. ... Urban planning is concerned with the ordering and design of settlements, from the smallest towns to the worlds largest cities. ... A soup kitchen is a place where food is offered to the poor for free or at a reasonably low price. ... A hospital today is an institution for professional health care provided by physicians and nurses. ... A Turkish bath is a method of cleansing the body and relaxation that was particularly popular during the Victorian era. ... A tomb is a small building (or vault) for the remains of the dead, with walls, a roof, and (if it is to be used for more than one corpse) a door. ...

Examples of Ottoman architecture of the classical period, aside from Istanbul and Edirne, can also be seen in Egypt, Eritrea, Tunisia, Algiers, the Balkans and Hungary, where mosques, bridges, fountains and schools were built. Istanbul (Turkish: , Greek: , see other names) is Turkeys most populous city, and its cultural, and economic centre. ... Selimiye Mosque, built by Sinan in 1575 Edirne is a city in Thrace, the westernmost part of Turkey, close to the borders with Greece and Bulgaria. ...

Language

At the Ottoman court, a version of Turkish with Arabic and Persian vocabulary was spoken (see: Ottoman Turkish language). The basic grammar was still largely Turkish, but far more elaborate than the Turkish that was spoken outside of the court. The two varieties of the language became so differentiated that ordinary people had to hire special "request-writers" (arzıhâlcis) in order to be able to communicate with the government. In cosmopolitan cities, people often spoke their family languages, some Ottoman or Persian if they were educated, and some Arabic if they were Muslim. In the last two centuries, French and English emerged as popular languages where the elite learned French at school, and used European products as a fashion statement. All ethnicities who had their own language continued to speak their own language with their families. In villages where two populations lived together, the two populations would often speak each other's language. Ottoman Turkish (Turkish: OsmanlÄ±ca or OsmanlÄ± TÃ¼rkÃ§esi, Ottoman Turkish: Ù„Ø³Ø§Ù† Ø¹Ø«Ù…Ø§Ù†ÛŒ - lisÃ¢n-i OsmÃ¢nÃ®) is the variant of the Turkish language that was used as the administrative and literary language of the Ottoman Empire. ... Ottoman Turkish (Turkish: OsmanlÄ±ca or OsmanlÄ± TÃ¼rkÃ§esi, Ottoman Turkish: Ù„Ø³Ø§Ù† Ø¹Ø«Ù…Ø§Ù†ÛŒ - lisÃ¢n-i OsmÃ¢nÃ®) is the variant of the Turkish language that was used as the administrative and literary language of the Ottoman Empire. ...

Music

As music was an important part of the education of the Ottoman elite, a number of the Ottoman sultans were accomplished musicians and composers themselves, such as Selim III, whose compositions are still frequently performed today. Due to a geographic and cultural divide between the capital and other areas, two broadly distinct styles of music arose in the Ottoman Empire: Ottoman classical music, and folk music. Ottoman classical music (Türk Sanat Müziği) is a kind of music that developed parallel with the Ottoman Empire. ... Janissary music is a style of Turkish music, primarilly known for its use in Military capacities by the Janissaries, infantry units that formed the Ottoman sultans household troops and bodyguard. ... 19th century print of Roma musicians Roma music is highly varied among the diverse communities of the Roma (aka Gypsies). ... Raqs Sharqi dancer Chryssanthi Sahar Scharf, Heidelberg. ... Please wikify (format) this article as suggested in the Guide to layout and the Manual of Style. ... Sultan Selim III Selim III (December 24, 1761 â€“ July 28/29, 1808) was a sultan of the Ottoman Empire (1789â€“1807). ...

Ottoman classical music arose largely from a confluence of Byzantine music, Arab music, and Persian music. Compositionally, it is organised around rhythmic units called usul, which are somewhat similar to meter in Western music, and melodic units called makam, which bear some resemblance to Western musical modes. The instruments used are a mixture of Anatolian and Central Asian instruments (the saz, the bağlama, the kemence), other Middle Eastern instruments (the ud, the tanbur, the kanun, the ney), and—later in the tradition—Western instruments (the violin, the piano). Byzantine music is the music of the Byzantine Empire and by extension the music of its culture(s) as they continued in the Orthodox Christian parts of the population after the fall of the empire to the rule of the Ottoman Empire. ... Arab music is the music of Arabic-speaking people or countries, especially those centered around the Arabian Peninsula. ... Moosiqi Asil or Persian music is the traditional and indigenous music of Persia and Persian-speaking countries: musiqi, the science and art of music, and moosiqi, the sound and performance of music (Sakata 1983). ... // Rhythm (Greek ÏÏ…Î¸Î¼ÏŒÏ‚ = tempo) is the variation of the duration of sounds or other events over time. ... In Ottoman / Turkish music theory, the term usul denotes a rhythmic pattern that forms the framework of a composition. ... Metre or meter is the measurement of a musical line into measures of stressed and unstressed beats, indicated in Western notation by a symbol called a time signature. ... Look up melody in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... The makam (pl. ... In music, a mode is an ordered series of musical intervals, which, along with the key or tonic, define the pitches. ... A musical instrument is a device constructed or modified with the purpose of making music. ... The saz is a Turkish plucked stringed instrument, a member of the long-necked lute family. ... The baÄŸlama is a stringed musical instrument shared by various cultures in the Eastern Mediterranean. ... 1 Tepe - Top : Same as the body To Kifal - Head : Same as the body 2 Otia - Pegs (Ears): Same as the body 3 Goula - Neck : Same as the body 4 Spaler - Fingerboard (Slabbering bib) : Same as the body 5 Kapak - Soundboard 6 Rothounia - Soundholes (Nostrals) 7 Gaidaron - Bridge (Rider): Made... Front and rear views of an oud. ... Tanbur is the name used to refer to a long necked stringed instruments used in Turkish music. ... The qanÃºn or kanun is a musical string instrument used in Middle-Eastern music. ... Woman playing the ney in a painting from the Hasht-Behesht Palace in Isfahan Iran, 1669 The ney (also nai, nye, nay) is an end-blown flute that figures prominently in Middle Eastern music--in some of these musical traditions, it is the only wind instrument used. ... A violin The violin is a bowed stringed musical instrument that has four strings tuned a perfect fifth apart. ... A grand piano, with the lid up. ...

In the provinces, several different kinds of Folk music were created. The most dominant regions with their distinguished musical styles are: Balkan-Thracian Turkus, North-Eastern Turkus(Laz), Aegean Turkus, Central Anatolian Turkus, Eastern Anatolian Turkus, and Caucasian Turkus. Istanbul does not have any Turkus, because it has the Turkish Classical Music. Folk music, in the original sense of the term, is music by and for the common people. ... Laz may refer to one of the following: Lazs (a Caucasian (Kartvelian) people) Laz language The wife of the Babylonian God Nergal Laz, FinistÃ¨re (a commune in the FinistÃ¨re dÃ©partement, France) Lvivskyi Avtobusnyi Zavod (a bus factory in Ukraine) This page concerning a three-letter acronym or...

Cuisine

When one talks about the "Ottoman Cuisine", one refers to the cuisine of the Capital - Istanbul, and the regional capital cities, where the melting pot of cultures created a common cuisine that all the populations enjoyed. This diverse cuisine was honed in the Imperial Palace's kitchens by chefs brought from certain parts of the empire to create and experiment with different ingredient. Each cook specialised in specific tasks. The creations of the Ottoman Palace's kitchens filtered to the population, for instance through Ramadan events, and through the cookings at Yalis of Pashas, and from here on spread to the rest of the population. The Ottoman Cuisine, is the cuisine of the Capital - Istanbul, and the regional capital cities of the Ottoman Empire, where the melting pot of cultures created a common cuisine that all the populations enjoyed. ... Istanbul (Turkish: , Greek: , see other names) is Turkeys most populous city, and its cultural, and economic centre. ... Ramadan (Arabic: Ø±Ù…Ø¶Ø§Ù†, Ramadhan) is the ninth month of Hijri (Islamic) calendar since 638. ...

Lifestyle

The Ottoman court life in many aspects assembled ancient traditions of the Persian Shahs, but had many Greek and European influences. Goverment life Economic Life Category: Ottoman Empire ... Image File history File links Ottoman-Empire-bridge-of-galata. ... Image File history File links Ottoman-Empire-bridge-of-galata. ... Aerial view of the Galata Bridge looking from Eminönü to Karaköy. ... For other uses of this term see: Persia (disambiguation) The Persian Empire is the name used to refer to a number of historic dynasties that have ruled the country of Persia (Iran). ... Shah is an Iranian & Pakistani/Indian term in Persian language & Urdu (Ø´Ø§Ù‡), for a monarch (king or emperor), and has also been adopted in many other languages. ... This article is about the continent. ...

The court (Topkapı)

The culture that evolved around the court was known as the Ottoman Way. To get a high position in the empire, one must be skilled in the way. It included both knowing Persian, Arabic and Ottoman Turkish and how to behave in court, in front of the sultan, and in formal and religious occasions. The Ottoman Way also used to separate the nobles from the lower classes. Peasants and villagers were called Turks, while nobles were called Ottomans. Culture of the Ottoman court or the culture that evolved around the court of the Ottoman Empire was known as the Ottoman Way. To get a high position in the empire, one must be skilled in the Way. ... In traditional Arab culture, the harÃ®m ØØ±ÙŠÙ… (cf. ... Entrance of Topkapi Palace, Babu-s Selam Topkapi Palace Courtyard, Tower of Justice in the rear TopkapÄ± Palace (TopkapÄ± SarayÄ± in Turkish, literally the Cannongate Palace - named after a nearby gate), located in Istanbul (Constantinople), was the administrative center of the Ottoman Empire from 1465 to 1853. ... Persian is an Indo-European language spoken in Iran, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Bahrain, Iraq, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia, Southern Russia, neighboring countries, and elsewhere. ... The Arabic language (Arabic: â€Ž translit: ), or simply Arabic (Arabic: â€Ž translit: ), is the largest member of the Semitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family (classification: South Central Semitic) and is closely related to Hebrew and Aramaic. ... Ottoman Turkish (Turkish: OsmanlÄ±ca or OsmanlÄ± TÃ¼rkÃ§esi, Ottoman Turkish: Ù„Ø³Ø§Ù† Ø¹Ø«Ù…Ø§Ù†ÛŒ - lisÃ¢n-i OsmÃ¢nÃ®) is the variant of the Turkish language that was used as the administrative and literary language of the Ottoman Empire. ...

See also: Seraglio. A seraglio is the sequestered living quarters used by wives and concubines in a Turkish Muslim household, from an Italian variant of Turkish sarayı, meaning palace, enclosed courts. Topkapi Palace (Topkapı Sarayı) is the main Ottoman palace in Istanbul, now a museum. ...

The provincial capitals

Apart from the Ottoman court, there were also large metropolitan centers where the Ottoman influence expressed itself with a diversity similar to metropolises of today: Sarajevo, Skopje, Thessaloniki, Dimashq, Baghdad, Beirut, Jerusalem, Makkah were other cities that tasted the Ottoman diversity with their own small versions of Provincial Administration replicating the culture of the Ottoman court locally. Map of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Sarajevo) Coordinates: Country Bosnia and Herzegovina Entity Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina Canton Sarajevo Canton Mayor Semiha Borovac Area - City 142 kmÂ² (54. ... Skopje is the capital and the largest city of the Republic of Macedonia, as well as the political, cultural, economical and academic centre of the country. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... This is about Damascus, the capital of Syria. ... Baghdad (Arabic: â€Ž translit: ) is the capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate. ... For other uses, see Beirut (disambiguation). ... Jerusalem (Hebrew: , YerushalÃ¡yim or Yerushalaim; Arabic: , al-Quds; official Arabic in Israel: Ø£ÙˆØ±Ø´Ù„ÙŠÙ… Ø§Ù„Ù‚Ø¯Ø³, Urshalim-Al-Quds) is Israels capital and largest city, with a population of 724,000 (as of May 24, 2006 [1]) contained in 123 kmÂ². An ancient Middle Eastern city on the watershed between the Mediterranean... Mecca or Makkah (in full: Makkah al-Mukkaramah; Arabic مكة المكرمة) is revered as the holiest site of Islam, and a pilgrimage to it is required of all Muslims who can afford to go. ...

Religion

Following the fall of Constantinople, in 1453, Mehmed II did not disband the Greek Orthodox Ecumenical Patriarchate, but instead brought it under close control by installing Gennadius II Scholarius as the patriarch—after receiving from him a hefty fee^[6]—and thus establishing him as the ethnarch of the Millet of Rum; that is, the Orthodox Christian subjects of the empire, regardless of their ethnicity. Under the millet system—which applied to other non-Muslim religious groups as well—people were considered subjects, or rather raya (i.e. cattle), of the empire but were not subject to the Muslim faith or Muslim law. The Orthodox millet, for instance, was still officially legally subject to Justinian's Code, which had been in effect in the Byzantine Empire for 900 years. Also, as the largest group of non-Muslim subjects (or zimmi) of the Islamic Ottoman state, the Orthodox millet was granted a number of special privileges in the fields of politics and commerce{citation needed}, in addition to having to pay higher taxes than Muslim subjects. Jews have lived in Turkey (and, before that, the Ottoman Empire and other former states in Anatolia) for over two thousand years. ... Patriarch Harutyun I This article is about the Ottoman rule of Armenia or Ottoman Armenia, which begining with the rule of Selim II (May 28, 1524 â€“ December 12, 1574) becomes the integral part of the Ottoman Empire. ... Map of Constantinople. ... The Orthodox Church of Constantinople is one of the fifteen autocephalous Eastern Orthodox churches. ... The Patriarch of Constantinople is the Ecumenical Patriarch, the first among equals in the Eastern Orthodox communion. ... Gennadius II (lay name Georgios Kourtesios Scholarios) (died circa 1473), patriarch of Constantinople from 1454 to 1464, philosopher and theologian, was one of the last representatives of Byzantine learning, and a strong advocate of Aristotelian philosophy in the Eastern Church. ... Ethnarch refers generally to political leadership over a common ethnic group or heterogeneous kingdom. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... This article is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... A dhimmi (also zimmi, Arabic: â€Ž, plural: Ø§Ù‡Ù„ Ø§Ù„Ø°Ù…Ûƒ, ahl al-dhimma) was a free (i. ...

Similar millets were established for the Ottoman Jewish community, who were under the authority of the Haham Başı or Ottoman Chief Rabbi; the Armenian Orthodox community, who were under the authority of a head bishop; and a number of other religious communities as well. Hakham Bashi (Turkish: Hakham BaÅ¡si) was the name for the Chief Rabbi of the Ottoman Empire, and as such, the Hakham Bashi was the closest thing to an overall Exilarchal authority among Jewry everywhere in the Middle East in early modern times. ... // Chief rabbi is a title given in several countries to the recognised religious leader of that countrys Jewish community. ... Official standard of Karekin II Catholicos of Armenia The Armenian Apostolic Church, sometimes called the Armenian Orthodox Church or the Gregorian Church, is the worlds oldest national church and one of the most ancient Christian communities. ... A bishop is an ordained member of the Christian clergy who, in certain Christian churches, holds a position of authority. ...

Adoption of Islam

Before adopting Islam—a process that was greatly facilitated by the Abbasid victory at the 751 CE Battle of Talas, which ensured Abbasid influence in Central Asia—the Turkic peoples practised a variety of shamanism. After this battle, many of the various Turkic tribes—including the Oghuz Turks, who were the ancestors of both the Seljuks and the Ottomans—gradually converted to Islam, and brought the religion with them to Anatolia beginning in the 11th century CE. The Ottoman Empire, at its height, covered a significant portion of the Mediterranean World, including portions of three continents. ... For other uses, including people named Islam, see Islam (disambiguation). ... Abbasid provinces during the caliphate of Harun al-Rashid Abbasid (Arabic: Ø§Ù„Ø¹Ø¨Ù‘Ø§Ø³ÙŠÙ‘ÙˆÙ† AbbÄsÄ«yÅ«n) was the dynastic name generally given to the caliphs of Baghdad, the second of the two great Sunni dynasties of the Islamic empire, that overthrew the Umayyad caliphs from all but Spain. ... Combatants Abbasid Caliphate Chinese Tang Dynasty Commanders Ziyad ibn Salih Gao Xianzhi Li Siye Duan Xiushi Strength around 150,000 over 30,000 (20,000 Tang troops + troops of Chinese protectorates + Qarluq mercenaries) Casualties Unknown Gao retreated with several thousand survivors The Battle of Talas in CE 751 was a... A shaman doctor of Kyzyl. ...

State and Religion

Largely for practical reasons, the Ottoman Empire was, in a broad sense, tolerant towards its non-Muslim subjects; it did not, for instance, forcibly convert all of them to Islam. The sultans took their primary duty to be service to the interests of the state, which could not survive without taxes and a strong administrative system. The state's relationship with the Greek Orthodox Church, for example, was largely peaceful, and the church's structure was kept intact and largely left alone but under close control and scrutiny until the Greek War of Independence of 1821–1831 and, later in the 19th and early 20th centuries, the rise of the Ottoman constitutional monarchy, which was driven to some extent by nationalistic currents. Other churches, like the Bulgarian Orthodox Church, were dissolved and placed under the jurisdiction of the Greek Orthodox Church. On the other hand, the empire often served as a refuge for the persecuted and exiled Jews of Europe, as for example following the expulsion of the Jews from Spain in 1492, when Sultan Beyazid II welcomed them into Ottoman lands. Ottoman Empire was, in a broad sense, tolerant towards its non-Muslim subjects; it did not, for instance, forcibly convert all of them to Islam. ... The Orthodox Church of Constantinople is one of the fifteen autocephalous Eastern Orthodox churches. ... Combatants Greek revolutionaries, United Kingdom, Russia, France Ottoman Empire, Egyptian troops Commanders Theodoros Kolokotronis, Alexander Ypsilanti Omer Vryonis, Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... The Bulgarian Orthodox Church (Ð‘ÑŠÐ»Ð³Ð°Ñ€ÑÐºÐ° Ð¿Ñ€Ð°Ð²Ð¾ÑÐ»Ð°Ð²Ð½Ð° Ñ†ÑŠÑ€ÐºÐ²Ð°) is an autocephalous Eastern Orthodox Church with some 6. ...

Law

Legally, the Ottoman Empire was organised around a system of local jurisprudence; that is, local legal systems which did not conflict with the state as a whole were largely left alone. The Ottoman system had three court systems: one for Muslims, which was run by the kadıs, or Islamic judges; one for non-Muslims, involving appointed Jews and Christians ruling over their respective religious areas; and one which regulated trade and had its origins in the empire's capitulation agreements with foreign powers. The entire system was regulated from above by means of the administrative Kanun, i.e. laws. Ottoman civil codec. ... Image File history File links 1879-Ottoman_Court-from-NYL.png Summary Mid-Manhattan Library / Picture Collection NYPL Call Number: PC TRI-18 Captions: Under consular protection : orphans from Batak preparing rice for their dinner under the superintendence of the British Consuls Cavass; The trial of the Bashi-Bazouks : a... Image File history File links 1879-Ottoman_Court-from-NYL.png Summary Mid-Manhattan Library / Picture Collection NYPL Call Number: PC TRI-18 Captions: Under consular protection : orphans from Batak preparing rice for their dinner under the superintendence of the British Consuls Cavass; The trial of the Bashi-Bazouks : a... Image File history File links 1879-Ottoman_Court-from-NYL.png Summary Mid-Manhattan Library / Picture Collection NYPL Call Number: PC TRI-18 Captions: Under consular protection : orphans from Batak preparing rice for their dinner under the superintendence of the British Consuls Cavass; The trial of the Bashi-Bazouks : a... Jurisprudence is the theory and philosophy of law. ... Capitulations are contracts between Ottoman Empire and European powers. ...

These court categories were not, however, wholly exclusive in nature: for instance, the Islamic courts—which were the empire's primary courts—could also be used to settle a trade conflict or disputes between litigants of differing religions, and Jews and Christians often went to them so as to obtain a more forceful ruling on an issue. Women nearly always choose the Islamic courts, as these courts tended to be fairer towards them and to give them more just recompense.

Throughout the empire, there were two systems of law in effect: one was the Islamic Sharia law system, and the other was the Turkish Kanun system. The Ottoman state tended not to interfere with non-Muslim religious law systems, despite legally having a voice to do so through local governors. The Islamic Sharia law system had been developed from a combination of the Qur'ān; the Hadīth, or words of the prophet Muhammad; ijmā', or consensus of the members of the Muslim community; qiyas, a system of analogical reasoning from previous precedents; and local customs. The kanun law system, on the other hand, was the secular law of the sultan, and dealt with issues not clearly addressed by the sharia system. Both systems were taught at the empire's law schools, which were in Istanbul and Bursa. Sharia ( translit: ) refers to the body of Islamic law. ... The QurÄn [1] (Arabic: , literally the recitation; also called The Noble Quran; also transliterated as Quran, Koran (the traditional term in English), and Al-Quran), is the central religious text of Islam. ... Hadith (Arabic: â€Ž translit: ) are traditions relating to the words and deeds of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. ... In religion, a prophet is a person who has directly encountered God, of whose intentions he can then speak. ... For other persons named Muhammad, see Muhammad (disambiguation). ... IjmÄÊ¿ (Ø¥Ø¬Ù…Ø§Ø¹) is an Arabic tern referring to the consensus of the ummah, the community of Muslims, those practicing Islam, or of the ulema, those learned in the relevant topic. ... Consensus has two common meanings. ... Umma (Arabic: â€Ž) is an Arabic word meaning community or nation. ... In Sunni Islamic jurisprudence, Qiyas is the process of analogical reasoning from a known injunction (nass) to a new injunction. ...

Military

The Ottoman military was a complex system of recruiting and fief-holding. In the Ottoman army, light cavalry long formed the core and they were given fiefs called Tımars. Cavalry used bows and short swords and made use of nomad tactics similar to those of the Mongol Empire. The Ottoman army was once among the most advanced fighting forces in the world, being one of the first to employ muskets. The modernisation of the Ottoman empire in the 19th century started with the military. This was the first institution to hire foreign experts and which sent their officer corps for training in western European countries. Technology and new weapons were transferred to the empire, such as German and British guns, air force and a modern navy. This article details the military of the Ottoman Empire. ... Woodcut by Melchior Lorch (1646), originally engraved in 1576. ... AkÄ±ncÄ± was the light cavalry division of the Ottoman Army. ... A timariot (or timar holder; timarlu in Turkish) was an irregular cavalryman that served the Ottoman sultan and in return was granted a fief called a timar. ... Chamberlain of Sultan Murad IV with janissaries The Janissaries (or janizaries; in Turkish: YeniÃ§eri (yeni Ã§eri, meaning new soldier); in Greek: Î“ÎµÎ½Î¯Ï„ÏƒÎ±ÏÎ¿Î¹; in Bulgarian: ÑÐ½Ð¸Ñ‡Ð°Ñ€Ð¸; in Croatian and Bosnian: JanjiÄari; in Slovenian: JanjiÄarji; in Hungarian: JanicsÃ¡rok; in Serbian :ÐˆÐ°ÑšÐ¸Ñ‡Ð°Ñ€Ð¸; in Romanian: ieniceri; in Arabic: Ø§Ù„Ø§Ù†ÙƒØ´Ø§Ø±ÙŠØ©) comprised infantry units that formed... The Nizam-I Cedid (Turkish: New Order) was a series of reforms carried out by the Ottoman Empire sultan Selim III during the late eighteenth century in a drive to catch up militarily and politically with the Western Powers. ... Mongol Empires approximate largest extent coloured in blue. ...

References

Cleveland, William L. "The Ottoman and Safavid Empires: A New Imperial Synthesis" in A History of the Modern Middle East. Westview Press, 2004. pp. 37–56. ISBN 0-8133-4048-9.
Creasy, Sir Edward Shepherd. History of the Ottoman Turks: From the beginning of their empire to the present time. R. Bentley and Son, 1877.
Finkel, Caroline. Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1923. John Murray, 2005. ISBN 0-7195-5513-2.
Imber, Colin. The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650: The Structure of Power. Palgrave Macmillan, 2002. ISBN 0-333-61386-4.
Jelavich, Barbara. History of the Balkans: Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. Cambridge University Press, 1983. ISBN 0-521-25249-0.
Lybyer, Albert Howe. The Government of the Ottoman Empire in the Time of Suleiman the Magnificent. AMS Press, 1978. ISBN 0-404-14681-3.
Mansel, Philip. Istanbul: City of the World's Desire, 1453–1924. Gardners Books, 1997. ISBN 0-14-026246-6.
McCarthy, Justin. The Ottoman Peoples and the End of Empire. Hodder Arnold, 2001. ISBN 0-340-70657-0.
Necipoğlu, Gülru. Architecture, Ceremonial, and Power: The Topkapi Palace in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries. MIT Press, 1991. ISBN 0-262-14050-0.
Quataert, Donald. The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922. Cambridge University Press, 2005. ISBN 0-521-54782-2.
This article incorporates text from the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, a publication now in the public domain.

EncyclopÃ¦dia Britannica, the 11th edition The EncyclopÃ¦dia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1910â€“1911) is perhaps the most famous edition of the EncyclopÃ¦dia Britannica. ... The public domain comprises the body of all creative works and other knowledge—writing, artwork, music, science, inventions, and others—in which no person or organization has any proprietary interest. ...

Notes

^ Herbert Adams Gibbons, Foundation of the Ottoman Empire, Frank Cass & Co (June 1968)
^ Donald Quataert, 2
^ O mankind! We created you from a single soul, male and female, and made you into nations and tribes, so that you may come to know one another. Truly, the most honoured of you in God's sight is the greatest of you in piety. God is All-Knowing, All-Aware. -- 49:13
^ The bulk of this section uses information from the article "Slavery in the Ottoman Empire".
^ Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nda Kölelik
^ Mansel, 10

Contents