Island restoration is the application of the principles of ecological restoration to islands and island groups. Islands, due to their isolation, are home to many of the world's endemic species, as well as important breeding grounds for seabirds and some marine mammals. Their ecosystems are also very vulnerable to human disturbance and particularly to introduced species, due to their small size. Island groups such as New Zealand and Hawaii have undergone substantial extinctions and losses of habitat. Since the 1950s several organisations and government agencies around the world have worked to restore islands to their original states; New Zealand has used them to hold natural populations of species that would otherwise be unable to survive in the wild. The principal components of island restoration are the removal of introduced species and the reintroduction of native species. Restoration ecology is the scientific discipline of environmental restoration, or returning degraded ecosystems and landscapes to a reference state where ecological communities and processes are re-established. ... In biology and ecology endemic means exclusively native to a place or biota, in contrast to cosmopolitan or one of various ways of being not native (e. ... Seabirds are birds that spend much of their lives, outside the breeding season at least, at sea. ... A marine mammal is a mammal that is primarily ocean-dwelling or depends on the ocean for its food. ... Sweet clover (), introduced and naturalized to the U.S. from Eurasia as a forage and cover crop, supports insect biodiversity. ... Official language(s) Hawaiian and English Capital Honolulu Largest city Honolulu Area  - Total  - Width  - Length  - % water  - Latitude  - Longitude Ranked 43rd 28,337 km² n/a km 2,450 km 41. ... In biology and ecology, extinction is the ceasing of existence of a species or group of taxa. ... Habitat (from the Latin for it inhabits) is the place where a particular species lives and grows. ...

Islands, endemism and extinction

Isolated islands have always been known to have greater levels of endemism; since the 1960s the theory of Island biogeography, formulated by Robert MacArthur and E.O. Wilson this is understood to be because isolation limits immigration of new species to the island, allowing new species to evolve. For example, 71% of New Zealands bird species (prior to human arrival) were endemic. Island species, as well as displaying greater levels of endemism, have characteristics that make them particularly vulnerable to human disturbance. The 1960s decade refers to the years from 1960 to 1969, inclusive. ... The study of island biogeography is a field within biogeography that attempts to establish and explain the factors that affect the species diversity of a particular community. ... Robert H. MacArthur (April 7, 1930-November 1, 1972) was an American ecologist who made a major impact on many areas of community and population ecology. ... E.O. Wilson with Dynastes hercules E. O. Wilson, or Edward Osborne Wilson, (born June 10, 1929) is an entomologist and biologist known for his work on ecology, evolution, and sociobiology. ...

Many island species evolved on small islands, or even restricted habitats on small islands. Small populations are vulnerable to even modest hunting, and restricted habitats are vulnerable to loss or modification. More importantly, island species are often ecologically naive, that is they have not evolved, or have lost appropriate behavioural responses to predators. This often resulted in flightlessness, or unusual levels of tameness. This made many species susceptible to hunting (it is thought, for example, that moas were hunted to extinction in a few short generations) and to predation by introduced species. Some, such as the Dodo, are thought to have become extinct because of the pressure of both humans and introduced animals. One estimate of birds in the Pacific islands puts the extinctions at 2000 species. Between 40 to 50% of the bird species of New Zealand went extinct since 200 AD. ŒœáħŐųŁġĖĞɮʙ[[]] It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with predation. ... Genera Anomalopteryx (bush moa) Euryapteryx Megalapteryx (upland moa) Dinornis (giant moa) Emeus Pachyornis Moa were giant flightless birds native to New Zealand. ... Binomial name Raphus cucullatus (Linnaeus, 1758) The Mauritius Dodo (Raphus cucullatus, called Didus ineptus by Linnaeus), more commonly just Dodo, was a metre-high flightless bird of the island of Mauritius. ... For other meanings of Pacific, see Pacific (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see number 200. ...

Island restoration

Takahes have bred after translocation to restored islands, like these on Kapiti Island

The field of island restoration is usually credited with having been started in New Zealand in the 1960s, but other smaller projects, such as the restoration of Nonsuch Island in Bermuda (which began in 1962) have been going on for almost as long. Nevertheless, the program undertaken by the Department of Conservation (DOC) is one of the largest in the world. It began on Cuvier Island, where ecologists removed stock, goats, feral cats and finally, in 1993, Pacific Rats. The success of the project resulted in similar projects around New Zealand. The advantages to the DOC were considerable; in addition to protecting species endemic to smaller islands, like the Magenta Petrel, islands near the mainland, once restored, could act as habitat for species of birds that were unable to survive on the mainland. Species like the Takahe, where the remaining wild population was at considerable risk from feral cats and dogs, could be moved to these islands to safeguard the species. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (977x755, 130 KB)Takahe and chick on Kapiti Island in New Zealand. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (977x755, 130 KB)Takahe and chick on Kapiti Island in New Zealand. ... Binomial name Porphyrio mantelli Owen, 1848 The Takahē, Porphyrio mantelli is a flightless bird native to New Zealand which belongs to the rail family. ... Kapiti Island seen from Waikanae Beach, Kapiti Coast. ... The 1960s decade refers to the years from 1960 to 1969, inclusive. ... 1962 (MCMLXII) was a common year starting on Monday (link will take you to calendar). ... The Department of Conservation (In Māori, Te Papa Atawhai), commonly known by its acronym, DOC, is the state sector organisation of New Zealand which deals with the conservation of New Zealand’s natural and historic heritage. ... This article is about goats, the animals. ... Most feral kittens have little chance of surving more than a few months and are vulnerable to starvation, predators, disease and even flea-induced anemia. ... 1993 (MCMXCIII in Roman) was a common year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar and marked the Beginning of the International Decade to Combat Racism and Racial Discrimination (1993-2003). ... Binomial name Rattus exulans (Peale, 1848) The Polynesian Rat or Pacific Rat (Rattus exulans), known to the Maori as Kiore, is the third most widespread species of rat in the world behind the Brown Rat and Black Rat. ... Binomial name Pterodroma magentae (Giglioli & Salvadori, 1869) The Magenta Petrel or Chatham Island Taiko (Pterodroma magentae) is a small seabird in the gadfly petrel genus, Pterodroma. ... Binomial name Porphyrio mantelli Owen, 1848 The Takahē, Porphyrio mantelli is a flightless bird native to New Zealand which belongs to the rail family. ...

Eradication of introduced species

One important aspect of island restoration is the removal of invasive species. Since these species are most often the reason that native fauna and flora is threatened, their removal is essential to the restoration project. Islands are particularly suitable for restoration as once cleared of an introduced species they can be kept cleared of these species by virtue of being an island. Species removal is intensive and expensive, and methods used must be carefully chosen as to not create too much impact on non-target species. Feral cats, goats and three species of rats are among the most damaging species introduced to islands (Moors & Atkinson 1984). The differences in size, lifestyle and behaviour preclude the use of the same techniques for all of them, but with many species a range of techniques needs to be used in order to ensure success. Larger animals, such as goats and pigs, can effectively be hunted, in the case of Round Island, in Mauritius, all the goats were eliminated by a single marksman. On larger islands ecologists use a Judas goat, where a radio collared goat is released into the wild, this goat is then followed and groups it joins are removed. To remove cats a combination of techniques is needed, both hunting, trapping and poisoning. Cats are more difficult to hunt than goats and pigs, requiring the use of experienced hunters and night hunting. It has been suggested that Invasive plants be merged into this article or section. ... Round Island is the name of many islands. ... A Judas Goat is a goat that is used to find feral goats that are targeted for eradication. ...

Trapping is ineffective for rats, given their sheer numbers, and the only method that works is poisoning, which can be delivered into the field by broadcasting (by hand or from the air) or by the maintenance of bait stations. This method has been employed around the world, in the Falkland Islands, in the tropical Pacific, and off New Zealand, where over 40 islands have been cleared. This method is not without problems, especially if the rats share the island with other, native species of rodent that might take the bait as well, as has happened on Anacapa Island in the Channel Islands. In the Pacific poison intended for rats was taken by land crabs instead, the crabs were not affected by the poison but frustrated attempts to clear the rats. The skull and crossbones symbol traditionally used to label a poisonous substance. ... NASA satellite image of Anacapa Island Anacapa Island is a small volcanic island located about 14 miles (23 km) off the coast of Ventura, California, in Ventura County. ... The Channel Islands of California, also called the Santa Barbara Islands, are a chain of eight islands located in the Pacific Ocean off the coast of Southern California along the Santa Barbara Channel in the United States of America. ...

The removal of invasive weeds is, in most cases, more difficult than removing animal species. One such eradication was that of sandbur, Cencrus echinatus, an introduced grass on Laysan. The grass, introduced to Laysan around 1961, had taken over 30% of the island by 1991, displaced the native bunchgrass, and reduced the breeding habitat of two endemic threatened species, the Laysan Duck and Laysan Finch, as well as those of several seabirds. The removal took ten years, with controlled spraying for the first year, then individual removal of plants, then, when few plants were being found, sifting of the sands around plants to remove seeds; and the cost of the eradication was $150,000/year. A weed is an unwanted plant. ... Species See text The sandburs are a genus (Cenchrus) of true grasses. ... A grassy swamp. ... Laysan is in the middle of the leeward island chain. ... 1961 (MCMLXI) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will take you to calendar). ... 1991 (MCMXCI in Roman) is a common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Any grass of the poaceae family that grows in clumps or tufts may be called bunch grass. ... Binomial name Anas laysanensis Rothschild, 1892 The Laysan Duck, Anas laysanensis, is a dabbling duck which is endemic to Laysan Island, Hawaii. ... Binomial name Telespiza cantans (Wilson, SB, 1890) The Laysan Finch, Telespiza cantans, is a small yet bold bird found in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. ... Seabirds are birds that spend much of their lives, outside the breeding season at least, at sea. ...

Restoration of former habitat

In many cases the removal of introduced species is sufficient to allow a return to a pre-disturbance state, but generally active management, often in the form of replanting native flora and reintroduction of expirated fauna is needed to achieve restoration goals. Planting of native species helps to replenish species that were either grazed or out competed. Species of animal can be translocated either from existing populations, or from captive bred populations. These reintroductions need to be carefully managed, particularly in the case of endangered species, where the potential benefits need to be weighed against the possibility of failure. Not all translocations succeed, and it may be necessary to help the reintroduced animals along with supplementary feeding or other kinds of management. The American bison there are as few as 750 in 1890 due to extreme overhunting. ...

One other important aspect of restoration is prevention, that is, keeping invasive species from returning to a cleared island. This can be achieved by restricting access to the island in question (reducing possible instances of invasion) to more stringent quarantine methods. For example, in order to prevent invasive weeds from returning to Laysan people working on the island must bring entirely new clothes to the island, which must be frozen prior to arrival.

Opposition to island restoration

Prior to the initial efforts to remove rats from New Zealand's offshore islands there was a great deal of skepticism as to the feasibility of island restoration amongst ecologists and conservation workers. However as the techniques have improved and larger and larger islands have been restored, most of the initial criticisms from within the field have been dropped, in particular as the costs of eradication are often much lower than continuous pest control. Outside of the field of conservation there has been some opposition from other interested groups, particularly from the animal rights movement, which contends that the welfare of the pests in question is not adequately addressed in island restoration plans. Because a broad spectrum of pest removal techniques needs to be used, including leg traps, animal rights campaigners accuse ecologists of cruelty, and indifference to non-targeted species that also take bait or are trapped, and suggest that more humane methods such as capture and sterilization be used instead (something those working in island restoration contend would be too expensive). Some also defend the rights of the introduced species to exist as well, others, including scientists affiliated with the with animal rights movement, accept that when the choice is between the future of a species and a population of pests, the future of a species must take priority (with the caveat that the extermination is conducted as humanely as possible). Opposition to island restoration has not led to the abandonment of many projects but has delayed several, particularly through court action. Groups sometimes adopt different approaches; opponents of hedgehog removal in the Outer Hebrides offered bounties for live hedgehogs removed from the islands and relocated in their natural habitat. Invasive plants can also generate strong feelings. The removal of Eucalyptus trees from Angel Island in San Francisco Bay faced considerable opposition. The logo of the Great Ape Project, which is campaigning for a Declaration on Great Apes. ... Animal welfare is the viewpoint that some or all animals, especially those under human care, should be treated in such a way that they do not suffer unnecessarily. ... Sterilization can mean: Sterilization (surgical procedure) - an operation which renders an animal or human unable to procreate Sterilization (microbiology) - the elimination of microbiological organisms It can also mean the death of sperm cells due to radiation. ... Genera Atelerix Erinaceus Hemiechinus Mesechinus A hedgehog is any of the small spiny mammals of the subfamily Erinaceinae and the order Insectivora. ... The Outer Hebrides or Western Isles (officially known by their Gaelic name, Na h-Eileanan Siar, changed under The Local Government (Gaelic Names) (Scotland) Act 1997) comprise an island chain off the west coast of Scotland. ... Species About 600; for a full list, see Wikispecies:Eucalyptus Eucalyptus is a diverse genus of trees (rarely shrubs), the members of which dominate the tree flora of Australia. ... Angel Island Angel Island is an island in the middle of San Francisco Bay, offering spectacular views of the San Francisco skyline, the Marin Headlands and Mount Tamalpais. ... San Francisco Bay, San Pablo Bay, and the Golden Gate The San Francisco Bay is a shallow, productive estuary through which water draining of approximately forty percent of California, flowing in Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers from the Sierra Nevada mountains, enters the Pacific Ocean. ...

Island restoration projects

Island restoration has been attempted in many countries since the 1960s, and has met with varying degrees of success. The following examples highlight some of the factors that influence projects.

Aleutian Islands

Arctic fox with Least Auklet.

The Aleutian Islands, prior to the 1700s, lacked any terrestrial predators, but from the mid 1700s Arctic Foxes were introduced to act as a source for the fur trade, a practice that continued into the early 20th century. This introduction decimated the birds of the chain, particularly seabirds like the Whiskered Auklet. The reduction seabirds had knock on effects on the ecology of the islands, as many of the plants were dependent on the guano from nesting birds acting as a fertilizer. In the early 1950s managers of the Aleutian Islands Reservation became aware of the damage, and an eradication program began. Since then over 80 islands have been cleared of non-native foxes (only six islands remain) and bird populations have rebounded. Whiskered Auklets, which numbered 25,000 in 1974, had increased to 116,000 in 2003. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1050x702, 150 KB)Arctic Fox with Lest Auklet on St. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1050x702, 150 KB)Arctic Fox with Lest Auklet on St. ... Binomial name Aethia pusilla (Pallas, 1811) The Least Auklet, Aethia pusilla, is a seabird and the smallest species of auk. ... Looking down the Aleutians from an airplane. ... Binomial name Alopex lagopus (Linnaeus, 1758) The Arctic Fox (Alopex lagopus or Vulpes lagopus) is a small fox native to cold Arctic regions of the Northern Hemisphere. ... // Indian trade The fur trade (also called the Indian trade) was a huge part of the early history of contact in North America between European-Americans and American Indians (now often called Native Americans in the United States and First Nations in Canada). ... Seabirds are birds that spend much of their lives, outside the breeding season at least, at sea. ... Binomial name Aethia pygmaea (Gmelin, 1789) The Whiskered Auklet, Aethia pygmaea, is a small seabird of the auk family. ... Ecology is sometimes used incorrectly as a synonym for the natural environment or environmentalism. ... 1974 (MCMLXXIV) is a common year starting on Tuesday (click on link for calendar). ... 2003 (MMIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ...

Campbell Island

Campbell Island is a sub Antarctic island 700 km south of New Zealand that became infested with rats in the 1800s. Several endemic birds, including the Campbell Island Teal and Campbell Island Snipe, only survived on small rocky islets just off the island, and the populations were perilously low. Several teals were taken into captivity for ex-situ conservation, but once they had bred in captivity there was no-where else to return them to until the island was cleared of rats. The DOC's plan to remove rats from the island was one of the most ambitious attempted, as the island was so remote, the rat populations had the highest density of rats anywhere in the world, the weather treacherous and, at 113 km², it was the largest island at that point where eradication had been attempted. The poison had to be dropped in the winter, to minimize disturbance to nesting seabirds and reduce the chance of bird strike for the pilots. After several experiments, the eradication began in 2001. In 2003 trackers with dogs were unable to find any rats. Soon after the island was cleared it was possible to return the teals to the island. Campbell Island is a remote, sub-antarctic island of New Zealand and the main island of the Campbell Island group. ... Greek ἀνταρκτικός, opposite the arctic) is a continent surrounding the Earths South Pole. ... Binomial name Rattus norvegicus (Berkenhout, 1769) The Brown Rat or Norway Rat (Rattus norvegicus) is one of the most well-known and common rats, and also one of the largest. ... Binomial name Anas nesiotis (Fleming, 1935) Synonyms The Campbell Island Teal (Anas nesiotis) is a species of dabbling duck of the genus Anas that is endemic to Campbell Island group off New Zealand. ... Ex-situ conservation means literally, off-site conservation. It is the process of protecting an endangered species of plant or animal by removing it from an unsafe or threatened habitat and placing it or part of it under the care of humans. ... F16 after a bird strike Bird strike (sometimes birdstrike, bird hit, or BASH (bird aircraft strike hazard)) is an aviation term for when there is a collision between an airborne animal (most often birds, but also sometimes other species) and a man made vehicle, especially aircraft. ... 2001: A Space Odyssey. ... 2003 (MMIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ...

References

• Atkinson, I A E, (1988). Presidential address: Opportunities for Ecological Restoration. New Zealand Journal of Ecology 11: 1-12 [1]
• Flint, E. & Rehkemper, G. (2002) Control and eradication of the introduced grass, Cenchrus echinatus, at Laysan Island, Central Pacific Ocean. Turning the tide: the eradication of invasive species (proceedings of the international conference on eradication of island invasives) (Occasional Paper of the IUCN Species Survival Commission No. 27. Veitch, C. R. and Clout, M.N., eds) [2].
• Kettmann, M. ( April 29, 2003) Death for Life on Anacapa island, The Santa Barbara Independent
• Moors, P.J.; Atkinson, I.A.E. (1984). Predation on seabirds by introduced animals, and factors affecting its severity.. In Status and Conservation of the World's Seabirds. Cambridge: ICBP. ISBN 0-946888-03-5.
• Nogales, Manuel et al (2004). A review of feral cat eradication on islands. Conservation Biology. 18 (2), 310-319. [3]
• Williams, J.C., Byrd G.V.& Konyukhov, N.B. (2003) Whiskered Auklets Aethia pygmaea, foxes, humans and how to right a wrong. 'Marine Ornithology 31: 175-180 [4]
• Wingate, D.B. (1985) The restoration of Nonsuch Island as a living museum of Bermuda's precolonial terrestrial biome. In Conservation of Island Birds. ICBP Technical Publication. ISBN 0-946888-04-3

1988 (MCMLXXXVIII in Roman) was a leap year starting on a Friday of the Gregorian calendar. ... 2002 (MMII) was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... April 29 is the 119th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (120th in leap years). ... 2003 (MMIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... 2004 (MMIV) was a leap year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ... 2003 (MMIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ...

External links

• Island Conservation
• New Zealand Department of Conservation Ecological Restoration
• IUCN Proceedings of the International Conference on Eradication of Island Invasives
• UC Santa Cruz: Impact of Foxes in Alaska
• BBC News: New Zealand's pest eradication on islands
• UK SNH Uist Wader Project: impact of hedgehogs on wading bird breeding success