The Issedones were an ancient people of Central Asia at the end of the trade route leading north-east from Scythia, described by Herodotus in Book Four of his History. Like the Massagetae to the west, the Issedones are described by Herodotus as similar to, yet distinct from, the Scythians. Map of Central Asia showing three sets of possible boundaries for the region Central Asia located as a region of the world Central Asia is a vast landlocked region of Asia. ... Approximate extent of Scythia and Sarmatia in the 1st century BC (the orange background shows the spread of Eastern Iranian languages, among them Scytho-Sarmatian). ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... The Massagetae were an Iranian people[1][2][3][4] of antiquity known primarily from the writings of Herodotus. ... Scythian warriors, drawn after figures on an electrum cup from the KulOba kurgan burial near Kerch. ...

Location

The exact location of their country is unknown; Herodotus (who allegedly got his information through both Greek and Scythian sources) describes them as living east of Scythia, while the geographer Ptolemy appears to place them in the Tarim Basin. They may have been identical with the ethnoi described in Chinese sources as Wu-sun, situated around Lake Balkash. A medieval artists rendition of Claudius Ptolemaeus Claudius Ptolemaeus (Greek: ; ca. ... Taklamakan Desert in the Tarim Basin. ... Wusun --- information about this historic people can be found in Chinese historical annals. ... Categories: Lakes of Kazakhstan | Rift lakes | Stub ...

Another location of the land of the Issedones can be inferred as between the Arimaspi (Huns at the foot of the Carpathian Mountains) and the Scythians (Ukraine, probably) according to ancient writers. According to what Pausanias was told at Delos in the second century CE, the Arimaspians were north of the Issedones, and the Scythians were south of them: A satyr (left), a griffin (centre) and an Arimaspus (right), detail of a red-figure calyx-krater, ca. ... Many historians consider the Huns (meaning person in Mongolian language) the first Mongolian and Turkic people mentioned in European history. ... Satellite image of the Carpathians. ... Pausanias (Greek: ) was a Greek traveller and geographer of the 2nd century A.D., who lived in the times of Hadrian, Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius. ...

"At Prasiai [in Attika] is a temple of Apollon. Hither they say are sent the first-fruits of the Hyperboreans, and the Hyperboreans are said to hand them over to the Arimaspoi, the Arimaspoi to the Issedones, from these the Skythians bring them to Sinope, thence they are carried by Greeks to Prasiai, and the Athenians take them to Delos." - Pausanias 1.31.2 In Greek mythology, according to tradition, the Hyperboreans were a mythical people who lived to the far north of Greece. ...

Description

Herodotus reported that a legendary Greek of the seventh century BCE, Aristeas son of Kaustrobios of Prokonnessos (or Cyzicus), had managed to penetrate the country of the Issedones and observe their customs first-hand. Ptolemy relates a similar story about a Syrian merchant. Aristeas was a semi-legendary Greek poet and miracle-worker, a native of Proconnesus in Asia Minor, active ca. ... Cyzicus was an ancient town of Mysia in Asia Minor, situated on the shoreward side of the present peninsula of Kapu-Dagh (Arctonnesus), which is said to have been originally an island in the Sea of Marmara, and to have been artificially connected with the mainland in historic times. ...

According to Herodotus, the Issedones practiced euthanasia of their elderly males, followed by a ritual feast at which the deceased patriarch's family ate his flesh, gilded his skull, and placed it in a position of honor much like a cult image. In addition, the Issedones were supposed to have kept their wives in common; whether this marks high status (as institutionalized polyandry) or low social status (as chattel slavery) for the women is unclear. Similar customs could be found until recently among many Tibetan tribes, leading some to speculate that the Issedones were of Tibetan extraction; they may, however, have been Iranian or Tocharian in origin (and the similarities with the Tibetans the result of proximity alone). Similar customs were also reported by ancient authors among the Massagetae, with whom the Issedones often warred. Euthanasia (from Greek: ευθανασία -ευ, eu, good, θάνατος, thanatos, death) is the practice of terminating the life of a person or animal with an incurable disease, intolerable suffering, or a possibly undignified death in a painless or minimally painful way, for the purpose of limiting suffering. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... In social anthropology and sociobiology, polyandry (Greek: poly- many, andros- man) means a female forming a sexual union with more than one male. ... Tibet (older spelling Thibet; Tibetan: བོད་; Wylie: Bod; Lhasa dialect IPA: [; Simplified and Traditional Chinese: 西藏, Hanyu Pinyin: XÄ«zàng; also referred to as 藏区 (Simplified Chinese), 藏區 (Traditional Chinese), ZàngqÅ« (Hanyu Pinyin), see Name section below) is a plateau region in Central Asia and the indigenous home to the Tibetan people. ... Tocharian refers to an Indo-European culture that inhabited the Tarim basin in what is now Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, northwestern Peoples Republic of China. ...

Controversy

E.M.Murphy and J.P. Mallory

The archeologists E. M. Murphy and J. P. Mallory of the Queen's University of Belfast, have argued (Antiquity, 74 (2000):388-94) that Herodotus was mistaken in his interpretation of what he imagined to be cannibalism. Recently-excavated sites in southern Siberia, such as the large cemetery at Aymyrlyg in Tuva containing more than 1,000 burials of the Scythian period, have revealed accumulations of bones often arranged in anatomical order. This indicates burials of semi-decomposed corpses or defleshed skeletons, sometimes associated with leather bags or cloth sacks. Marks on some bones show cut-marks of a nature indicative of defleshing, but most appear to suggest disarticulation of adult skeletons. Since the Issedones were nomads living with cattle herds, they moved up the mountains in summer, but they wanted their dead to be buried at their winter camp. This has led Murphy and Mallory to suggest that defleshing and dismemberment of the people who died in summer would have been more hygienic than allow the corpses to decompose naturally in the summer heat. Burial of the dismembered remains took place in fall after returning to their winter camp, before the ground was frozen completely. A rationalization suggests that defleshing and dismemberment would have been more hygienic than extended storage. Such procedures of defleshing and dismemberment may have been mistaken for evidence of cannibalism by foreign onlookers. The Queens University of Belfast (QUB) is a university in Belfast, Northern Ireland; the university is often called Queens University Belfast. ... It has been suggested that Western Siberia be merged into this article or section. ... Capital Kyzyl Area - total - % water Ranked 22nd - 170,500 km² - negligible Population - Total - Density Ranked 77th - est. ...

Murphy and Mallory do not exclude the possibility that the flesh removed from the bodies was consumed. Archeologically these activities remain invisible. But they point out that elsewhere, Herodotus names another tribe (Androphagi) as the only group to eat human flesh. Androphagi (Greek for man-eaters) was an ancient nation of cannibals north of Scythia (according to Herodotus), probably in the forests between the upper waters of the Dnepr and Don. ...

T. Taylor

The following flaws in Murphy and Mallory's argument have been pointed out by Dr. Timothy Taylor, The Edible Dead in British Archaeology, 59 (June 2001) [1]

• 1. Herodotus does report that the so-called "Androphagoi" are the "only" people in the region to practice cannibalism. However, a distinction should be drawn between "aggressive gustatory cannibalism" (i.e., hunting humans for food) and the ritualized, reverential practices reported among the Issedones and Massagetae.
• 2. Scythian-type peoples were renowned embalmers and presumably would have no need for funerary defleshing to delay decomposition of the corpse.
• 3. Herodotus specifically describes the removal of the meat and mixing it with other foodstuffs to make a funerary stew.

He concludes: Inferring reverential funerary cannibalism in this case is thus the most academically cautious approach. Androphagi (Greek for man-eaters) was an ancient nation of cannibals north of Scythia (according to Herodotus), probably in the forests between the upper waters of the Dnepr and Don. ... REDITECT Embalming ... “Spoilage” redirects here. ...

External sources

• Herodotus. The Histories. Book 4.
• Scythians at Livius.org
• T. Sulimirski. The Sarmatians in the series Ancient Peoples and Places (Thames & Hudson,1970)