James Hutton, painted by Abner Lowe.

James Hutton (3 June 1726 OS (14 June 1726 NS) Edinburgh, Scotland — 26 March 1797) was a Scottish geologist, naturalist, chemist and experimental farmer. He is considered the father of modern geology.^[1][2] His theories of geology and geologic time,^[3] also called deep time,^[4] came to be included in theories which were called plutonism and uniformitarianism. Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... is the 154th day of the year (155th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Events George Friderich Handel becomes a British subject. ... Old Style can refer to: Old Style and New Style dates, a shift from the Julian to the Gregorian calendar: in Britain in 1752, in Russia in 1918. ... is the 165th day of the year (166th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Events George Friderich Handel becomes a British subject. ... In Britain and countries of the British Empire, Old Style or O.S. after a date means that the date is in the Julian calendar, in use in those countries until 1752; New Style or N.S. means that the date is in the Gregorian calendar, adopted on 14 September... For other uses, see Edinburgh (disambiguation). ... This article is about the country. ... March 26 is the 85th day of the year (86th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1797 (MDCCXCVII) was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Wednesday of the 11-day-slower Julian calendar). ... This article is about the Scottish as an ethnic group. ... The Geologist by Carl Spitzweg A geologist is a contributor to the science of geology, studying the physical structure and processes of the Earth and planets of the solar system (see planetary geology). ... Table of natural history, 1728 Cyclopaedia Natural history is an umbrella term for what are now often viewed as several distinct scientific disciplines of integrative organismal biology. ... A chemist pours from a round-bottom flask. ... In the scientific method, an experiment (Latin: ex- periri, of (or from) trying) is a set of observations performed in the context of solving a particular problem or question, to support or falsify a hypothesis or research concerning phenomena. ... Agriculture (encompassing farming, grazing, and the tending of orchards, vineyards and timberland) is the production of food, feed, fiber and other goods by the systematic raising of plants and animals. ... The following tables list men and women described as father or mother of something. ... This article includes a list of works cited but its sources remain unclear because it lacks in-text citations. ... // For other uses, see time scale. ... Deep time is the theory that Earth is billions of years old and thus had a long history of development and change. ... Plutonism was a theory of Geology around the turn of the 19th Century that claimed that volcanic activity was the source of rocks on the surface of the Earth. ... Uniformitarianism, in the philosophy of science, is the assumption that the natural processes operating in the past are the same as those that can be observed operating in the present. ...

</gallery>==Study of rock formations== Jono is a BIGGER goon 8]

Hutton's Section Plaque, Salisbury Crags, Edinburgh. Placed by Historic Scotland.

Educated at the Royal High School, and trained as both a lawyer and medical doctor, Hutton found himself attracted to the nascent science of geology. While working as a "gentleman farmer" in Berwickshire during his thirties and forties, he hit on a variety of ideas to explain the rock formations he saw around him. Studying at the University of Edinburgh in the throes of the Scottish Enlightenment, he fell in with several first-class minds in the sciences including John Playfair and Joseph Black. He was also a close friend of philosopher David Hume and economist Adam Smith. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (3072x2304, 774 KB) Summary James Hutton, Scottish geologist, 1726-97. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (3072x2304, 774 KB) Summary James Hutton, Scottish geologist, 1726-97. ... Salisbury Crags is a series of tall cliffs rising from the middle of Holyrood Park in Edinburgh. ... Historic Scotland is the Scottish agency looking after historic monuments. ... The Royal High School (RHS) in Edinburgh can trace its roots back to 1128, and is generally considered as the oldest school in Scotland and one of the oldest in Europe; it may even be one of the oldest surviving in the world. ... Berwickshire (Siorrachd Bhearaig in Gaelic) is a committee area of the Scottish Borders Council and a Lieutenancy area of Scotland, on the border with England. ... Rock formations as used in this article refers to isolated, scenic, or spectacular surface rock outcrops. ... The University of Edinburgh (Scottish Gaelic: ), founded in 1582,[4] is a renowned centre for teaching and research in Edinburgh, Scotland. ... The Scottish Enlightenment was a period of intellectual ferment in Scotland, running from approximately 1740 to 1800. ... Professor John Playfair FRSE (March 10, 1748 – July 20, 1819) was a Scottish scientist. ... Joseph Black Joseph Black (April 16, 1728 - December 6, 1799) was a Scottish physicist and chemist. ... David Hume (April 26, 1711 – August 25, 1776)[1] was a Scottish philosopher, economist, and historian. ... For other persons named Adam Smith, see Adam Smith (disambiguation). ...

At Glen Tilt in the Cairngorm mountains in the Scottish Highlands, Hutton found granite penetrating metamorphic schists, in a way which indicated that the granite had been molten at the time. This showed to him that granite formed from cooling of molten rock, not precipitation out of water as others at the time believed, and that the granite must be younger than the schists.^[5][6] Glen Tilt is a glen in the extreme north of Perthshire, Scotland. ... Cairngorm is a variety of quartz crystal originally found in the Cairngorm Mountains of Scotland. ... Lowland-Highland divide Highland Sign with welcome in English and Gaelic The Scottish Highlands (A Ghàidhealtachd in Gaelic) include the rugged and mountainous regions of Scotland north and west of the Highland Boundary Fault. ... Close-up of granite from Yosemite National Park, valley of the Merced River Quarrying granite for the Mormon Temple, Utah Territory. ... Quartzite, a form of metamorphic rock, from the Museum of Geology at University of Tartu collection. ... Schist The schists form a group of medium-grade metamorphic rocks, chiefly notable for the preponderance of lamellar minerals such as micas, chlorite, talc, hornblende, graphite, and others. ... Physics In physics, melting is the process of heating a solid substance to a point (called melting point) where it turns liquid. ...

He went on to find a similar penetration of volcanic rock through sedimentary rock near the centre of Edinburgh, at Salisbury Crags,^[2] adjoining Arthur's Seat: this is now known as Hutton's Section.^[7][8] He found other examples on the Isle of Arran and in Galloway.^[6] Ignimbrite is a deposit of a pyroclastic flow. ... Two types of sedimentary rock: limey shale overlaid by limestone. ... For other uses, see Edinburgh (disambiguation). ... Salisbury Crags is a series of tall cliffs rising from the middle of Holyrood Park in Edinburgh. ... Arthurs Seat on a summer evening Arthurs Seat is the main peak of the group of hills which form most of Holyrood Park, a remarkably wild piece of highland landscape in the centre of the city of Edinburgh, about a mile to the east of Edinburgh Castle. ... The Isle of Arran (Scots Gaelic: Eilean Arainn) is the largest island in the Firth of Clyde with an area of 430 km² (167 square miles). ... Galloway (Scottish Gaelic, Gall-Ghàidhealaibh or Gallobha, Lowland Scots Gallowa) is an area in southwestern Scotland. ...

Hutton Unconformity at Jedburgh. Photograph (2003) below Clerk of Eldin illustration (1787).

Hutton noted what is now known as the Hutton Unconformity^[3] at Inchbonny,^[9] Jedburgh, near the Berwickshire coast, in layers of sedimentary rock. As shown in the illustrations here to the right, layers of grey shale in the lower layers of the cliff face are tilted almost vertically, immediately above which are horizontal layers of red sandstone. Image File history File links Hutton_Unconformity_,_Jedburgh. ... Image File history File links Hutton_Unconformity_,_Jedburgh. ... Jedburgh (Referred to locally Jeddart or Jethart) is a town and former royal burgh in the Scottish Borders. ... Portrait of Clerk of Eldin by James Saxon, painted in 1805. ... Year 1787 was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar). ... There is a billion year gap in the geologic record where this 500 million year old dolomite unconformably overlays 1. ... Jedburgh (Referred to locally Jeddart or Jethart) is a town and former royal burgh in the Scottish Borders. ... Two types of sedimentary rock: limey shale overlaid by limestone. ... Shale Shale is a fine-grained sedimentary rock whose original constituents were clays or muds. ... For red sandstone see: Old Red Sandstone New Red Sandstone This is a disambiguation page &#8212; a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ...

Hutton reasoned that there must have been several cycles, each involving deposition on the seabed, uplift with tilting and erosion then undersea again for further layers to be deposited, and there could have been many cycles before over an extremely long history. In a 1788 paper he presented at the Royal Society of Edinburgh,^[3] Hutton remarked, "we find no vestige of a beginning, no prospect of an end." (This memorable line^[3][10][11] was quoted in the 1989 song “No Control” by songwriter and professor Greg Graffin.) Deposition is a word used in many fields to describe different processes: In law, deposition is the taking of testimony outside of court. ... The seabed (also sea floor, seafloor, or ocean floor) is the bottom of the ocean. ... Severe soil erosion in a wheat field near Washington State University, USA. For erosion as an operation of Mathematical morphology, see Erosion (morphology) Erosion is displacement of solids (soil, mud, rock and other particles) by the agents of ocean currents, wind, water, or ice by downward or down-slope movement... The Royal Society of Edinburghs Building on the corner of George St. ... No Control is an album by Bad Religion released by Epitaph Records on July 15, 1989 (see 1989 in music). ... The meaning of the word professor (Latin: one who claims publicly to be an expert) varies. ... Gregory Walter Graffin, Ph. ...

Hutton brought James Hall and John Playfair to see the strata in 1788. Playfair later commented about the experience, "the mind seemed to grow giddy by looking so far into the abyss of time."^[12] Sir James Hall, 4th Baronet (January 17, 1761 - June 23, 1832) was a geologist and geophysicist, born in Dunglass, Scotland. ... Professor John Playfair FRSE (March 10, 1748 – July 20, 1819) was a Scottish scientist. ... 1788 was a leap year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ...

Publication

An abstract of Hutton's Theory (Concerning the System of the Earth, its Duration, and Stability) was first read at meetings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh on 7 March 1785 and 4 April 1785.^[13] It was published in full (entitled Theory of the Earth or an Investigation of the Laws observable in the Composition, Dissolution, and Restoration of Land upon the Globe) in Volume 1 of the Society's Transactions in 1788.^[14] The Royal Society of Edinburghs Building on the corner of George St. ... is the 66th day of the year (67th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1785 was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ... is the 94th day of the year (95th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1785 was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ...

Following criticism, especially Richard Kirwan's, who thought him atheist and not logical, among other things, Hutton published a two volume version of his theory in 1795,^[15][16] consisting of the 1788 version of his theory (with slight additions) along with a lot of material drawn from shorter papers Hutton already had to hand on various subjects such as the origin of granite. It included a review of alternative theories, such as those of Thomas Burnet and Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon. Richard Kirwan (1733 – June 1, 1812) was an Irish scientist. ... For information about the band, see Atheist (band). ... 1795 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... Thomas Burnet Thomas Burnet (1635? - 1715), theologian and writer on cosmogony, was born at Croft near Darlington, and educated at Cambridge, and became Master of Charterhouse and Clerk of the Closet to William III. His literary fame rests on his Telluris Theoria Sacra, or Sacred Theory of the Earth, published... Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, by François-Hubert Drouais (1727-1775). ...

The whole was entitled An Investigation of the Principles of Knowledge and of the Progress of Reason, from Sense to Science and Philosophy when the third volume was completed in 1794.^[17] Its 2,138 pages prompted Playfair to remark that “The great size of the book, and the obscurity which may justly be objected to many parts of it, have probably prevented it from being received as it deserves.” 1794 was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ...

Opposing theories

His new theories placed him into opposition with the then-popular Neptunist theories of Abraham Gottlob Werner, that all rocks had precipitated out of a single enormous flood. Hutton proposed that the interior of the Earth was hot, and that this heat was the engine which drove the creation of new rock: land was eroded by air and water and deposited as layers in the sea; heat then consolidated the sediment into stone, and uplifted it into new lands. This theory was dubbed "Plutonist" in contrast to the flood-oriented theory. Neptunism is a discredited and obsolete scientific theory of geology proposed by Johan Gottlob Lehmann and Abraham Werner in the later half of the 18th century. ... Abraham Gottlob Werner Abraham Gottlob Werner (1749 or 1750 - 1817), was born in Wehrau, a city in Prussian Silesia, southeastern Germany. ... Earth cutaway from core to exosphere. ... This article or section cites very few or no references or sources. ...

As well as combatting the Neptunists, he also opened up the concept of deep time for scientific purposes, in opposition to Catastrophism. Rather than accepting that the earth was no more than a few thousand years old, he maintained that the Earth must be much older (indeed, he went rather overboard and asserted that the Earth was infinitely old). His main line of argument was that the tremendous displacements and changes he was seeing did not happen in a short period of time by means of catastrophe, but that processes still happening on the Earth in the present day had caused them. As these processes were very gradual, the Earth needed to be ancient, in order to allow time for the changes. Before long, scientific inquiries provoked by his claims had pushed back the age of the earth into the millions of years – still too short when compared with what is known in the 21st century, but a distinct improvement. Deep time is the theory that Earth is billions of years old and thus had a long history of development and change. ... Catastrophism is the theory that Earth has been affected by sudden, short-lived, violent events that were sometimes worldwide in scope. ... A color image of Earth as seen from Apollo 17. ... Infinity is a word carrying a number of different meanings in mathematics, philosophy, theology and everyday life. ... The 21st century is the present century of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ...

Acceptance of geological theories

The prose of Principles of Knowledge was so obscure, in fact, that it also impeded the acceptance of Hutton's geological theories. Restatements of his geological ideas (though not his thoughts on evolution) by John Playfair in 1802 and then Charles Lyell in the 1830s removed this hindrance. If anything, Hutton's ideas were eventually accepted too well. At least some of the initial resistance to modern scientific ideas like plate tectonics and asteroid strikes causing mass extinctions can be attributed to too-strict adherence to uniformitarianism. Professor John Playfair FRSE (March 10, 1748 – July 20, 1819) was a Scottish scientist. ... --69. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... // Electromagnetic induction discovered by Michael Faraday Evolutionary theorist Charles Darwins expedition on the HMS Beagle. ... The tectonic plates of the world were mapped in the second half of the 20th century. ... Uniformitarianism, in the philosophy of science, is the assumption that the natural processes operating in the past are the same as those that can be observed operating in the present. ...

Other contributions

Meteorology

It was not merely the earth to which Hutton directed his attention. He had long studied the changes of the atmosphere. The same volume in which his Theory of the Earth appeared contained also a Theory of Rain. He contended that the amount of moisture which the air can retain in solution increases with temperature, and, therefore, that on the mixture of two masses of air of different temperatures a portion of the moisture must be condensed and appear in visible form. He investigated the available data regarding rainfall and climate in different regions of the globe, and came to the conclusion that the rainfall is regulated by the humidity of the air on the one hand, and mixing of different air currents in the higher atmosphere on the other. “Air” redirects here. ... Rain is a type of precipitation, a product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor that is deposited on the earths surface. ... Making a saline water solution by dissolving table salt (NaCl) in water This article is about chemical solutions. ... In meteorology, precipitation is any kind of water that falls from the sky as part of the weather. ... This article or section is not written in the formal tone expected of an encyclopedia article. ... A current is the rate of fluid flow, especially water or air. ...

Evolution

Hutton also advocated uniformitarianism for living creatures too – evolution, in a sense – and even suggested natural selection as a possible mechanism affecting them: This article is about evolution in biology. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Darwins illustrations of beak variation in the finches of the Galápagos Islands, which hold 13 closely related species that differ most markedly in the shape of their beaks. ...

"...if an organised body is not in the situation and circumstances best adapted to its sustenance and propagation, then, in conceiving an indefinite variety among the individuals of that species, we must be assured, that, on the one hand, those which depart most from the best adapted constitution, will be the most liable to perish, while, on the other hand, those organised bodies, which most approach to the best constitution for the present circumstances, will be best adapted to continue, in preserving themselves and multiplying the individuals of their race." – Investigation of the Principles of Knowledge, volume 2.^[17]

Hutton gave the example that where dogs survived through "swiftness of foot and quickness of sight... the most defective in respect of those necessary qualities, would be the most subject to perish, and that those who employed them in greatest perfection... would be those who would remain, to preserve themselves, and to continue the race". Equally, if an acute sense of smell was "more necessary to the sustenance of the animal... the same principle [would] change the qualities of the animal, and.. produce a race of well scented hounds, instead of those who catch their prey by swiftness". The same "principle of variation" would influence "every species of plant, whether growing in a forest or a meadow". Olfaction, the sense of smell, is the detection of chemicals dissolved in air (or, by animals that breathe water, in water). ...

He came to his ideas as the result of experiments in plant and animal breeding, some of which he outlined in an unpublished manuscript, the Elements of Agriculture. He distinguished between heritable variation as the result of breeding, and non-heritable variations caused by environmental differences such as soil and climate. Headline text PLANT PROPAGATION TECHNIQUES Adrian Arias Biology 109 October 28, 2005 There are many ways to create new plants; they can be created by sexual or asexual techniques. ... Selective breeding in domesticated animals is the process of developing a cultivated breed over time. ... The genotype is the specific genetic genome of an individual, in the form of DNA. It is basically ones DNA including the influence of environmental variation, it codes for the phenotype of that individual. ... In genetics, heritability is the proportion of phenotypic variation in a population that is attributable to genetic variation among individuals. ...

Hutton saw his "principle of variation" as explaining the development of varieties, but rejected the idea of evolution originating species as a "romantic fantasy". As a deist, to him this mechanism allowed species to form varieties better adapted to particular conditions and was evidence of benevolent design in nature. Hutton's ideas on geology were clarified in Charles Lyell's books, which Charles Darwin read with enthusiasm during his voyage on the Beagle, and it remained to Darwin to independently develop the idea of natural selection to explain The Origin of Species and bring it to the forefront of public consciousness at the same time as providing the voluminous evidence necessary to win over the scientific community to the theory. For other uses, see Ceremonial Deism. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... For other people of the same surname, and places and things named after Charles Darwin, see Darwin. ... On its second voyage, much of it chronicled by Charles Darwin in his book, The Voyage of the Beagle, the HMS Beagle crossed the Atlantic towards Tierra Del Fuego, and carried out surveying especially of the West coast of South America, as well as a number of Pacific islands. ... Darwins illustrations of beak variation in the finches of the Galápagos Islands, which hold 13 closely related species that differ most markedly in the shape of their beaks. ... Charles Darwins Origin of Species (publ. ...

Works

• An Investigation of the Principles of Knowledge and of the Progress of Reason, from Sense to Science and Philosophy 1794
• Theory of the Earth 1795
• Elements of Agriculture 1797

1794 was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ... 1795 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... 1797 (MDCCXCVII) was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Wednesday of the 11-day-slower Julian calendar). ...

References

Biographies:

• Jack Repcheck: The Man Who Found Time: James Hutton and the Discovery of the Earth's Antiquity. London and Cambridge, Massachusetts: Simon & Schuster (2003). ISBN 0743231899 (UK), ISBN 073820692X (US).

• Stephen Baxter: Ages in Chaos: James Hutton and the Discovery of Deep Time. New York: Tor Books (Forge imprint), 2004. ISBN 0-76531-238-7. Published in the UK as Revolutions in the Earth: James Hutton and the True Age of the World. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2003. ISBN 0-29782-975-0.

The University of Edinburgh (Scottish Gaelic: ), founded in 1582,[4] is a renowned centre for teaching and research in Edinburgh, Scotland. ... The Geologist by Carl Spitzweg A geologist is a contributor to the science of geology, studying the physical structure and processes of the Earth and planets of the solar system (see planetary geology). ... A chemist pours from a round-bottom flask. ... Table of natural history, 1728 Cyclopaedia Natural history is an umbrella term for what are now often viewed as several distinct scientific disciplines of integrative organismal biology. ... The following tables list men and women described as father or mother of something. ... This article includes a list of works cited but its sources remain unclear because it lacks in-text citations. ... “Alumni” redirects here. ... The Kings Buildings are the southernmost campus of the University of Edinburgh, and contains most of the Science and Engineering schools, excepting only part of the School of Informatics, which is at the central George Square campus. ... is the 284th day of the year (285th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2004 (MMIV) was a leap year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ... HTML, short for Hypertext Markup Language, is the predominant markup language for the creation of web pages. ... The New Yorker is an American magazine that publishes reportage, criticism, essays, cartoons, poetry and fiction. ... James Buchan, born in 1954, is a British novelist and journalist. ... For the village in Queensland, see 1770, Queensland. ... In the scientific method, an experiment (Latin: ex- periri, of (or from) trying) is a set of observations performed in the context of solving a particular problem or question, to support or falsify a hypothesis or research concerning phenomena. ... Agriculture (encompassing farming, grazing, and the tending of orchards, vineyards and timberland) is the production of food, feed, fiber and other goods by the systematic raising of plants and animals. ... Sal ammoniac is a rare mineral composed of ammonium chloride, NH4Cl. ... Salisbury Crags is a series of tall cliffs rising from the middle of Holyrood Park in Edinburgh. ... For other uses, see Edinburgh (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Fossil (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Volcano (disambiguation). ... 1785 was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ... The Royal Society of Edinburghs Building on the corner of George St. ... Adam and Eve, the first human beings according to Genesis. ... 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See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to:

James Hutton

• Geology of Scotland
• Climate of Scotland
• Nicholas Steno
• Shen Kuo

Image File history File links Commons-logo. ... Scotland has an incomparable variety of geology for an area of its size. ... Rain at Glasgow Necropolis The climate of Scotland is temperate (Koppen climate classification Cfb), and tends to be very changeable, but rarely extreme. ... Nicolaus Steno. ... This is a Chinese name; the family name is Shen Shen Kuo or Shen Kua (Chinese: ; pinyin: ) (1031–1095 AD) was a polymath Chinese scientist of the Song Dynasty (960–1279 AD). ...

External links

• Biography of James Hutton (From: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Ed., 1910-1911)
• James Hutton and Uniformitarianism (scroll down)
• James Hutton's memorial in Greyfriars Kirkyard, Edinburgh
• First Publication of Theory of the Earth
• Glossary Definition and examples of unconformity
• Works by James Hutton at Project Gutenberg
• O'Connor, John J; Edmund F. Robertson "James Hutton". MacTutor History of Mathematics archive.