James Lind (1716 in Edinburgh – 1794 in Gosport) was the pioneer of naval hygiene in the Royal Navy. By conducting what was perhaps the first ever clinical trial, he proved that citrus fruits cure scurvy. He also proposed that by distilling sea water you could obtain fresh water. Moreover he fought for the drying of ships by better ventilation, improved clothing and cleanliness of the sailors and introduced fumigaton with sulphur and arsenic. By his work he also influenced practices of preventive medicine and nutrition among British soldiers. Image File history File links James_lind. ... // Events August 5 - In the Battle of Peterwardein 40. ... , Edinburgh (() pronounced ; Scottish Gaelic: ) is the capital of Scotland and its second largest city. ... 1794 was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ... Gosport is a town and district in Hampshire with around 77,000 inhabitants (including Lee-on-the-Solent), situated on the south coast of England. ... Hygiene refers to practices associated with ensuring good health and cleanliness. ... The Royal Navy of the United Kingdom is the oldest of the British armed services (and is therefore the Senior Service). ... In health care, including medicine, a clinical trial (synonyms: clinical studies, research protocols, medical research) is the application of the scientific method to human health. ... Species & major hybrids Species Citrus maxima - Pomelo Citrus medica - Citron Citrus reticulata - Mandarin & Tangerine Major hybrids Citrus x aurantifolia - Lime Citrus x aurantium - Bitter Orange Citrus x bergamia - Bergamot Citrus x hystrix - Kaffir Lime Citrus x ichangensis - Ichang Lemon Citrus x limon - Lemon Citrus x limonia - Rangpur Citrus x paradisi... Scurvy (N.Lat. ... Laboratory distillation set-up using, without a fractionating column 1: Heat source 2: Still pot 3: Still head 4: Thermometer/Boiling point temperature 5: Condenser 6: Cooling water in 7: Cooling water out 8: Distillate/receiving flask 9: Vacuum/gas inlet 10: Still receiver 11: Heat control 12: Stirrer speed... Sea water is water from a sea or ocean. ... For the village on the Isle of Wight, see Freshwater, Isle of Wight. ... For the chemical element see: sulfur. ... General Name, Symbol, Number arsenic, As, 33 Chemical series metalloids Group, Period, Block 15, 4, p Appearance metallic gray Standard atomic weight 74. ... A 1930 Soviet poster propagating breast care. ... The updated USDA food pyramid, published in 2005, is a general nutrition guide for recommended food consumption. ...

Years at Sea

James Lind began as an apprentice of George Langlands, a fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh. In 1739 he entered the Navy as a surgeon's mate, serving in the Mediterranean, off the coast of West Africa, and in the West Indies. By 1746 he had become surgeon of HMS Salisbury in the Channel Fleet. Two years later he retired from the Navy, wrote up his MD thesis on venereal diseases and was granted a license to practise in Edinburgh. The Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh, a centre of excellence for surgical education and research traces its origins to 1505 when the Barber Surgeons of Edinburgh was formally incorporated as a Craft Guild of Edinburgh, and granted a royal charter in 1506 by King James IV of Scotland. ... // About the number 1739 1739 is the smallest integer that can be written as sum of three perfect cubes, in two ways. ... The Mediterranean Sea is an intercontinental sea positioned between Europe to the north, Africa to the south and Asia to the east, covering an approximate area of 2. ... // Events Catharine de Ricci (born 1522) canonized. ...

A Cure for Scurvy

The disease Scurvy is now known to be due to a deficiency of vitamin C, but in Lind's day, the concept of vitamins was unknown. Vitamin C is necessary for the maintenance of healthy connective tissue. Its deficiency causes ulcers of the lower legs and feet, bleeding, loss of teeth and hair, opening of old wounds, depression, hallucinations, blindness, and eventually death. In 1740 the catastrophic result of Anson's circumnavigation attracted attention. Of 1900 men 1400 had died, most of them allegedly from scurvy. According to Lind scurvy caused more deaths in the fleets than French and Spanish arms. Scurvy (N.Lat. ... For other uses, see Vitamin C (disambiguation). ... Retinol (Vitamin A) For the record label, see Vitamin Records A vitamin is an organic compound required in tiny amounts for essential metabolic reactions in a living organism. ... Clinical depression (also called major depressive disorder, or unipolar depression when compared to bipolar disorder) is a state of intense sadness, melancholia or despair that has advanced to the point of being disruptive to an individuals social functioning and/or activities of daily living. ... A hallucination is a sensory perception experienced in the absence of an external stimulus, as distinct from an illusion, which is a misperception of an external stimulus. ... Blindness is the condition of lacking visual perception due to physiological or psychological factors. ... Events May 31 - Friedrich II comes to power in Prussia upon the death of his father, Friedrich Wilhelm I. October 20 - Maria Theresia of Austria inherits the Habsburg hereditary dominions (Austria, Bohemia, Hungary and present-day Belgium). ... George Anson, 1st Baron Anson (April 23, 1697 - 1762) was a British admiral and a wealthy aristocrat, noted for his circumnavigation of the globe. ...

At least since 1600 it had been known that citrus fruit have an antiscorbutic effect, when a surgeon of the British East India Company recommended them, but their use wasn't widespread. Although Lind was therefore not the first to suggest citrus fruit as a cure for scurvy, he was the first to study their effect by a systematic experiment in 1747. It ranks as one of the first clinical experiments in the history of medicine. 1600 was a leap year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar (or a leap year starting on Tuesday of the 10-day slower Julian calendar). ... Species & major hybrids Species Citrus maxima - Pomelo Citrus medica - Citron Citrus reticulata - Mandarin & Tangerine Major hybrids Citrus x aurantifolia - Lime Citrus x aurantium - Bitter Orange Citrus x bergamia - Bergamot Citrus x hystrix - Kaffir Lime Citrus x ichangensis - Ichang Lemon Citrus x limon - Lemon Citrus x limonia - Rangpur Citrus x paradisi... The British East India Company, sometimes referred to as John Company, was the first joint-stock company (the Dutch East India Company was the first to issue public stock). ... From Latin ex- + -periri (akin to periculum attempt). ... Year 1747 (MDCCXLVII) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Thursday of the 11-day slower Julian calendar). ...

Lind thought that scurvy was due to putrefaction of the body which could be prevented by acids; that is why he chose to experiment with dietary supplements of acidic quality. In his experiment he divided twelve scorbutic sailors into six groups. They all received the same diet, and in addition group one was given a quart of cider daily, group two twenty-five drops of elixir of vitriol, group three six spoonful of vinegar, group four half a pint of seawater, group five received two oranges and one lemon and the last group a spicy paste plus a drink of barley water. The treatment of group five stopped after six days when they ran out of fruit, but by that time one sailor was fit for duty and the other had almost recovered. Apart from that, only group one also showed some effect of its treatment. Putrefaction is the decomposition of proteins, especially by anaerobic microorganisms. ... Acidity redirects here. ... Acidity redirects here. ... Cider in a pint glass Cider (or cyder) is an alcoholic beverage made primarily from the juices of specially grown varieties of apples. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into sulfuric acid. ... Vinegar is sometimes infused with spices or herbs—as here, with oregano. ... Binomial name (L.) Osbeck Orange—specifically, sweet orange—refers to the citrus tree Citrus sinensis (syn. ... Binomial name L. Barley (Hordeum vulgare) is an annual cereal grain, which serves as a major animal feed crop, with smaller amounts used for malting and in health food. ...

Shortly after this experiment Lind retired from the Navy and at first practised privately as a physician. In 1753 he published A treatise of the scurvy, which was virtually ignored. In 1758 he was appointed chief physician of the Royal Naval Hospital Haslar at Portsmouth. When James Cook went on his first voyage he carried wort (0.1 mg vitamin C per 100 g), sauerkraut (10-15 mg per 100 g) and a syrup of oranges and lemons (the juice contains 40-60 mg of vitamin C per 100 g) as antiscorbutics, but only the results of the trials on wort were published. In 1762 Lind’s Essay on the most effectual means of preserving the health of seamen appeared. In it he recommended growing salad, i.e. watercress (662 mg vitamin C per 100 g) on wet blankets. This was actually put in practice, and in the winter of 1775 the British Army in North America was supplied with mustard and cress seeds. Lind also continued to advocate citrus fruit. But because he – and most other physicians – still believed that their curative effect was due to the acid, it was reasonable to substitute them with cheaper acids. 1753 was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar). ... 1758 was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... For other places with the same name, see Portsmouth (disambiguation). ... Blue plaque for Captain James Cook Captain James Cook FRS RN (27 October 1728 (O.S.) – 14 February 1779) was an English explorer, navigator and cartographer. ... WORT 89. ... Sauerkraut and sausage on a plate Pickled Eisbein, served with Sauerkraut Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults. ... 1762 was a common year starting on Friday (see link for calendar). ... Species Nasturtium nasturtium-aquaticum L. Nasturtium microphyllum Boenn ex Rchb. ... Year 1775 (MDCCLXXV) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Thursday of the 11-day slower Julian calendar). ...

It was Gilbert Blane, who implemented citrus fruit. In an experiment in 1794 lemon juice was issued on board the Suffolk on a twenty-three week, non-stop voyage to India. The daily ration of two-thirds of an ounce mixed in grog contained just about the minimum daily intake of 10 mg vitamin C. There was no serious outbreak of scurvy. The following year the Admiralty took up the general issue of lemon juice to the whole fleet. This was not the end of scurvy in the Navy, as lemon juice was considered as a cure for scurvy and consequentially was dispensed by the ship's surgeon. Only after 1800 were the preventive qualities increasingly recognised.^[1] Sir Gilbert Blane (29 August 1749 - 26 June 1834) was a Scottish physician who instituted health reform in the British navy. ... 1794 was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ... Grog issue on board the HMS Endymion; circa 1905 Rum measure reputed to be from Trafalgar Black Tot Day, on board the HMS Phoebe; 31 July, 1970 For other uses, see Grog (disambiguation). ... Flag of the Lord High Admiral The Admiralty was formerly the authority in the United Kingdom responsible for the command of the Royal Navy. ... // ON MAY 5 1853 MR.FADER HAD SEX WITH A MAN NAME MR WIEN THEN THEY HAD SON NAMEDMRS COTURE AND MR MANOOGIAN WENT INTO MRS HASKELLS OFFICE NAKED AND DANCED AROUND AND MASTERBATED ON HER CHEST AND SHE LICKED IT OFF THEN THEY HAD ORAL SEEX WITH NAPLOEAN OF...

Fresh water from the sea

In the 18th century sailors took along water and beer in casks and used rain water when available. According to the Regulations and Instructions relating to His Majesty's Service at Sea, which had been published for the first time in 1733 by the Admiralty, sailors were entitled to a gallon of weak beer daily (5/6 of the usual British gallon, equivalent to the modern American gallon or slightly more than three and a half litres). As the beer had been boiled in the brewing process it was reasonably free from bacteria and lasted for months unlike water kept in a cask for the same time. In the Mediterranean wine was also issued, often fortified with brandy. Events February 12 - British colonist James Oglethorpe founds Savannah, Georgia. ... The gallon (abbreviation: gal) is a unit of volume. ... Leffe, a Belgian beer, served in branded glasses Schlenkerla Rauchbier straight from the cask Beer brewed from wheat. ... The litre or liter (see spelling differences) is a unit of volume. ... A 16th century brewer A 21st century brewer This article concerns the production of alcoholic beverages. ... The Mediterranean Sea is an intercontinental sea positioned between Europe to the north, Africa to the south and Asia to the east, covering an approximate area of 2. ... A glass of red wine This article is about the alcoholic beverage. ... A bottle of calvados Pays DAuge Brandy (short for brandywine, from Dutch brandewijn—burnt wine[1]) is a general term for distilled wine, usually 40–60% ethyl alcohol by volume. ...

For example, a frigate with 240 men, equipped with stores for four months, carried more than hundred tons of drinking water. Water quality depended on the original source of the water, the condition of the casks and for how long it had been kept. During normal times sailors were allowed to take as much water from a guarded butt as they wanted, but weren't allowed to take any water away. When water got scarce, it was rationed and rain water was collected with spreaded sails. Fresh water was also collected when an opportunity presented itself en voyage, but watering places were often marshy, and in the tropics infested by malaria. Malaria is a vector-borne infectious disease that is widespread in tropical and subtropical regions, including parts of the Americas, Asia, and Africa. ...

In 1758 Lind discovered that the steam of heated salt water was fresh and tasted like rain water. He also proposed to use solar energy for the distillation of water. But only when a new type of cooking stove was introduced in 1810 did the possibility arise of producing fresh water by distillation on a useful scale. 1758 was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... Solar power describes a number of methods of harnessing energy from the light of the sun. ... 1810 was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar). ...

Final years at Haslar Hospital

James Lind worked as senior physician of the Royal Naval Hospital Haslar from 1758-1783. He was succeeded by his son in this position. In 1794 he died at Gosport and buried in Portchester Church. He is commemorated by a plaque in the Medical School of the University of Edinburgh. The Royal Hospital Haslar in Gosport, is one of several hospitals serving the city of Portsmouth. ... 1794 was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ... Gosport is a town and district in Hampshire with around 77,000 inhabitants (including Lee-on-the-Solent), situated on the south coast of England. ... The University of Edinburgh (Scottish Gaelic: ), founded in 1582,[4] is a renowned centre for teaching and research in Edinburgh, Scotland. ...

References

1. ^ Macdonald, Janet (2006). Feeding Nelson’s Navy. The True Story of Food at Sea in the Georgian Era. Chatham, London. ISBN-10 1-86176-288-7, p. 154-166.

External links

• James Lind Library (including biography and extracts from Lind's most important works)