Junius was the pseudonym of a writer who contributed a series of letters to the Public Advertiser^[1], from January 21, 1769 to January 21, 1772. The signature had been already used, apparently by him, in a letter of November 21, 1768. These and numerous other personal letters were not included in his Letters of Junius collection, published in 1772. A pen name or nom de plume is a pseudonym adopted by an author. ... January 21 is the 21st day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1769 was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... January 21 is the 21st day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Catherine IIs soldiers in the Russo-Turkish War, by Alexandre Benois. ... November 21 is the 325th day of the year (326th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 1768 was a leap year starting on Friday (see link for calendar). ... The Letters of Junius were the official letters that Junius collected, refined and published in 1772. ...

The name was chosen in all probability because he had already signed Lucius and Brutus, and wished to exhaust the name of Lucius Junius Brutus the Roman patriot. Some say that he wrote under numerous other pseudonyms before, during and after the period between January 1769 and January 1772. He may also have written as Philo-Junius, a character who came to the rescue of Junius when it was clear that the public was misinterpreting his messages. There is weak evidence that he also wrote as Veteran, Nemesis and other anonymous correspondents of the Public Advertiser. Lucius Iunius Brutus Lucius Junius Brutus was the founder of the Roman Republic and traditionally one of the first Consuls in 509 BC. Prior to the establishment of the Roman Republic, Rome had been ruled by kings. ... See also Roman Republic (18th century) and Roman Republic (19th century). ... Look up patriot in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

Objectives, goals and achievements

There is a marked distinction between the main Letters of Junius, intended for the erudite public, and his miscellaneous letters. The second deal with a variety of subjects, some of a purely personal nature, such as the alleged injustice of Viscount Barrington, the secretary at war to the officials of his department, for instance. The Letters of Junius were the official letters that Junius collected, refined and published in 1772. ... Viscount Barrington, of Ardglass, was a title in the Peerage of Ireland. ...

The Letters of Junius had a definite objective:

• to inform the public of their historical and constitutional rights and liberties as Englishmen;
• to highlight where and how the government had infringed upon these rights.

Foremost in his sights was the ministry of Augustus Henry Fitzroy, 3rd Duke of Grafton, a fellow Whig whom Junius viewed as particularly corrupt. Grafton's administration had been formed in October 1768, when William Pitt the Elder was compelled by ill health to retire from office, and was a reconstruction of his cabinet of July 1766. Junius fought for the return to power of Chatham, who had recovered and was not on good terms with his successors. The term ministry can refer to the following: A ministry is a department of a government. ... Augustus Henry FitzRoy, 3rd Duke of Grafton (October 1, 1735 - March 14, 1811), was a British politician of the Georgian era. ... William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham (15 November 1708–11 May 1778) was a British statesman who achieved his greatest fame as war minister during the Seven Years War and who was later Prime Minister of Great Britain. ... A cabinet is a body of high-ranking members of government, typically representing the executive branch. ... The Earl of Chatham was a peerage given to William Pitt the Elder in 1766, after which he became Lord Privy Seal. ...

Junius’ private correspondence has been preserved, written in his usual disguised handwriting. He communicated with Chatham, with George Grenville, with Wilkes (all opponents of the Duke of Grafton), and also with Henry Sampson Woodfall, printer and part owner of the Public Advertiser. Arms of George Grenville George Grenville (14 October 1712 – 13 November 1770) was a British Whig statesman who served in government for the relatively short period of nine years, reaching the position of Prime Minister of Great Britain. ... Wilkes may refer to: Wilkes County, North Carolina John Wilkes Wilkes County, Georgia Charles Wilkes This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... The title of Duke of Grafton was created in 1675 by Charles II of England for his 2nd illegitimate son by the Duchess of Cleveland, Henry FitzRoy. ... Henry Sampson Woodfall (June 21, 1739 - December 12, 1805), English printer and journalist, was born in London. ...

The letters are of interest on three grounds:

• their political significance;
• their style; and
• the mystery which long surrounded their authorship.

The matter of his letters is considered by some to be invective though close inspection of his writings reveal a principled man centuries ahead of his time, exposing blatant corruption by the only means available (anonymity) in a country struggling with the idea of freedom of speech.

He began with a general attack on the ministry for their personal immorality. An ill-judged defence of John Manners, Marquess of Granby, commander-in-chief, by Sir William Draper gave Junius an easy victory over a vulnerable opponent with weak arguments. It was in this short tussle that Junius' style and wit first developed a reputation and public audience. Junius realised the potential he had to influence public opinion. Morality is a complex of principles based on cultural, religious, and philosophical concepts and beliefs, by which an individual determines whether his or her actions are right or wrong. ... John Manners, Marquess of Granby (1721 - October 18, 1770), British soldier, was the eldest son of the 3rd Duke of Rutland. ... Commander-in-Chief (in NATO-lingo often C-in-C or CINC pronounced sink) is the commander of all the military forces within a particular region or of all the military forces of a state. ... William Henry Draper born in 1801 who served as Premier of the Province of Canada between 1841 and 1842. ...

Confidently, Junius then went on to expose the problems at its cause—the ministries of Grafton, Lord North (Grafton's cousin) and the Duke of Bedford. The core of Junius’ arguments were the arbitrary appointments made by Grafton, presumably to stay in favour with the Duke of Bedford and his party (also known as the Bedfordites or Bloomsbury Gang). Most notable was Col. Henry Lawes Luttrell (later 2nd Earl Carhampton) whom Grafton appointed MP for Middlesex (instead of the duly elected Wilkes) and Richard Rigby whom Grafton made Paymaster of the Forces. Junius ended with an assault on Lord Chief Justice Mansfield, who Junius argued had set dangerous legal precedents regarding press freedom and poitical libel from the Wilkes affair. Augustus Henry FitzRoy, 3rd Duke of Grafton (October 1, 1735 - March 14, 1811), was a British politician of the Georgian era. ... Frederick North, 2nd Earl of Guilford (April 13, 1732–August 5, 1792), more often known by his earlier title, Lord North, was Prime Minister of Great Britain from 1770 to 1782, and a major actor in the American Revolution. ... The titles of Earl or Duke of Bedford were created several times in the peerage of England. ... The Bloomsbury gang, also known as the Bedford party, was a United Kingdom in 1765 by John-Russell,-4th-Duke-of-Bedford. ... Richard Rigby, Secretary of Ireland, Paymaster of the Forces, was a member of the Rigby family also known as Rigby of Mistley Hall in Essex, the site of their manor. ... The Paymaster of the Forces was a British government position. ... The Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales is the second-highest judge of the Courts of England and Wales, after the Lord Chancellor, and the presiding judge of Criminal Division of the Court of Appeal, and of the Queens Bench Division of the High Court. ... William Murray, 1st Earl of Mansfield (March 2, 1705 - March 20, 1793), was a British judge and politician who reached high office in the House of Lords. ...

Junius was highly disappointed not to have influenced King George III in his December 19, 1769 letter. He tried to encourage the King to overcome his resentments towards the petty Wilkes and also to release his trust in corrupt officials. Junius was not a radical anti-royal Whig, as many texts suggest, though he did trouble himself with explaining to the public the real constitutional role of the royal prerogative, and (if engaged correctly) how it benefited the country. George III (George William Frederick) (4 June 1738 – 29 January 1820) was King of Great Britain and King of Ireland from 25 October 1760 until 1 January 1801, and thereafter King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland until his death. ... December 19 is the 353rd day of the year (354th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1769 was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ...

Contrary to some opinions, the practical effect of the letters were highly significant—they made Grafton unpopular enough to end his ministry in January 1770. Junius could only have been disappointed by Grafton's replacement, Lord North. Junius confessed himself beaten, in his private letter to Woodfall of January 19, 1773 for not having achieved his goals. Despite this, Junius’ letters were noticed and talked about for generations afterwards and spread throughout Europe in many languages. His concepts on democratic elections, freedom of the press, legal history and the constitutional rights of individuals are now common-place. Few in history have influenced so many and sparked an interest in such real concepts of liberty. 1770 was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar). ... Frederick North, 2nd Earl of Guilford (April 13, 1732–August 5, 1792), more often known by his earlier title, Lord North, was Prime Minister of Great Britain from 1770 to 1782, and a major actor in the American Revolution. ... Henry Sampson Woodfall (June 21, 1739 - December 12, 1805), English printer and journalist, was born in London. ... January 19 is the 19th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1773 was a common year starting on Friday (see link for calendar). ...

Style

Latin literature was not only studied but imitated at that time but also supplied the inspiration for numerous writings (such as the satires of Juvenal, and the speeches of Cicero against Verses and Catiline). If Junius was doing what others did, he did it better than anybody else; a fact which sufficiently explains his rapid popularity. His superiority lay in his style. Here also he was by no means original, and he was unequal. There are passages in his writings which can be best described in the words which Burke applied to another writer: A mere mixture of vinegar and water, at once vapid and sour. But at his best Junius attains to a high degree of artificial elegance and vigour. He shows the influence of Bolingbroke, of Swift, and above all of Tacitus, who appears to have been his favourite author. The imitation is never slavish. Junius adapts, and does not only repeat. No single sentence will show the quality of a style which produces its effect by persistence and repetition, but such a typical passage as follows displays at once the method and the spirit. It is taken from Letter XLIX to the duke of Grafton, June 22, 1771: Latin literature, the body of written works in the Latin language, remains an enduring legacy of the culture of ancient Rome. ... Woodcut of Juvenal from the Nuremberg Chronicle Decimus Iunius Iuvenalis, Anglicized as Juvenal, was a Roman satiric poet of the late 1st century and early 2nd century AD. He is known for coining the phrase panem et circenses (bread and circuses) to describe the primary pursuits of the Roman populace. ... Marcus Tullius Cicero (IPA: ;) (January 3, 106 BC – December 7, 43 BC) was an orator and statesman of Ancient Rome, and is generally considered the greatest Latin orator and prose stylist. ... Lucius Sergius Catilina (108 BC?–62 BC), known in English as Catiline, was a Roman politician of the 1st century BC who is best known for the Catiline (or Catilinarian) conspiracy, an attempt to overthrow the Roman Republic, and in particular the power of the aristocratic Senate. ... // Places USA Burke, South Dakota Burke, Virginia Burke (town), New York Burke (village), New York Australia Shire of Burke, Queensland a Local Government Area Division of Burke has been the name of an Australian Electoral Division twice The town of Bourke, New South Wales in Australia is pronounced the same... Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke, Baron Saint John Of Lydiard Tregoze and Battersea, (September 16, 1678 – December 12, 1751), was an English statesman and philosopher. ... Jonathan Swift Jonathan Swift (November 30, 1667 – October 19, 1745) was an Anglo-Irish priest, satirist, essayist, political pamphleteer, and poet famous for works like Gullivers Travels, A Modest Proposal, A Journal to Stella, The Drapiers Letters, The Battle of the Books, and A Tale of a Tub. ... Gaius Cornelius Tacitus Publius or Gaius Cornelius Tacitus (c. ... June 22 is the 173rd day of the year (174th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 192 days remaining. ... 1771 was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ...

"The profound respect I bear to the gracious prince who governs this country with no less honour to himself than satisfaction to his subjects, and who restores you to your rank under his standard, will save you from a multitude of reproaches. The attention I should have paid to your failings is involuntarily attracted to the hand which rewards them; and though I am not so partial to the royal judgment as to affirm that the favor of a king can remove mountains of infamy, it serves to lessen at least, for undoubtedly it divides, the burden. While I remember how much is due to his sacred character, I cannot, with any decent appearance of propriety, call you the meanest and the basest fellow in the kingdom. I protest, my Lord, I do not think you so. You will have a dangerous rival in that kind of fame to which you have hitherto so happily directed your ambition, as long as there is one man living who thinks you worthy of his confidence, and fit to be trusted with any share in his government ... With any other prince, the shameful desertion of him in the midst of that distress, which you alone had created, in the very crisis of danger, when he fancied he saw the throne already surrounded by men of virtue and abilities, would have outweighed the memory of your former services. But his majesty is full of justice, and understands the doctrine of compensations; he remembers with gratitude how soon you had accommodated your morals to the necessities of his service, how cheerfully you had abandoned the engagements of private friendship, and renounced the most solemn professions to the public. The sacrifice of Lord Chatham was not lost on him. Even the cowardice and perfidy of deserting him may have done you no disservice in his esteem. The instance was painful, but the principle might please."

What is artificial and stilted in this style did not offend the would-be classic taste of the eighteenth century, and does not now conceal the fact that the laboriously arranged words, and artfully counterbalanced clauses, convey a venomous hate and scorn.

Readership

The pre-established harmony between Junius and his readers accounts for the rapidity of his success, and for the importance attributed to him by Burke and Johnson, far better writers than himself. Before 1772 there appeared at least twelve unauthorized republications of his letters, made by speculative printers. In that year he revised the collection named Junius: Stat nominis umbra, with a dedication to the English people and a preface. Other independent editions followed in quick succession. In 1801 one was published with annotations by Robert Heron. In 1806 another appeared with notes by John Almon. The first new edition of real importance was issued by the Woodfall family in 1812. It contained the correspondence of Junius with HS Woodfall, a selection of the miscellaneous letters attributed to Junius, facsimiles of his handwriting, and notes by Dr Mason Good. Curiosity as to the mystery of the authorship began to replace political and literary interest in the writings. Junius himself had been early aware of the advantage he secured by concealment. The mystery of Junius increases his importance is his confession in a letter to Wilkes dated September 18, 1771. Edmund Burke The Right Honourable Edmund Burke (January 12, 1729 – July 9, 1797) was an Anglo-Irish statesman, author, orator and political philosopher, who served for many years in the British House of Commons as a member of the Whig party. ... Samuel Johnson circa 1772, painted by Sir Joshua Reynolds. ... 1806 was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ... John Almon (17 December 1737 - 12 December 1805) was a journalist and writer on political subjects, notable for his efforts to secure the right to publish reports on the debates in Parliament. ... 1812 was a leap year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ... John Mason Good (May 25, 1764 - January 2, 1827), English writer on medical, religious and classical subjects, was born at Epping, Essex. ... September 18 is the 261st day of the year (262nd in leap years). ... 1771 was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ...

Woodfall felt assured that

when kings and ministers are forgotten, when the force and direction of ersonal satire is no longer understood, and when measures are only fet in their remotest consequences; this book will, I believe, be found to contain principles worthy to be transmitted to posterity.

Identity of Junius

Revealing the identity of Junius requires a lot more thought. His reputation, written mostly by his opponents, is far from resolved - especially when they slide into easy dismisals of Junius' content by attributing authorship to individuals like Sir Philip Francis. Refer to identity of Junius for a comprehensive study on the authorship of The Letters of Junius. Junius was the pseudonym of a writer who contributed a series of political letters to the Public Advertiser, from January 21, 1769 to January 21, 1772. ... Sir Philip Francis (October 22, 1740 – December 23, 1818), English politician and pamphleteer, the probable author of the Letters of Junius, and the chief antagonist of Warren Hastings. ... Junius was the pseudonym of a writer who contributed a series of political letters to the Public Advertiser, from January 21, 1769 to January 21, 1772. ...

Fictional use of Junius

Robert Goddard's 2005 suspense novel, Sight Unseen, is set in the present day, however, the identity of Junius is a major theme in the novel. Robert Goddard is a British novelist. ... 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar. ...

References

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to:

Junius

• This article incorporates text from the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, a publication now in the public domain.
• Ellegård, Alvar: Who was Junius? Almquist and Wiksell, Stockholm, (1962); discussed by [2]
• Katritzky, Linde: Johnson and The Letters of Junius; New Perspectives on an Old Enigma Peter Lang Publishing, New York (1996)
• Cordasco, Francesco: A Bibliography of the Letters of Junius with a Checklist of Juniuan Scholarship and Related Studies, Junius-Vaughen Press, Fairview, N.J. (1986)

Image File history File links Wikiquote-logo-en. ... Wikiquote logo Wikiquote is a sister project of Wikipedia, using the same MediaWiki software. ... Encyclopædia Britannica, the 11th edition The Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1910–1911) is perhaps the most famous edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica. ... The public domain comprises the body of all creative works and other knowledge—writing, artwork, music, science, inventions, and others—in which no person or organization has any proprietary interest. ...

Notes

1. ↑  The Public Advertiser was a political newspaper run by Henry Sampson Woodfall, based in London. His brother William Woodfall later established the Daily, a paper that reported on parliamentary debates.

Henry Sampson Woodfall (June 21, 1739 - December 12, 1805), English printer and journalist, was born in London. ...

See also

• Letters of Junius
• Identity of Junius
• Junius Quotes