Kent State shootings
Original unretouched version of John Filo's iconic Pulitzer Prize-winning photograph of Mary Ann Vecchio, a fourteen-year-old runaway, kneeling over the dead body of Jeffrey Miller after he was shot by the National Guard.
Location	Kent, Ohio, USA
Date	May 4, 1970 12:22 PM[1]
Attack type	School shooting
Deaths	4
Injured	9
Perpetrator(s)	Members of the Ohio National Guard

The Kent State shootings, also known as the May 4 massacre or Kent State massacre,^[2][3][4] occurred at Kent State University in the city of Kent, Ohio, and involved the shooting of students by members of the Ohio National Guard on Monday, May 4, 1970. Four students were killed and nine others wounded, one of whom suffered permanent paralysis.^[5] Image File history File links Kent_State_massacre. ... Mary Ann Vecchio kneels over the body of Jeffrey Miller John Paul Filo (Natrona Heights, PA) photographed the 1971 Pulitzer Prize winning photo of a 14-year-old runaway girl (Mary Ann Vecchio), crying while kneeling over the body of 20-year-old Jeffrey Miller, one of the victims of... The Pulitzer Prize is an American award regarded as the highest national honor in print journalism, literary achievements, and musical composition. ... Filos photograph, with Vecchio kneeling over the body of Jeffrey Miller, shot in the mouth moments earlier by an unknown Ohio National Guardsman Mary Ann Vecchio (now Gillum) (born c. ... Mary Ann Vecchio kneels over the body of Jeffrey Miller in this famous photo by John Filo Jeffrey Glenn Miller was a student at Kent State University, Ohio, when he was shot and killed by Ohio National Guardsmen in the Kent State shootings on May 4, 1970, while protesting the... Nickname: The Tree City Location within the state of Ohio County Portage Mayor John Fender Area    - City 22. ... This article is about the U.S. State. ... is the 124th day of the year (125th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1970 (MCMLXX) was a common year starting on Thursday (link shows full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... School shooting is a term popularized in American and Canadian media to describe gun violence at educational institutions, especially the mass murder or spree killing of people connected with an institution. ... Seal of the Army National Guard The Ohio Army National Guard is a part of the United States National Guard and a reserve component of the United States Army. ... For the events of May 4, 1970, see Kent State shootings Kent State University (also known as Kent, Kent State or KSU) is one of America’s largest university systems, the third largest university in Ohio after Ohio State University (57,748) and the University of Cincinnati (35,364), and... Nickname: The Tree City Location within the state of Ohio County Portage Mayor John Fender Area    - City 22. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... For other uses, see Student (disambiguation). ... Seal of the Army National Guard The Ohio Army National Guard is a part of the United States National Guard and a reserve component of the United States Army. ... is the 124th day of the year (125th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1970 (MCMLXX) was a common year starting on Thursday (link shows full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ...

Some of the students who were shot were protesting the American invasion of Cambodia, which President Richard Nixon announced in a television address on April 30. However, other students who were shot were merely walking nearby or observing the protest at a distance.^[6][7] Combatants Republic of Vietnam, United States National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam, Democratic Republic of Vietnam Commanders Lu Lan (ARVN, II Corps), Do Cao Tri (ARVN, III Corps), Nguyen Viet Thanh (ARVN, IV Corps), Creighton W. Abrams (U.S.) Pham Hung (political), Hoang Van Thai (military) Strength 58... Federal courts Supreme Court Circuit Courts of Appeal District Courts Elections Presidential elections Midterm elections Political Parties Democratic Republican Third parties State & Local government Governors Legislatures (List) State Courts Local Government Other countries Atlas  US Government Portal      For other uses, see President of the United States (disambiguation). ... Nixon redirects here. ... is the 120th day of the year (121st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

There was a significant national response to the shootings: hundreds of universities, colleges, and high schools closed throughout the United States due to a student strike of eight million students, and the event further divided the country along political lines. A university is an institution of higher education and of research, which grants academic degrees. ... For other uses, see College (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see High school (disambiguation). ...

Historical background

Richard Nixon had been elected President in 1968, promising to end the Vietnam War. In November 1969 the My Lai Massacre was exposed, prompting widespread outrage around the world and leading to increased public opposition to the war. In addition, the following month saw the first draft lottery instituted since World War II. The war had appeared to be winding down throughout 1969 so a new invasion of Cambodia angered those who felt it only exacerbated the conflict. Combatants Republic of Vietnam United States Republic of Korea Thailand Australia New Zealand The Philippines National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam Democratic Republic of Vietnam People’s Republic of China Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea Strength US 1,000,000 South Korea 300,000 Australia 48,000... The My Lai Massacre ( , approximately ) (Vietnamese: thảm sát Mỹ Lai) was the mass murder of 347 to 504 defenseless Vietnamese civilians, mostly women and children, conducted by U.S. Army forces on March 16, 1968, in the hamlet of My Lai, during the Vietnam War. ... Conscription in the United States has been employed several times, usually during war but also during the nominal peace of the Cold War. ... The December 1, 1969 draft lottery was held to determine the order of induction into the US Army during the Vietnam War. ... Combatants Allied powers: China France Great Britain Soviet Union United States and others Axis powers: Germany Italy Japan and others Commanders Chiang Kai-shek Charles de Gaulle Winston Churchill Joseph Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Adolf Hitler Benito Mussolini Hideki Tōjō Casualties Military dead: 17,000,000 Civilian dead: 33,000...

Many young people, including college students, teachers, and hippies, were concerned about being drafted to fight in a war that they strongly opposed. The expansion of that war into another country appeared to them to have increased that risk. Across the country, campuses erupted in protests in what Time called "a nation-wide student strike", setting the stage for the events of early May 1970. “TIME” redirects here. ...

Timeline

Thursday, April 30

President Richard Nixon announced to the nation that an "incursion" into Cambodia had been launched by United States combat forces. Nixon redirects here. ...

Friday, May 1

At Kent State, a massive demonstration was held on May 1 on the Commons (a grassy knoll in the center of campus traditionally used as a gathering place for rallies or protests), and another had been planned for May 4. There was widespread anger, and many protesters issued a call to "bring the war home." As a symbolic protest to Nixon's decision to send troops, a group of about five hundred students watched a graduate student at Kent State burying a copy of the U.S. Constitution. is the 121st day of the year (122nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 124th day of the year (125th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

Trouble erupted in town at around midnight when intoxicated bikers^{[citation needed]} left a bar and began throwing beer bottles at cars and breaking downtown store fronts. In the process they broke a bank window which set off an alarm. The news spread quickly and it resulted in several bars closing early to avoid trouble. Before long more people had joined the vandalism and looting, while others remained bystanders. A Motorcycle Club (MC) is an organized club of motorcycle riders who follow a series of traditional rules for participation in the club, including, but not limited to, a group of elected officers; a probationary period for new members; the wearing of a specific club patch (or patches) adorned with...

By the time police arrived, a crowd of about 100 hippies had already gathered. Some people from the crowd had already lit a small bonfire in the street. The crowd appeared to be a mix of bikers, students, and out-of town youths who regularly came to Kent's bars. A few members of the crowd began to throw beer bottles at the police, and then started yelling obscenities at them. The disturbance lasted for about an hour before the police restored order. By that time most of the bars were closed and the downtown area of Kent and the campus were quiet.

Saturday, May 2

Kent's Mayor Leroy Satrom declared a state of emergency on May 2 and, later that afternoon, asked Ohio Governor James A. Rhodes to send the National Guard to Kent to help maintain order. Leroy Satrom (d. ... For other uses, see State of emergency (disambiguation). ... is the 122nd day of the year (123rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Governor James Rhodes James Allen Rhodes (September 13, 1909 – March 4, 2001) was an American Republican politician from Ohio, and as of 2004 one of only three U.S. state governors to be elected to four four-year terms in office. ... The United States National Guard is a reserve forces component of the United States Army (the Army National Guard) and the United States Air Force (the Air National Guard). ...

When the National Guard arrived in town that evening, a large demonstration was already under way on the campus, and the campus Reserve Officer Training Corps (ROTC) building (which had been boarded up and scheduled for demolition^{[citation needed]}) was burning. The arsonists were never apprehended and no one was injured in the fire. More than a thousand protesters surrounded the building and cheered the building's burning. While attempting to extinguish the fire, several Kent firemen and police officers were hit with rocks and other objects by those standing near the fire. More than one fire engine company had to be called in because protesters carried the fire hose into the Commons and slashed it.^[8][9][10] A call for assistance went out and at 10:00 p.m., the National Guard entered the campus for the first time, setting up camp directly on campus. There were many arrests made, tear gas was used, and at least one student was wounded with a bayonet.^[11] ROTC links here. ... The Skyline Parkway Motel in Afton, Virginia after an arson fire on July 9, 2004. ... A riot control agent is a type of lachrymatory agent (or lacrimatory agent). ... The M1 Bayonet was designed to be used with the . ...

Sunday, May 3

By Sunday, May 3, there were nearly 1,000 National Guardsmen on campus to control the students. is the 123rd day of the year (124th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

During a press conference, Governor Rhodes called the protesters un-American and referred to the protesters as revolutionaries set on destroying higher education in Ohio. "They're worse than the brownshirts and the communist element and also the nightriders and the vigilantes," Rhodes said. "They're the worst type of people that we harbor in America. I think that we're up against the strongest, well-trained, militant, revolutionary group that has ever assembled in America."^[12] Hitler addressing SA members in the late 1920s The Sturmabteilung (SA, German for Storm Division and is usually translated as stormtroops or stormtroopers) functioned as a paramilitary organisation of the NSDAP – the German Nazi party. ... This article is about communism as a form of society and as a political movement. ...

Rhodes also claimed he would obtain a court order declaring a state of emergency, banning further demonstrations, and gave the impression that a situation akin to martial law had been declared; however he never attempted to obtain such an order. ^[13] For other uses, see Martial law (disambiguation). ...

During the day some students came into downtown Kent to help with cleanup efforts after the rioting, which met with mixed reactions from local businessmen. Mayor Satrom, under pressure from frightened citizens, ordered a curfew until further notice.

Around 8:00 p.m., another rally was held on the campus Commons. By 8:45 p.m. the Guard used tear gas to disperse the crowd, and the students reassembled at the intersection of Lincoln and Main Streets, holding a sit-in in the hopes of gaining a meeting with Mayor Satrom and President White. At 11:00 p.m., the Guard announced that a curfew had gone into effect and began forcing the students back to their dorms. Ten Guardsmen were injured^[11] and a few students were bayoneted by Guardsmen.^[1] For other uses, see bayonet (disambiguation). ...

Monday, May 4

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2008)

Another photo taken at almost the same time as the iconic Filo image; this one was taken by Howard Ruffner.

On Monday, May 4, a protest was scheduled to be held at noon, as had been planned three days earlier. University officials attempted to ban the gathering, handing out 12,000 leaflets stating that the event was canceled. Despite this, an estimated 2,000 people gathered on the university's Commons, near Taylor Hall. The protest began with the ringing of the campus's iron victory bell (which had historically been used to signal victories in football games) to signal the beginning of the rally, and the first protester began to speak. Image File history File links Question_book-3. ... is the 124th day of the year (125th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

Fearing that the situation might escalate into another violent protest, Companies A and C, 1/145th Infantry and Troop G of the 2/107th Armored Cavalry, Ohio ARNG, the units on the campus grounds, attempted to disperse the students. The legality of the dispersal was later debated at a subsequent wrongful death and injury trial. On appeal, the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit ruled that authorities did indeed have the right to disperse the crowd. The United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit is a federal court with appellate jurisdiction over the district courts in the following districts: Western and Eastern Districts of Kentucky Western and Eastern Districts of Michigan Northern and Southern Districts of Ohio Western, Middle, and Eastern Districts of Tennessee...

The dispersal process began late in the morning with a police official, riding in a Guard Jeep, approaching the students to read them an order to disperse or face arrest. The protesters pelted the Jeep with rocks, forcing it to retreat. One Guardsman was injured in the attack.

Just before noon, the Guard returned and again ordered the crowd to disperse. When they refused, the Guard used tear gas. Because of wind, the tear gas had little effect in dispersing the crowd, and some began a second rock attack with chants of "Pigs off campus!" The students threw the tear gas canisters back at the National Guardsmen. The only protection the soldiers had were their steel helmets. They had no body armor or face shields, although they had put on gas masks upon first using tear gas. A riot control agent is a type of lachrymatory agent (or lacrimatory agent). ...

When it was obvious the crowd was not going to disperse, a group of 77 National Guard troops from A Company and Troop G began to advance on the hundreds of protesters with bayonets fixed on their weapons. The guardsmen had little training in riot control. As the guardsmen advanced, the protesters retreated up and over Blanket Hill, heading out of The Commons area. Once over the hill, the students, in a loose group, moved northeast along the front of Taylor Hall, with some continuing toward a parking lot in front of Prentice Hall (slightly northeast of and perpendicular to Taylor Hall). The guardsmen pursued the protesters over the hill, but rather than veering left as the protesters had, they continued straight, heading down toward an athletic practice field enclosed by a chain link fence. Here they remained for about ten minutes, unsure of how to get out of the area short of retracing their entrance path (an action some guardsmen considered might be viewed as a retreat^{[improper synthesis?]}). During this time, the bulk of the students were off to the left and front of the guardsmen, approximately 50 to 75 meters away, on the veranda of Taylor Hall. Others were scattered between Taylor Hall and the Prentice Hall parking lot, while still others, perhaps 35 or 40, were standing in the parking lot, or dispersing through the lot as had been previously ordered.

While on the practice field, the guardsmen generally faced the parking lot which was about 100 meters away. At one point some of the guardsmen knelt and aimed their weapons toward the parking lot, then stood up again. For a few moments several guardsmen formed a loose huddle and appeared to be talking to one another. The guardsmen appeared to be unclear as to what to do next. They had cleared the protesters from the Commons area, and many students had left, but many stayed and were still angrily confronting the soldiers, some throwing rocks and tear gas canisters. At the end of about ten minutes the guardsmen began to retrace their steps back up the hill toward the Commons area. Some of the students on the Taylor Hall veranda began to move slowly toward the soldiers as the latter passed over the top of the hill and headed back down into the Commons.

At this point, at 12:22 PM,^[1] a number of guardsmen at the top of the hill abruptly turned and fired their M1 Garand semi-automatic military rifles into the students. The guardsmen directed their fire not at the closest students, who were on the Taylor Hall veranda, but at those on the grass area and concrete walkway below the veranda, at those on the service road between the veranda and the parking lot, and at those in the parking lot.^{[improper synthesis?]} Bullets were not sprayed in all directions, but instead were confined to a fairly limited line of fire leading from the top of the hill to the parking lot. Not all the soldiers who fired their weapons directed their fire into the students. Some soldiers fired into the ground while a few fired into the air. In all, 29 of the 77 guardsmen claimed to have fired their weapons. A total of 67 bullets were fired. The shooting was determined to have lasted only 13 seconds, although a New York Times reporter stated that "it appeared to go on, as a solid volley, for perhaps a full minute or a little longer." The question of why the shots were fired is widely debated. The M1 Garand (more formally the United States Rifle, Caliber . ... A semi-automatic rifle is a type of rifle that fires a single bullet each time the trigger is pulled, without the need to manually operate a bolt, lever or other firing or loading mechanism. ... The New York Times is an internationally known daily newspaper published in New York City and distributed in the United States and many other nations worldwide. ...

The Adjutant General of the Ohio National Guard told reporters that a sniper had fired on the guardsmen, which itself remains a debated allegation. Many guardsmen later testified that they were in fear for their lives, which was questioned partly because of the distance of the wounded students. Time magazine later concluded that "triggers were not pulled accidentally at Kent State". The President's Commission on Campus Unrest avoided the question of why the shootings happened and harshly criticized both the protesters and the Guardsmen, but concluded that "the indiscriminate firing of rifles into a crowd of students and the deaths that followed were unnecessary, unwarranted, and inexcusable." An adjutant general is the chief administrative officer to a military general. ...

On May 1, 2007, various news agencies reported the claim of a former student who was injured in the shooting to have uncovered new evidence that the guardsmen were ordered to fire upon the crowd. Terry Strubbe, a student who lived in a dormitory overlooking the anti-war rally site, placed a microphone at a windowsill and recorded^[14] nearly 30 minutes of the event on reel-to-reel tape. He sent a copy of the tape to the FBI and kept a copy in a safe deposit box. The government copy has been archived at Yale University. According to Alan Canfora, who was injured in the wrist that day by a gunshot, a voice can be heard on the tape yelling, "Right here! Get Set! Point! Fire!" before the 13-second volley of gunfire.^[14] Canfora said he has obtained a copy of that tape and that he plans to release it on CD. He wants the government to reopen the investigation of the 37-year-old case.^[15] Safe deposit boxes inside a Swiss bank. ... Yale redirects here. ... Alan Canfora (b. ...

In another step towards this goal, Canfora provided a copy of the tape to musician Ian MacKaye of the bands Minor Threat and Fugazi, and co-founder of Dischord Records, who digitally enhanced the recording by boosting the volume level and removing tape hiss.^[14][16][17] Ian Thomas Garner MacKaye (pronounced ), born April 16, 1962), is an American singer and guitarist. ... Minor Threat was an American hardcore punk band that formed in Washington DC in 1980 and disbanded in 1983. ... Fugazi may refer to: an Italian slang term for something that is fake/not authentic. ... Dischord Records is a Washington, D.C.-based independent record label specializing in D.C.-area independent punk, hardcore, and post-hardcore music. ... Tape hiss is the high frequency noise present on analogue magnetic tape recordings caused by the size of the magnetic particles used to make the tape. ...

The shootings killed four students and wounded nine. Two of the four students killed, Allison Krause and Jeffrey Miller, had participated in the protest, and the other two, Sandra Scheuer and William Knox Schroeder, were walking from one class to the next. Schroeder was also a member of the campus ROTC chapter. Of those wounded, none was closer than 71 feet (22 m) to the guardsmen. Of those killed, the nearest (Miller) was 265 feet (81 m) away. This article is about the student. ... Mary Ann Vecchio kneels over the body of Jeffrey Miller in this famous photo by John Filo Jeffrey Glenn Miller was a student at Kent State University, Ohio, when he was shot and killed by Ohio National Guardsmen in the Kent State shootings on May 4, 1970, while protesting the... Sandra Lee Scheuer (pronounced SHAW-yer) (b. ... William Knox Schroeder (July 20, 1950 - May 4, 1970) was a student at Kent State University, Ohio, when he was killed by Ohio National Guardsmen in the Kent State shootings on May 4, 1970. ... ROTC links here. ...

Casualties

Killed (and approximate distance from the National Guard):

• Allison Krause 343 ft. (105 m); fatal left chest wound
• Jeffrey Glen Miller 265 ft. (81 m); shot through the mouth - killed instantly
• Sandra Lee Scheuer 390 ft. (119 m); fatal neck wound
• William Knox Schroeder 382 ft. (116 m); fatal chest wound

Wounded (and approximate distance from the National Guard): This article is about the student. ... Mary Ann Vecchio kneels over the body of Jeffrey Miller in this famous photo by John Filo Jeffrey Glenn Miller was a student at Kent State University, Ohio, when he was shot and killed by Ohio National Guardsmen in the Kent State shootings on May 4, 1970, while protesting the... Sandra Lee Scheuer (pronounced SHAW-yer) (b. ... William Knox Schroeder (July 20, 1950 - May 4, 1970) was a student at Kent State University, Ohio, when he was killed by Ohio National Guardsmen in the Kent State shootings on May 4, 1970. ...

• Thomas Mark Grace 225 ft. (69 m); struck in left ankle
• Joseph Lewis Jr. 71 ft. (22 m); hit twice in the right abdomen and left lower leg
• John R. Cleary 110 ft. (34 m); upper left chest wound
• Alan Canfora 225 ft. (69 m); hit in his right wrist
• Dean Kahler 300 ft. (91 m); back wound fracturing the vertebrae - permanently paralyzed from the chest down
• Douglas Wrentmore 329 ft. (100 m); hit in his right knee
• James Dennis Russell 375 ft. (114 m); hit in his right thigh from a bullet and in the right forehead by birdshot - both wounds minor
• Robert Stamps 495 ft. (151 m); hit in his right buttock
• Donald Scott MacKenzie 750 ft. (229 m); neck wound

Immediately after the shootings, many angry students were ready to launch an all-out attack on the National Guard. Many faculty members, led by geology professor and faculty marshal Glenn Frank, pleaded with the students to leave the Commons and to not give in to violent escalation. After 20 minutes of speaking, the students left the Commons, as ambulance personnel tended to the wounded, and the Guard left the area. Alan Canfora (b. ...

Although initial newspaper reports had inaccurately stated that a number of National Guard members had been killed or seriously injured, only one Guardsman, Sgt. Lawrence Shafer, was injured seriously enough to require medical treatment, approximately 10 to 15 minutes prior to the shootings.^[18] Shafer is also mentioned in a memo from November 15, 1973. The FBI memo was prepared by the Cleveland Office and is referred to by Field Office file # 44-703. It reads as follows: is the 319th day of the year (320th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... For the song by James Blunt, see 1973 (song). ...

Upon contacting appropriate officers of the Ohio National Guard at Ravenna and Akron, Ohio, regarding ONG radio logs and the availability of service record books, the respective ONG officer advised that any inquiries concerning the Kent State University incident should be direct to the Adjutant General, ONG, Columbus, Ohio. Three persons interviewed regarding reported conversation by Sgt Lawrence Shafer, ONG, that Shafer had bragged about "taking a bead" on Jeffrey Miller at the time of the ONG shooting and each interviewee unable to substantiate such a conversation.^{[citation needed]}

In an interview broadcast in 1986 on the ABC News documentary series Our World, Shafer identified the person that he fired at as Joseph Lewis. ABC News logo ABC News Special Report ident, circa 2006 ABC News is a division of American television and radio network ABC, owned by The Walt Disney Company. ...

Aftermath and long-term effects

Photographs of the dead and wounded at Kent State that were distributed in newspapers and periodicals world-wide amplified sentiment against the United States' invasion of Cambodia and the Vietnam War in general. In particular, the camera of Kent State photojournalism student John Filo captured a fourteen-year old runaway, Mary Ann Vecchio, screaming over the body of the dead student, Jeffrey Miller, who had been shot in the mouth. The photograph, which won a Pulitzer Prize, became the most enduring image of the events, and one of the most enduring images of the anti-Vietnam War movement. Mary Ann Vecchio kneels over the body of Jeffrey Miller John Paul Filo (Natrona Heights, PA) photographed the 1971 Pulitzer Prize winning photo of a 14-year-old runaway girl (Mary Ann Vecchio), crying while kneeling over the body of 20-year-old Jeffrey Miller, one of the victims of... Filos photograph, with Vecchio kneeling over the body of Jeffrey Miller, shot in the mouth moments earlier by an unknown Ohio National Guardsman Mary Ann Vecchio (now Gillum) (born c. ... Mary Ann Vecchio kneels over the body of Jeffrey Miller in this famous photo by John Filo Jeffrey Glenn Miller was a student at Kent State University, Ohio, when he was shot and killed by Ohio National Guardsmen in the Kent State shootings on May 4, 1970, while protesting the... The Pulitzer Prize is an American award regarded as the highest national honor in print journalism, literary achievements, and musical composition. ...

The shootings led to protests on college campuses throughout the United States, and a student strike - causing more than 450 campuses across the country to close with both violent and non-violent demonstrations.^[19] A common sentiment was expressed by students at New York University with a banner hung out of a window which read "They Can't Kill Us All."^[20] New York University (NYU) is a private, nonsectarian, coeducational research university in New York City. ...

Just five days after the shootings, 100,000 people demonstrated in Washington, D.C. against the war and the killing of unarmed student protesters. Ray Price, Nixon's chief speechwriter from 1969-74 recalled the Washington demonstrations saying, "The city was an armed camp. The mobs were smashing windows, slashing tires, dragging parked cars into intersections, even throwing bedsprings off overpasses into the traffic down below. This was the quote, student protest. That's not student protest, that’s civil war."^[19] Not only was Nixon taken to Camp David for two days for his own protection, but Charles Colson (Counsel to President Nixon from 1969 to 1973) stated that the military was called up to protect the administration from the angry students, he recalled that "The 82nd Airborne was in the basement of the executive office building, so I went down just to talk to some of the guys and walk among them, and they're lying on the floor leaning on their packs and their helmets and their cartridge belts and their rifles cocked and you’re thinking, 'This can't be the United States of America. This is not the greatest free democracy in the world. This is a nation at war with itself.'"^[19] For other uses, see Washington, D.C. (disambiguation). ... Charles (Chuck) Wendell Colson (born October 16, 1931, in Boston, Massachusetts) was the chief counsel for President Richard Nixon from 1969 to 1973 and was one of the Watergate Seven, jailed for Watergate-related charges. ... The 82nd Airborne Division of the United States Army was formed originally as the 82nd Infantry Division on August 25, 1917, at Camp Gordon, Georgia. ...

Shortly after the shootings took place, the Urban Institute conducted a national study that concluded the Kent State shooting was the single factor causing the only nationwide student strike in U.S. history—over 4 million students protested and over 900 American colleges and universities closed during the student strikes. The Kent State campus remained closed for six weeks. Based in Washington, D.C., the nonpartisan Urban Institute collects data, conducts policy research, evaluates social programs, educates the public on key domestic issues, and provides advice and technical assistance to developing governments abroad. ...

President Nixon and his administration's public reaction to the shootings was perceived by many in the anti-war movement as callous. Then National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger said the president was "pretending indifference." Stanley Karnow noted in his Vietnam: A History that "The [Nixon] administration initially reacted to this event with wanton insensitivity. Nixon's press secretary, Ron Ziegler, whose statements were carefully programmed, referred to the deaths as a reminder that 'when dissent turns to violence, it invited tragedy.'" The Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs, commonly referred to as the National Security Advisor, serves as the chief advisor to the President of the United States on national security issues. ... Henry Alfred Kissinger (born Heinz Alfred Kissinger on May 27, 1923) is a German-born American politician, and 1973 Nobel Peace Prize laureate. ... Stanley Karnow is a Pulitzer Prize-winning author who covered Asia from 1959 as chief correspondent for Time and Life. ... Richard Nixons White House Press Secretary Ron Ziegler. ...

Karnow further documented that on May 9, 1970 at 4:15 a.m., the president met about 30 student dissidents conducting a vigil at the Lincoln Memorial where upon Nixon "treated them to a clumsy and condescending monologue, which he made public in an awkward attempt to display his benevolence." Nixon had been trailed by White House Deputy for Domestic Affairs Egil Krogh, who saw it differently than Karnow, saying, "I thought it was a very significant and major effort to reach out."^[19] In any regard, neither side could convince the other and after meeting with the students Nixon expressed that those in the anti-war movement were the pawns of foreign communists.^[19] After the student protests, Nixon asked H. R. Haldeman to consider the Huston Plan, which would have used illegal procedures to gather information on the leaders of the anti-war movement. Only the resistance of J. Edgar Hoover stopped the plan.^[19] is the 129th day of the year (130th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1970 (MCMLXX) was a common year starting on Thursday (link shows full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... The Lincoln Memorial, in Washington, D.C., is a United States Presidential memorial built to honor 16th President Abraham Lincoln. ... Egil Krogh (far right) during Elvis Presleys visit with Nixon on December 21, 1970. ... Harry Robbins Haldeman (publicly known as H. R. Haldeman, and informally as Bob Haldeman) (October 27, 1926 – November 12, 1993) was a U.S. political aide and businessman, best known for his service as White House Chief of Staff to President Richard Nixon and for his role in events leading... The Huston Plan was a 43 page report and outline of proposed security operations put together by White House aide Tom Charles Huston in 1970. ... John Edgar Hoover (January 1, 1895 – May 2, 1972) was the Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) of the United States. ...

Ten days after the Kent State shootings, on May 14, two students were killed by police at the historically black Jackson State University under similar circumstances, but that event did not arouse the same nationwide attention as the Kent State shootings.^[21] May 14 is the 134th day of the year (135th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... In the United States, Historically black colleges and universities (HBCU) are colleges or universities that were established before 1964 with the intention of serving the African American community. ... Jackson State University, often abridged as Jackson State or by its initials JSU is a historically black university located in Jackson, Mississippi founded in 1877. ...

There was wide discussion as to whether or not these were legally justified shootings of American citizens, and whether or not the protests or the decisions to ban them were constitutional. These debates served to further galvanize uncommitted opinion by the terms of the discourse. The term "massacre" was applied to the shootings by some individuals and media sources, as it had been used for the Boston Massacre of 1770, in which five were killed and several more wounded.^[2][3][4] Engraving by Paul Revere The Boston Massacre refers to an incident involving the deaths of five civilians at the hands of British troops on March 5, 1770, the legal aftermath of which helped spark the rebellion in some of the British colonies in America which culminated in the American Revolution. ...

On June 13, 1970, President Nixon established the President's Commission on Campus Unrest, known as the Scranton Commission, which he charged to study the dissent, disorder, and violence breaking out on college and university campuses across the nation.^[22] The Commission's establishment was a consequence of the killings of protesting students at Kent State and Jackson State. The Commission issued its findings in a September 1970 report that concluded that the Ohio National Guard shootings on May 4, 1970 were unjustified. The report said: is the 164th day of the year (165th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1970 (MCMLXX) was a common year starting on Thursday (link shows full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 124th day of the year (125th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1970 (MCMLXX) was a common year starting on Thursday (link shows full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ...

Even if the guardsmen faced danger, it was not a danger that called for lethal force. The 61 shots by 28 guardsmen certainly cannot be justified. Apparently, no order to fire was given, and there was inadequate fire control discipline on Blanket Hill. The Kent State tragedy must mark the last time that, as a matter of course, loaded rifles are issued to guardsmen confronting student demonstrators.

In September 1970, twenty-four students and one faculty member were indicted on charges connected with the May 4 demonstration or the ROTC building fire three days before. The individuals, who had been identified from photographs, became known as the "Kent 25." Five cases, all related to the burning of the ROTC building, went to trial; one non-student defendant was convicted on one charge and two other non-students pleaded guilty. One other defendant was acquitted, and charges were dismissed against the last. In December 1971, all charges against the remaining twenty were dismissed for lack of evidence.^[23][24] is the 124th day of the year (125th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

Legal action against the guardsmen

Eight of the guardsmen were indicted by a grand jury. The guardsmen claimed to have fired in self-defense, which was generally accepted by the criminal justice system. In 1974 District Judge Frank Battisti dismissed charges against all eight on the basis that the prosecution's case was too weak to warrant a trial.^[13]

In May 2007, Alan Canfora, one of the injured protestors, demanded that the case be reopened, having found audiotape in a Yale University government archive allegedly recording an order to fire ("Right here! Get Set! Point! Fire!") just before the 13 second volley of shots.^[14] Yale redirects here. ...

Long-term effects

The years following the shootings (1970 to 1979) were filled with lawsuits filed by families of the victims against the State of Ohio, in hopes of placing blame on Governor Rhodes and the Ohio National Guard. Trials were held on both the federal and state level but all ended in acquittals or were dismissed. There was one civil trial for wrongful death and injury brought by the victims and their families against Governor Rhodes and the National Guardsmen that was originally dismissed but eventually the dismissal was overturned due to the judge excluding evidence. The students' families were awarded approximately $63,000 per victim and the defendants agreed to state for the record that they regretted their actions.^[24]

In the proceeding years, many in the anti-war movement have referred to the shootings as "murders", although no criminal convictions were obtained against any National Guardsman. Journalist I.F. Stone wrote Isador Feinstein Stone (better known as I.F. Stone) (December 24, 1907 – July 17, 1989) was an iconoclastic American investigative journalist best known for his influential political newsletter, . Stone was born in Philadelphia. ...

To those who think murder is too strong a word, one may recall that even Agnew three days after the Kent State shootings used the word in an interview on the David Frost show in Los Angeles. Agnew admitted in response to a question that what happened at Kent State was murder, 'but not first degree' since there was — as Agnew explained from his own training as a lawyer — "no premeditation but simply an over-response in the heat of anger that results in a killing; it's a murder. It's not premeditated and it certainly can't be condoned.^[25] Spiro Theodore Agnew (November 9, 1918 – September 17, 1996) was the thirty-ninth Vice President of the United States serving under President Richard M. Nixon, and the fifty-fifth Governor of Maryland. ... David Frost during an interview with Donald Rumsfeld. ...

The Kent State incident forced the National Guard to re-examine its methods of crowd control. The only instruments the Guardsmen had that day to dispel demonstrators were bayonets, CS gas grenades, and .30-06 ball ammunition. In the years that followed, the U.S. Army began developing less lethal means of dispersing demonstrators (such as rubber bullets) and changed its crowd control and riot tactics to attempt to not cause casualties amongst the demonstrators. Many of the crowd control changes brought on by the Kent State events are used today by police and military forces in the United States when facing similar situations, such as the 1992 Los Angeles Riots and civil disorder during the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina in 2005. Related Compounds Related compounds SDBS Supplementary data page Structure and properties n, εr, etc. ... .30-06 Springfield cartridge specifications. ... The examples and perspective in this article or section may not represent a worldwide view. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Non-lethal round. ... For other uses, see Los Angeles riots (disambiguation). ... This article is about the Atlantic hurricane of 2005. ...

One outgrowth of the events was the Center for Peaceful Change, which was established at Kent State University in 1971 "as a living memorial to the events of May 4, 1970."^[26] Now known as The Center for Applied Conflict Management (CACM), it developed one of the earliest conflict resolution undergraduate degree programs in the United States. The Institute for the Study and Prevention of Violence, an interdisciplinary program dedicated to violence prevention, was established in 1998. is the 124th day of the year (125th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1970 (MCMLXX) was a common year starting on Thursday (link shows full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... For the episode of the television series The Office, see Conflict Resolution (The Office episode) As you know, wikipedia. ...

According to recently released FBI reports,^{[citation needed]} one part-time student, Terry Norman, was already noted by student protesters as an informant for both campus police and the Akron FBI branch. Norman was present during the May 4 protests, taking photographs to identify student leaders,^[27] while carrying a sidearm and wearing a gas mask. This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... Nickname: The Rubber Capital of the World Location within the state of Ohio Country United States State Ohio County Summit Founded 1825 Incorporated 1835 (village) - 1865 (city) Government  - Mayor Don Plusquellic (D) Area  - City  62. ... The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) is a federal criminal investigative, intelligence agency, and the primary investigative arm of the United States Department of Justice (DOJ). ... is the 124th day of the year (125th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

In 1970, FBI director J. Edgar Hoover responded to questions from then-Congressman John Ashbrook by denying that Norman had ever worked for the FBI, a statement Norman himself disputed.^[28] On 13 August 1973, Indiana Senator Birch Bayh sent a memo to then-governor of Ohio, John J. Gilligan, suggesting that Norman may have fired the first shot, based on testimony he received from Guardsmen who claimed that a gunshot fired from the vicinity of the protesters instigated the Guard to open fire on the students.^[29] John Edgar Hoover (January 1, 1895 – May 2, 1972) was the Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) of the United States. ... John Milan Ashbrook was an American politician of the Republican party who served in the United States House of Representatives from Ohio from 1961 to 1982. ... is the 225th day of the year (226th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... For the song by James Blunt, see 1973 (song). ... Birch Evans Bayh II (born January 22, 1928) was a U.S. Senator from Indiana between 1963 and 1981. ... John Joyce Jack Gilligan (born March 22, 1921) is a Democratic politician from the U.S. state of Ohio who served as its 62nd governor. ...

Throughout the almost 40 years since the shootings, debate has continued on the events of May 4, 1970.^[30][31] is the 124th day of the year (125th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1970 (MCMLXX) was a common year starting on Thursday (link shows full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ...

Memorials at Kent State

Each May 4 from 1971 to 1975 the Kent State University administration sponsored an official commemoration of the events. Upon the university's announcement in 1976 that it would no longer sponsor such commemorations, the May 4 Task Force, a group made up of students and community members, was formed for this purpose. The group has organized a commemoration on the university's campus each year since 1976; events generally include a silent march around the campus, a candlelight vigil, a ringing of the victory bell in memory of those killed and injured, speakers (always including eyewitnesses and family members), and music. is the 124th day of the year (125th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

In 1990, twenty years after the shootings, a memorial commemorating the events of May 4 was dedicated on the campus on a 2.5 acre (10,000 m²) site overlooking the University's Commons where the student protest took place.^[32] Even the construction of the monument became controversial and in the end, only 7% of the design was constructed. The memorial itself does not contain the names of those killed or wounded in the shooting; under pressure, the university agreed to install a plaque near it with the names.^[33][34] is the 124th day of the year (125th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... This article is about the unit of length. ...

In 1999, at the urging of relatives of the four students killed in 1970, the university constructed individual memorials for each of the students in the parking lot between Taylor and Prentice halls. Each of the four memorials is located on the exact spot where the student fell, mortally wounded. They are surrounded by a raised rectangle of concrete featuring four lightposts approximately four feet high, with the student's name engraved on a triangular marble plaque in one corner.^[35]

George Segal's 1978 cast-from-life bronze sculpture, In Memory of May 4, 1970, Kent State: Abraham and Isaac was commissioned for the Kent State campus by a private fund for public art,^[36] but was refused by the university administration who deemed its subject matter (the biblical Abraham poised to sacrifice his son Isaac) too controversial. The sculpture was accepted in 1979 by Princeton University, and currently resides there between the university chapel and library.^[37] George Segal was originally a painter, who later moved into sculpture. ... Abraham Sacrificing Isaac by Laurent de LaHire, 1650 Akedah or the Binding of Isaac (‎, Akedát Yitzhák) in Genesis 22, is narration from the Hebrew Bible, in which God asks Abraham to sacrifice his son Isaac on Mount Moriah. ... Princeton University is a private coeducational research university located in Princeton, New Jersey. ...

An earlier work of land art, Partially Buried Woodshed,^[38] was produced on the Kent State campus by Robert Smithson in January 1970.^[39] Shortly after the events, an inscription was added that recontextualized the work in such a way that it came to be associated by some with the event. The Spiral Jetty from atop Rozel Point, in mid-April 2005. ... Smithsons Spiral Jetty set in Great Salt Lake, Utah. ...

In 2004, a simple stone memorial was erected at Plainview-Old Bethpage John F. Kennedy High School in Plainview, New York, which Jeffrey Miller had attended. Plainview is a hamlet (and census-designated place) located in the town of Oyster Bay, Nassau County, New York, USA. The population was 25,637 at the 2000 census. ... Mary Ann Vecchio kneels over the body of Jeffrey Miller in this famous photo by John Filo Jeffrey Glenn Miller was a student at Kent State University, Ohio, when he was shot and killed by Ohio National Guardsmen in the Kent State shootings on May 4, 1970, while protesting the...

In 2007, a memorial was held at Kent State in honor of James Russell, who died of a heart attack.

Artistic tributes

Music

The best known response to the Kent State University events was the protest song "Ohio", written by Neil Young for Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young. The song was written, recorded, and preliminary pressings (acetates) were rushed to major radio stations. It was receiving national airplay within two-and-a-half weeks of the Kent State incident. Crosby, Stills, and Nash visited the Kent State campus for the first time on May 4, 1997, where they performed the song for the May 4 Task Force's 27th annual commemoration. The B-Side of the single release was Stephen Stills' anti-Vietnam war anthem "Find the Cost of Freedom". A protest song is a song which protests perceived problems in society. ... Ohio is a protest song performed by Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young, and written by Neil Young in reaction to the Kent State shootings of May 4, 1970. ... This article is about the musician. ... Crosby, Stills & Nash, also Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young when including occasional fourth member Neil Young, are a folk rock/rock supergroup. ... David Van Cortlandt Crosby (born August 14, 1941) is an American guitarist, singer, and songwriter. ... Stephen Stills album cover Stephen Stills is an American guitarist and singer/songwriter best known for his work with the Buffalo Springfield and Crosby, Stills, Nash and Young (at first it was Crosby, Stills and Nash; Young joined the group after their first album). ... Graham Nash on cover of his recording, Wild Tales, 1973 Graham William Nash (born February 2, 1942) is an English-born singer-songwriter known for his light tenor vocals and songwriting contributions in pop group The Hollies and folk-rock band Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young, and as a photography collector... is the 124th day of the year (125th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... For the band, see 1997 (band). ... is the 124th day of the year (125th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

There are a number of lesser known musical tributes, including the following:

• Harvey Andrews' 1970 song "Hey Sandy"^[40] was addressed to Sandra Scheuer.^lyrics
• Pete Atkin and Clive James wrote "Driving Through Mythical America", recorded by Atkin on his 1971 album of the same name, about the shootings, relating them to a series of events and images from 20th-century American history.
• Steve Miller's “Jackson-Kent Blues,”^[41] from The Steve Miller Band album Number 5 (released in November 1970), is another direct response.
• The Beach Boys released "Student Demonstration Time"^[42] in 1971 on Surf's Up. Mike Love wrote new lyrics for Leiber & Stoller’s “Riot in Cell Block Number Nine.”
• Jon Anderson has said that the lyrics of "Long Distance Runaround" (on the album Fragile by Yes, also released in 1971) are also in part about the shootings, particularly the line "hot colour melting the anger to stone."^[43]
• In 1970-71 Halim El-Dabh, a Kent State University music professor who was on campus when the shootings occurred, composed Opera Flies, a full length opera, in response to his experience. The work was first performed on the Kent State campus on May 8, 1971 and was revived for the 25th commemoration of the events in 1995.
• In 1971, the composer and pianist Bill Dobbins (who was a Kent State University graduate student at the time of the shootings), composed The Balcony, an avant-garde work for jazz band inspired by the same event. First performed in May 1971 for the university's first commemoration, it was released on LP in 1973 and was performed again by the Kent State University Jazz Ensemble in 2000 for the 30th commemoration.
• Dave Brubeck's 1971 oratorio Truth Is Fallen also has the Kent State events as its subject; the work was premiered in Midland, Michigan on May 1, 1971 and released on LP in 1972.^[44]
• The All Saved Freak Band dedicated their 1973 album My Poor Generation to “Tom Miller of the Kent State 25.” Tom Miller was a member of the band who had been featured in Life magazine as part of the Kent State protests and lost his life the next year in an automobile accident.
• Holly Near's “It Could Have Been Me,” her personal response to the shootings, was released on A Live Album (1974).
• The industrial band Skinny Puppy's 1989 song "Tin Omen", which appears on the albums Rabies refers to the event (The song is also on the live Doomsday: Back and Forth Series 5: Live in Dresden.)
• The band Polaris's song Hey Sandy, which was the theme song to the Nickelodeon series The Adventures of Pete & Pete, references the shootings and Sandra Scheuer (being the titular "Sandy" of the song).
• Lamb of God's 2000 song "O.D.H.G.A.B.F.E." references Kent State, together with the Auschwitz concentration camp, the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, the 1968 Democratic National Convention and the Waco siege.
• A commemorative 2-CD compilation featuring music and interviews was released by the May 4 Task Force in May 2005, in commemoration of the 35th anniversary of the shootings.^[45]
• Joe Walsh, who briefly attended Kent State, has said that he wrote "Turn to Stone" in response to the shootings.^{[citation needed]}. He also mentions the event in the song "Decades" (1992).
• Lodi, New Jersey-based horror punk band Mourning Noise mentions this event in their song "Radical" recorded live for their album "Death Trip Delivery".
• One of the students who participated in the protest was Chrissie Hynde, future leader of The Pretenders, who was a sophomore at the time.^[46]
• Mark Mothersbaugh and Gerald Casale, founding members of Devo, also attended Kent State at the time of the shootings. Casale was reportedly "standing about 15 feet away" from Allison Krause when she was shot, and was friends with her and another one of the students who was killed. The shootings were the transformative moment for the band, which became less of a pure joke and more a vehicle for social critique (albeit with a blackly humorous bent).^[47]

• Sage Francis references the Kent State shootings in his song “Slow Down Gandhi.”
• Gwar mentions the Kent State Shootings in their song "Slaughterama."

Harvey Andrews (2005) Harvey Andrews (born Harvey John Andrews, May 7, 1943 in Birmingham) is a British folk music singer, songwriter, and poet. ... Sandra Lee Scheuer (pronounced SHAW-yer) (b. ... This article needs cleanup. ... Clive James AM (born October 7, 1939 in Kogarah, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia) is an expatriate Australian writer, poet, essayist, critic, and commentator on popular culture. ... Steve Miller (born October 5, 1943 in Milwaukee, Wisconsin) is an American blues and rock and roll guitarist and performer. ... Steve Miller is a blues and rock and roll guitarist and performer. ... Number 5 is the fifth album by American rock band The Steve Miller Band, released in 1970. ... The Beach Boys are an American rock and roll band. ... Student Demonstration Time is a song which was recorded by the Beach Boys. ... Surfs Up is the twenty-second official album by The Beach Boys and was released in 1971. ... This article is about The Beach Boys band member. ... Mike Stoller, Elvis Presley, Jerry Leiber Jerry Leiber (born April 25, 1933) and Mike Stoller (born March 13, 1933) are among the most important songwriters and music producers in post-World War II popular music. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Fragile is the fourth album by British progressive rock band Yes. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Halim El-Dabh (b. ... For other uses, see Opera (disambiguation). ... is the 128th day of the year (129th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1971 (MCMLXXI) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display full calendar) of the 1971 Gregorian calendar, known as the year of cyclohexanol. ... A jazz band (or jazz ensemble in western dialects of American English) is a musical ensemble that plays jazz music. ... David Warren Brubeck (born December 6, 1920 in Concord, California[1]), better known as Dave Brubeck, is a U.S. jazz pianist. ... Midland is a city in the U.S. state of Michigan in the Northern Lower Peninsula. ... is the 121st day of the year (122nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1971 (MCMLXXI) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display full calendar) of the 1971 Gregorian calendar, known as the year of cyclohexanol. ... My Poor Generation All Saved Freak Band, 1973 The All Saved Freak Band was an early Christian rock band formed in 1968. ... Philippe Halsmans famous portrait of Marilyn Monroe Life generally refers to two American magazines: A humor and general interest magazine published from 1883 to 1936; A publication created by Time founder Henry Luce in 1936, with a strong emphasis on photojournalism. ... Holly Near (born June 6th, 1949 in Ukiah, CA) is an American singer/songwriter, teacher and activist. ... Skinny Puppy is a prominent industrial band, formed in Vancouver, BC, Canada in 1982. ... Tin Omen is a single by the band Skinny Puppy, taken from their 1989 album Rabies. ... Polaris was a one-off musical project in the mid-1990s involving members of the Connecticut indie rock band Miracle Legion. ... Hey Sandy is a song by the indie rock band Polaris which serves as the theme song for the Nickelodeon television show The Adventures of Pete & Pete. ... This article is about the TV channel. ... The Adventures of Pete & Pete was a U.S. television series produced and broadcast by the Nickelodeon cable channel. ... Sandra Lee Scheuer (pronounced SHAW-yer) (b. ... Lamb of God is a Grammy-nominated five-piece metal band from Richmond, Virginia, formerly known as Burn the Priest. ... Auschwitz (Konzentrationslager Auschwitz) was the largest of the Nazi German concentration camps. ... The Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, commonly referred to as the Tiananmen Square Massacre,[1] were a series of demonstrations led by students, intellectuals, and labor activists in the Peoples Republic of China (PRC) between April 15 and June 4, 1989. ... The 1968 National Convention of the U.S. Democratic Party was held at International Amphitheatre in Chicago, Illinois, from August 26 to August 29, 1968, for the purposes of choosing the Democratic nominee for the 1968 U.S. presidential election. ... Combatants ATF, FBI, U.S. Army Branch Davidians Commanders Assault: Phil Chojnacki Siege: Many David Koresh† Strength Assault: 75 ATF agents Siege: Hundreds of federal agents and soldiers 50+ men, 75+ women and children Casualties 4 dead, 21 wounded in assault 6 dead and 3+ wounded in assault, 79 dead... For other persons named Joe Walsh, see Joe Walsh (disambiguation). ... Lodi is a borough in Bergen County, New Jersey, United States. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Mourning Noise is an American hardcore punk act hailing from Lodi, New Jersey. ... Chrissie Hynde (born Christine Ellen Hynde, 7 September 1951, Akron, Ohio) is an American rock musician, best known as the leader of the band The Pretenders. ... The Pretenders are an Anglo-American rock band. ... Mark Mothersbaugh (born May 18, 1950, in Akron, Ohio) is an American musician, composer, singer, and painter. ... Gerald Casale: Pre Getting Laid Gerald Casale: Post Getting Laid Gerald Casale returns from the veterinarian Gerald Casale (born July 28, 1948) is the Bass Guitar/Synth Player, a vocalist, and one of the founding members (along with Mark Mothersbaugh and Bob Lewis) of the new wave band Devo. ... Devo (pronounced DEE-vo or dee-VO, often spelled DEVO or DEV-O) is an American New Wave group formed in Akron, Ohio in 1972. ... Black comedy, also known as black humor, is a subgenre of comedy and satire that deals with serious subjects – death, divorce, drug abuse, et cetera in a humorous manner. ... Paul Sage Francis (born November, 1976 in Miami, Florida) is a hip-hop artist based in Providence, Rhode Island. ... GWAR is a satirical thrash metal and shock rock band formed in 1985. ...

Literature

Prose

• Harlan Ellison's 1971 story collection Alone Against Tomorrow is dedicated to the four students who were killed.

Harlan Jay Ellison (born May 27, 1934) is a prolific American writer of short stories, novellas, teleplays, essays, and criticism. ... A collection of short stories published in 1971, Alone Against Tomorrow includes some of Harlan Ellisons most famous work. ...

Poetry

• The incident is mentioned in Allen Ginsberg's 1975 poem Hadda be Playin' on a Jukebox

• The poem "Bullets and Flowers" by Yevgeny Yevtushenko is dedicated to Allison Krause.^[48] Krause had participated in the previous days' protest during which she reportedly put a flower in the barrel of a Guardsman’s rifle, ^[48] as had been done at a war protest at the Pentagon in October 1967, and reportedly saying, "Flowers are better than bullets."

Irwin Allen Ginsberg (IPA: ) (June 3, 1926 – April 5, 1997) was an American poet. ... Hadda be Playin on a Jukebox is a poem written by Allen Ginsberg in 1975. ... Yevgeny Aleksandrovich Yevtushenko (Russian: ) (born July 18, 1933) is a Russian poet. ... This article is about the United States military building. ...

Plays

• 1977 - Kent State: A Requiem by J. Gregory Payne. First performed in 1976. Told from the perspective of Bill Schoeder's mother, Florence, this play has been performed at over 150 college campuses in the U.S. and Europe in tours in the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s; it was last performed at Emerson College in 2007. It is also the basis of NBC's award-winning 1981 docudrama Kent State.
• 1995 - Nightwalking. Voices From Kent State by Sandra Perlman, Kent, Franklin Mills Press, first presented in Chicago April 20, 1995 (Director: Jenifer (Gwenne) Weber)

is the 110th day of the year (111th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1995 (MCMXCV) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display full 1995 Gregorian calendar). ...

Multimedia

• In her 1996 multimedia work Partially Buried, visual artist Renée Green explores the history of the shootings within a wider historical and cultural context.

Films

Documentary

• 1970 - Confrontation at Kent State (director Richard Myers) - documentary filmed in Kent, Ohio directly following the shootings by a Kent State University filmmaker.
• 1971 - Allison (director Richard Myers) - a tribute to Allison Krause
• 1979 - George Segal (director Michael Blackwood) - documentary about American sculptor George Segal; Segal discusses and is shown creating his bronze sculpture Abraham and Isaac, which was originally intended as a memorial for the Kent State University campus.
• 2000 - Kent State: The Day the War Came Home (director Chris Triffo) - documentary featuring interviews with injured students, eyewitnesses, guardsmen, and relatives of students killed at Kent State.
• 2007 - 4 Tote in Ohio: Ein Amerikanisches Trauma ("4 dead in Ohio: an American trauma")

(directors Klaus Bredenbrock and Pagonis Pagonakis) - documentary featuring interviews with injured students, eyewitnesses and a German journalist who was a US correspondent. Richard Myers (or Richard L. Myers) is an American experimental filmmaker based in northeast Ohio. ... This article is about the student. ... George Segal was originally a painter, who later moved into sculpture. ...

Drama

• 1981 - Kent State (director James Goldstone) - television docudrama
• 2002 - The Year That Trembled (director Jay Craven)

// Docudramas tend to demonstrate some or most of the following characteristics: A strict focus on the facts of the event being treated, as they are known; A tendency to avoid overt commentary or authorial editorializing; The use of literary and narrative techniques to flesh out or render story-like the...

See also

• Tent City, Kent State University
• Orangeburg massacre
• Jackson State killings

The term tent city covers a wide variety of usually temporary housing made of tents. ... Pre-dating the Kent State shootings and Jackson State killings, the Orangeburg massacre was marked by the killing of three students by local policemen who fired into a crowd of people who were protesting segregation in 1968 at a bowling alley in Orangeburg, South Carolina. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ...

Notes and references

The Online Computer Library Center (OCLC) was founded in 1967 and originally named the Ohio College Library Center. ... Year 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 124th day of the year (125th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 313th day of the year (314th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 124th day of the year (125th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 313th day of the year (314th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2000 (MM) was a leap year starting on Saturday (link will display full 2000 Gregorian calendar). ... is the 124th day of the year (125th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 313th day of the year (314th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 106th day of the year (107th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 106th day of the year (107th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 106th day of the year (107th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 106th day of the year (107th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 106th day of the year (107th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... ISSN, or International Standard Serial Number, is the unique eight-digit number applied to a periodical publication including electronic serials. ... The Online Computer Library Center (OCLC) was founded in 1967 and originally named the Ohio College Library Center. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 106th day of the year (107th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) is the current year, a leap year that started on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (or common era), in accordance to the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 51st day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 122nd day of the year (123rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) is the current year, a leap year that started on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (or common era), in accordance to the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 51st day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... The Akron Beacon Journal is a morning newspaper located in Akron, Ohio. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 122nd day of the year (123rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 129th day of the year (130th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 128th day of the year (129th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 129th day of the year (130th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 106th day of the year (107th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 46th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... New York University (NYU) is a private, nonsectarian, coeducational research university in New York City. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 121st day of the year (122nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 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Further reading

• Weissman, Norman. (2008). Snapshots USA, Connecticut: Hammonasset House Books. ISBN 0-980-18941-1.
• Bills, Scott. (1988). Kent State/May 4: Echoes Through a Decade. Kent, OH: Kent State University Press. ISBN 0-873-38278-1.
• Caputo, Philip. (2005). 13 Seconds: A Look Back at the Kent State Shootings. New York: Chamberlain Bros. ISBN 1-596-09080-4.
• Davies, Peter and the Board of Church and Society of the United Methodist Church. (1973). The Truth About Kent State: A Challenge to the American Conscience. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux. ISBN 0-374-27938-1.
• Eszterhas, Joe, and Michael D. Roberts (1970). Thirteen Seconds: Confrontation at Kent State. New York: Dodd, Mead. ISBN 0-396-06272-5.
• Gordon, William A. (1990). The Fourth of May: Killings and Coverups at Kent State. Buffalo, NY: Prometheus Books. ISBN 0-879-75582-2. Updated and reprinted in 1995 as Four Dead in Ohio: Was There a Conspiracy at Kent State? Laguna Hills, CA: North Ridge Books. ISBN 0-937-81305-2.
• Langguth, A. J. (Jack). (1997). Our Vietnam: The War 1954-1975. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-743-21231-2.
• Listman, John W. Jr. "Kent's Other Casualties", National Guard magazine, May 2000.
• Michener, James. (1971). Kent State: What Happened and Why. New York: Random House and Reader's Digest Books. ISBN 0-394-47199-7.
• Payne, J. Gregory (1981). Mayday: Kent State. Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt Pub. Co. ISBN 0-840-32393-X.
• Renner, James. "The Kent State Conspiracies: What Really Happened On May 4, 1970?", Cleveland Free Times, vol 13, issue 3 May 2006.
• Report of the President's Commission on Campus Unrest ("Scranton Commission"). (1970) Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. ISBN 0-405-01712-X.
• Stone, I. F. (1970). The Killings at Kent State; How Murder Went Unpunished. New York: Vintage Books. ISBN 0-394-70953-5.
• Stone, I. F. "Fabricated Evidence in the Kent State Killings", The New York Review of Books, Volume 15, Number 10, 3 December 1970.

is the 337th day of the year (338th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1970 (MCMLXX) was a common year starting on Thursday (link shows full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ...

External links

• "Kent State University investigation".  1146 pages.
• Kent State University, Department of Special Collections & Archives: May 4 Collection
• Kent State University, May 4 Task Force home page
• May 4 Shootings at Kent State University: The Search for Historical Accuracy
• May4Archive.org (maintained by Kent State historian Dr. J. Gregory Payne)
• Tom Grace eyewitness account
• Eyewitness: Howard Ruffner
• Repository of Oral Histories of the Kent State Shootings
• Kent State shooting scrapbook
• Links, photos, comic strips, music and eyewitness reports about the shootings at Kent State.
• AlanCanfora.com - personal website of one of the survivors; historical information, photographs, & commentary.
• Kent State Remembered - A collection of articles regarding the Kent State Protest.
• Annotated bibliography focusing on the legal aftermath
• Mike and Kendra's Kent State, May 4 1970 web site - Detailing the commemoration process and related controversies and providing sources for research.
• When the Gun Smokes and the Press Doesn't Smell It: Media Silence on Kent State Revelations, by Bob Fitrakis and Harvey Wasserman

Audio

• "Remembering Kent State, 1970" (audio documentary)
• "Sound Montage On Kent State", Morning Edition, NPR, 5/4/2000 (sound montage from NPR)

NPR logo For other meanings of NPR see NPR (disambiguation) National Public Radio (NPR) is a private, not-for-profit corporation that sells programming to member radio stations; together they are a loosely organized public radio network in the United States. ...

Video

• Dean Kahler, recorded in 2000 by WAOH

• Kent State shootings is at coordinates 41°09′01″N 81°20′36″W / 41.150181, -81.343383 (Kent State shootings)Coordinates: 41°09′01″N 81°20′36″W / 41.150181, -81.343383 (Kent State shootings)