LMLK seals were stamped on the handles of large storage jars in and around Jerusalem during the reign of King Hezekiah (circa 700 BC) based on several complete jars found in situ buried under a destruction layer caused by Sennacherib at Lachish. Jerusalem (31°46′ N 35°14′ E; Hebrew: יְרוּשָׁלַיִם Yerushalayim; Arabic: القدس al-Quds; see also names of Jerusalem) is the capital of Israel and an ancient Middle Eastern city of key importance to the religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. ... Hezekiah (which means whom God has strengthened) was king of Judah, the son of Ahaz (2 Kings 18:1; 2 Chronicles 29:1). ... Sennacherib in his chariot Sennacherib (In akkadian Sin-ehhe-erib, Sin (the moon god) has taken the place of brothers to me) was the king of the Assyrian Empire (705–681 BC). ... Lachish was a town located in the Shephelah, or maritime plain of Palestine (Joshua 10:3, 5; 12:11). ...

LMLK stamp; Redondo Beach collection #22

None of the original seals have been found, but about 2,000 impressions (also referred to as stamps) made by at least 21 seal types have been published. Photos of more than 600 stamps on broken handles are viewable on the LMLK Research website. Image File history File links LMLK seal impression; type H2D; Redondo Beach collection #22; photographed Feb-21-2003 Funhistory 02:54, 6 Feb 2005 (UTC) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Image File history File links LMLK seal impression; type H2D; Redondo Beach collection #22; photographed Feb-21-2003 Funhistory 02:54, 6 Feb 2005 (UTC) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ...

למלך

LMLK stands for the Hebrew letters Lamed Mem Lamed Kaf (L' Melech), which can be translated from Hebrew as:

• "belonging to the king" (of Judah)
• "belonging to King" (name of a person or deity)
• "belonging to the government" (of Judah)
• "to be sent to the King"

In each of the above readings, the prefix L' could be read as "to (belonging to or towards)", "for" or "of". The word Melech is translated "king", but can refer to a specific king, to any king, or to the king's government.

Theories

Beginning with the editio princeps by Charles Warren in 1870, a diverse assortment of theories has been promulgated to explain their function (Grena, 2004). Since the landmark excavations at Lachish by David Ussishkin during the 1970s (Ussishkin, 2004), the number of feasible explanations has narrowed down to these: General Sir Charles Warren, G.C.M.G., K.C.B., F.R.S. (1840–1927) was a British soldier and police commissioner. ... Lachish was a town located in the Shephelah, or maritime plain of Palestine (Joshua 10:3, 5; 12:11). ...

• Military rations collected as an emergency during a short period (several months to a few years at most) preceding the Assyrian invasion by Sennacherib

• Government taxes collected throughout the majority of Hezekiah's reign (either 14 or 26 years depending on chronological interpretations) as a long-term economic buildup until the Assyrian invasion by Sennacherib

• Religious tithes collected throughout Hezekiah's 29-year reign in response to his worship reformation following his accession (completely irrespective of the Assyrian invasion by Sennacherib)

NOTE: Hezekiah (which means "whom God has strengthened") was king of Judah, the son of Ahaz (2 Kings 18:1; 2 Chronicles 29:1). He reigned twenty-nine years (2 Kings 18:2). Albright has dated his reign to 715 - 687 BC, while Thiele offers the dates 716 - 687 BC. Assyria in earliest historical times referred to a region on the Upper Tigris river, named for its original capital, the city of Asshur (or Ashshur). ... Sennacherib in his chariot Sennacherib (In akkadian Sin-ehhe-erib, Sin (the moon god) has taken the place of brothers to me) was the king of the Assyrian Empire (705–681 BC). ... Hezekiah (which means whom God has strengthened) was king of Judah, the son of Ahaz (2 Kings 18:1; 2 Chronicles 29:1). ... Assyria in earliest historical times referred to a region on the Upper Tigris river, named for its original capital, the city of Asshur (or Ashshur). ... Sennacherib in his chariot Sennacherib (In akkadian Sin-ehhe-erib, Sin (the moon god) has taken the place of brothers to me) was the king of the Assyrian Empire (705–681 BC). ... A tithe (from Old English teogotha tenth) is a one-tenth part of something, paid as a voluntary contribution or as a tax or levy, usually to support a religious organization. ... Hezekiah (which means whom God has strengthened) was king of Judah, the son of Ahaz (2 Kings 18:1; 2 Chronicles 29:1). ... Assyria in earliest historical times referred to a region on the Upper Tigris river, named for its original capital, the city of Asshur (or Ashshur). ... Sennacherib in his chariot Sennacherib (In akkadian Sin-ehhe-erib, Sin (the moon god) has taken the place of brothers to me) was the king of the Assyrian Empire (705–681 BC). ...

In support of the first two theories are the inscriptions, which can be read as the names of four places; in support of the third theory are the geographic statistics, which do not associate any of the four words to a particular place or region other than the entire southern kingdom of Judah. Furthermore, approximately 10 - 20 percent of the excavated jars and jar handles were stamped (Grena, 2004, p. 377). Judah (יְהוּדָה Praise, Standard Hebrew Yəhuda, Tiberian Hebrew Yəhûḏāh) is the name of several Biblical and historical figures. ...

Depending on which of the above theories are preferred, several other aspects of the operation need interpretation:

• The people who performed the stamping were either government officials working directly for King Hezekiah or Levites and/or priests associated with Solomon's Temple in Jerusalem.

• The icons symbolize either royal stature or a religious nature (Deuteronomy 32:11-12, Ruth 2:12, Psalms 36:7, 57:1, 61:4, 91:4, and Malachi 4:2).
  • The 2-winged icon represents either the sun as a god, or God as a light.
  • The 4-winged icon represents a dung-beetle (scarab), a symbol popularized in Egypt associated with resurrection/rebirth as well as royal authority.

• The super-inscription, LMLK, denotes the Judean government or a specific, divine being (see Moloch, but also consider its application to the Israelite YHWH as in Psalms 10:16, Isaiah 6:5, and Zechariah 14:9)

• The sub-inscriptions (Hebron, MMST, Socoh, and Ziph) record either 4 places or 4 votive statements.

Hezekiah (which means whom God has strengthened) was king of Judah, the son of Ahaz (2 Kings 18:1; 2 Chronicles 29:1). ... In the Jewish tradition, a Levite (לוי Attached, Standard Hebrew Levi, Tiberian Hebrew Lēwî) is a member of the Hebrew tribe of Levi. ... Solomon (Hebrew, Shlomo from Shalom for peace, also Arabic as Suleiman or Sulyaman meaning peace) can mean any of the following: 1. ... The Temple in Jerusalem or the Holy Temple (Beit HaMikdash בית המקדש in Hebrew) was built in ancient Jerusalem and was the center of Israelite and Jewish worship, primarily for the offering of sacrifices known as the korbanot. ... Deuteronomy is the fifth book of the Hebrew Bible. ... The Book of Ruth is a book in the Hebrew Bible known to Jews as the Tanakh and to Christians as the Old Testament. ... Psalms (Tehilim תהילים, in Hebrew) is a book of the Hebrew Bible or Tanakh, and of the Old Testament of the Christian Bible. ... Malachi or Malachi (מַלְאָכִי My messenger/angel, Standard Hebrew Malʾaḫi, Tiberian Hebrew Malʾāḵî) was a prophet in the Bible Old Testament and Jewish Tanakh. ... The term God is used to designate a Supreme Being; however, there are other definitions of God. ... Genera not a complete list Agestrata Augosoma Canthon Chalcosoma Chelorrhina Cheirolasia Cheirotonus Cotinis Dynastes Eudicella Goliathus Megsoma Onthophagus Pachnoda Phanaeus Plusiotis Ranzania Rhomborrhina Stephanorrhina Xylotrupes The scarab is a type of beetle noted for rolling dung into spherical balls and pushing it, as well as its habit of laying its... This article is about the religious meaning of the word Resurrection. For other meanings see Resurrection (disambiguation). ... Moloch or Molech or Molekh representing Hebrew מלך mlk is either the name of a god or the name of a particular kind of sacrifice associated historically with Phoenician and related cultures in north Africa and the Levant. ... The Tetragrammaton in Phoenician (1100 BC to 300 CE), Aramaic (10th Century BC to 0) and modern Hebrew scripts. ... Psalms (Tehilim תהילים, in Hebrew) is a book of the Hebrew Bible or Tanakh, and of the Old Testament of the Christian Bible. ... Isaiah the Prophet in Hebrew Scriptures was depicted on the Sistine Chapel ceiling by Michelangelo. ... Zechariah or Zecharya (זְכַרְיָה Renowned/Remembered of/is the LORD, Standard Hebrew Zəḫarya, Tiberian Hebrew Zəḵaryāh) was a person in the Bible Old Testament and Jewish Tanakh. ... A recent view of the old city of Hebron Hebron (Arabic الخليل al-ḪalÄ«l; Hebrew חֶבְרוֹן, Standard Hebrew Ḥevron, Tiberian Hebrew Ḥeḇrôn: derived from the word friend) is a town in the West Bank, in an area known in Israel as Judea. ... MMST (Hebrew Mem, Mem, Shin, Tau) appears exclusively on LMLK seal inscriptions, and its meaning has been the subject of continual controversy. ... Ziph In the Bible: A son of Jehaleleel (1 Chronicles 4:16). ...

Drawings

Types of LMLK seals:

H2T

M2T

S2DR

Z2T

G2T

Image File history File links LMLK seal type H2T drawn Jan-3-2005 Funhistory 01:03, 6 Feb 2005 (UTC) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Image File history File links LMLK seal type M2T drawn Jan-3-2005 Funhistory 01:09, 6 Feb 2005 (UTC) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Image File history File links LMLK seal type S2DR drawn Jan-3-2005 Funhistory 01:14, 6 Feb 2005 (UTC) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Image File history File links LMLK seal type Z2T drawn Jan-3-2005 Funhistory 01:18, 6 Feb 2005 (UTC) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Image File history File links LMLK seal type G2T drawn Jan-3-2005 Funhistory 00:59, 6 Feb 2005 (UTC) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ...

H2D

M2D

S2DW

Z2D

Image File history File links LMLK seal type H2D drawn Jan-3-2005 Funhistory 01:01, 6 Feb 2005 (UTC) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Image File history File links LMLK seal type M2D drawn Jan-3-2005 Funhistory 01:08, 6 Feb 2005 (UTC) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Image File history File links LMLK seal type S2DW drawn Jan-3-2005 Funhistory 01:15, 6 Feb 2005 (UTC) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Image File history File links LMLK seal type Z2D drawn Jan-3-2005 Funhistory 01:17, 6 Feb 2005 (UTC) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ...

H2U

M2U

S2U

Z2U

Image File history File links LMLK seal type H2U drawn Jan-3-2005 Funhistory 01:04, 6 Feb 2005 (UTC) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Image File history File links LMLK seal type M2U drawn Jan-3-2005 Funhistory 01:11, 6 Feb 2005 (UTC) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Image File history File links LMLK seal type S2U drawn Jan-3-2005 Funhistory 01:15, 6 Feb 2005 (UTC) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Image File history File links LMLK seal type Z2U drawn Jan-3-2005 Funhistory 01:19, 6 Feb 2005 (UTC) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ...

H4L

M4L

S4L

Z4L

Image File history File links LMLK seal type H4L drawn Jan-3-2005 Funhistory 01:07, 6 Feb 2005 (UTC) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Image File history File links LMLK seal type M4L drawn Jan-3-2005 Funhistory 01:13, 6 Feb 2005 (UTC) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Image File history File links LMLK seal type S4L drawn Jan-3-2005 Funhistory 01:16, 6 Feb 2005 (UTC) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Image File history File links LMLK seal type Z4L drawn Jan-3-2005 Funhistory 01:21, 6 Feb 2005 (UTC) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ...

H4C

M4C

Z4CI

Z4CY

Image File history File links LMLK seal type H4C drawn Jan-3-2005 Funhistory 01:05, 6 Feb 2005 (UTC) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Image File history File links LMLK seal type M4C drawn Jan-3-2005 Funhistory 01:12, 6 Feb 2005 (UTC) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Image File history File links LMLK seal type Z4CI drawn Jan-3-2005 Funhistory 01:20, 6 Feb 2005 (UTC) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Image File history File links LMLK seal type Z4CY drawn Jan-3-2005 Funhistory 01:21, 6 Feb 2005 (UTC) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ...

Notice that the engraving styles indicate at least two, possibly five, people made the seals. The 21 types can be grouped together in five or six sets, but they may have been created or utilized in pairs based on quantities of their impressions found so far (Grena, 2004, p. 349) and internal evidence such as inconsistent use of divider dots.

Researchers frequently use a lowercase "x" as a wildcard character when referring to a series such as x4C instead of using an uppercase "G", "H", "M", "S", or "Z" for the first letter designator. Likewise, an "x" can be used for the second letter designator when referring to all seals with the same word, such as H2x in lieu of H2D, H2T, and H2U. The term wildcard character has the following meanings: Telecommunication In telecommunications, a wildcard character is a character that may be substituted for any of a defined subset of all possible characters. ...

Thus far, significant quantities of x4C, x4L, and x2U stamps have been excavated from below the destruction layer caused by the Assyrian conquest of Sennacherib, but only a single specimen each of the G2T and M2D stamps (excavated from Jerusalem, which was not destroyed by Sennacherib). This suggests that 12 of the 21 seals were made prior to the attack, and the remaining 9 afterwards. The first significant evidence to support this datum came from the landmark excavations at Timnah led by George L. Kelm and Amihai Mazar (Mazar and Panitz-Cohen, 2001). Assyria in earliest historical times referred to a region on the Upper Tigris river, named for its original capital, the city of Asshur (or Ashshur). ... Sennacherib in his chariot Sennacherib (In akkadian Sin-ehhe-erib, Sin (the moon god) has taken the place of brothers to me) was the king of the Assyrian Empire (705–681 BC). ... Jerusalem (31°46′ N 35°14′ E; Hebrew: יְרוּשָׁלַיִם Yerushalayim; Arabic: القدس al-Quds; see also names of Jerusalem) is the capital of Israel and an ancient Middle Eastern city of key importance to the religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. ... Sennacherib in his chariot Sennacherib (In akkadian Sin-ehhe-erib, Sin (the moon god) has taken the place of brothers to me) was the king of the Assyrian Empire (705–681 BC). ... Amihai Ami Mazar (born 1942) is an Israeli archaeologist. ...

Personal seals

Several hundred seal impressions made on the same type of jar handle have been found in the same contexts as the LMLK stamps. Over 50 types have been documented, and most of them have a 2-line inscription divided by two somewhat parallel lines. Some have an icon in addition to the inscription; others are strictly anepigraphic (Vaughn 1999).

Incisions

In addition to the seals, which were stamped in the wet clay before being fired in a kiln, certain other marks were incised on these jar handles: Charcoal Kilns, California A kiln is an oven that is used for hardening, burning, or drying anything. ...

• Concentric circles (usually two--sometimes only one; sometimes applied to unstamped handles but it is uncertain whether they were ever incised on unstamped jars)

• Plus marks (resembling "+" or "t" or "X")

• Hole marks (resembling the central anchor dot of the concentric circles)

• Drag marks (probably attempts to cancel or obliterate the LMLK stamp)

Hundreds of the Circles have been found, but only a few of the Plus, Hole, and Drag marks. Several LMLK stamps may have had additional inscriptions incised over them containing marks resembling the letters "I V" (hence "Ivy incisions"); however, one or more of these handles may just contain stray Drag marks resembling the letters "I V" with no literate semantics intended.

References

• Grena, G.M. (2004). LMLK--A Mystery Belonging to the King vol. 1. Redondo Beach, California: 4000 Years of Writing History. ISBN 0-9748786-0-X.

• Mazar, Amihai, and Panitz-Cohen, Nava, (eds.) (2001). Timnah (Tel Batash) II, the Finds from the First Millennium BCE, Text. Qedem 42, Monographs of the Institute of Archaeology. Jerusalem, Israel: The Hebrew University. ASIN B0006E90Z6.

• Ussishkin, David (2004). The Renewed Archaeological Excavations at Lachish (1973 – 1994) Volumes 1 and 4. Tel Aviv, Israel: Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University. ISBN 965-5-266-017.

• Vaughn, Andrew G. (1999). Theology, History, and Archaeology in the Chronicler's Account of Hezekiah. Scholars Press; Atlanta, Georgia. ISBN 0-7885-0594-7.

• Warren, Charles (1870). "Phoenician inscription on jar handles". Palestine Exploration Quarterly 2 (September 30): 372.

See also

• Biblical archaeology
• Hebrew alphabet
• Phoenician alphabet