A leap second is an intercalary, one-second adjustment that keeps broadcast standards for time of day close to mean solar time. Leap seconds are used to keep time standards synchronized with civil calendars, the basis of which is astronomical. Intercalation is the insertion of an extra day, week or month into some calendar years to make the calendar follow the seasons. ... Look up second in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Solar time is based on the idea that when the sun reaches its highest point in the sky, it is noon. ... A page from the Hindu calendar 1871-72. ...

Broadcast standards for civil time are based on Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), a time standard which is maintained using extremely precise atomic clocks. In order to keep the UTC broadcast standard close to mean solar time, UTC is occasionally corrected by an intercalary adjustment, or "leap", of one (1) second. Over long time periods, leap seconds must be added at an ever increasing rate which corresponds to a parabola near 31 s/century² (see ΔT). June 30 is the 181st day of the year (182nd in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 184 days remaining. ... December 31 is the 365th day of the year (366th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. ... Civil time is another name for mean solar time reckoned from midnight. ... Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) is a high-precision atomic time standard. ... A time scale specifies divisions of time. ... Atomic clock Chip-Scale Atomic Clock Unveiled by NIST An atomic clock is a type of clock that uses an atomic resonance frequency standard as its counter. ... A parabola The parabola (from the Greek: παραβολή) is a conic section generated by the intersection of a right circular conical surface and a plane parallel to a generating straight line of that surface. ... Delta T and delta-T are ASCII substitutes for the formal ΔT, which is Terrestrial Time minus Universal Time. ...

Although a leap second is "added" at midnight, its effect actually slows down the atomic clock by one second relative to the time it would register if it did not have a leap second added, since a leap second represents an extra second that must be counted before the new day can begin.

Reason for leap seconds

Leap seconds are necessary because time is measured utilizing stable atomic clocks (TAI or International Atomic Time), whereas the rotation of the Earth has been slowing down. Traditionally, the second has been defined as 1/86400 of a mean solar day (see solar time). This is determined by the rotation of the Earth around its axis and its orbit around the Sun; time was measured by astronomical observations. However, the solar day has gradually become 1.7 ms longer every century, due mainly to the tidal acceleration of the Moon. The SI second that is counted by atomic time standards has been defined in such a way that its length matched the nominal second of 1/86400 of a mean solar day between 1750 and 1892. Since that time the length of the solar day has been slowly increasing. Therefore the time as measured by the rotation of the Earth has been accumulating a delay with respect to atomic time standards. From 1961 to 1971 the rate of atomic clocks was constantly slowed down in order to stay in sync with the rotation of the Earth (before 1961, broadcast time was synchronized to astronomically determined Greenwich Mean Time). From 1972 onwards, broadcast seconds have been exactly equal to the length of the SI second chosen in 1967 as a certain number of atomic vibrations. UTC is counted by atomic clocks, but is kept approximately in sync with UT1 (mean solar time) by introducing a leap second whenever necessary. This happens when the difference UT1−UTC is approaching 0.9 seconds, and is scheduled either between 30 June and 1 July of a year, or between 31 December of the current and 1 January of the next year. On January 1, 1972, the initial offset of UTC from TAI was chosen to be 10 seconds, which approximated the total difference which had accumulated between UT1 and TAI since 1958, when TAI was defined equal to UT1 (GMT). The table above shows the number of leap seconds added since then. The total difference between TAI and UTC is 10 seconds more than the total number of leap seconds. International Atomic Time (TAI, from the French name Temps Atomique International) is a high-precision atomic time standard that tracks proper time on Earths geoid. ... Earth (IPA: , often referred to as the Earth, Terra, the World or Planet Earth) is the third planet in the solar system in terms of distance from the Sun, and the fifth largest. ... Solar time is based on the idea that when the sun reaches its highest point in the sky, it is noon. ... A sphere rotating around its axis. ... Two bodies with a slight difference in mass orbiting around a common barycenter. ... It has been suggested that Tidal friction be merged into this article or section. ... Adjective lunar Bulk silicate composition (estimated wt%) SiO2 44. ... Cover of brochure The International System of Units. ... Look up second in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Coordinated Universal Time. ... ... Universal Time (UT) is a timescale based on the rotation of the Earth. ... June 30 is the 181st day of the year (182nd in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 184 days remaining. ... July 1 is the 182nd day of the year (183rd in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 183 days remaining. ... December 31 is the 365th day of the year (366th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. ... January 1 is the first day of the calendar year in both the Julian and Gregorian calendars. ... January 1 is the first day of the calendar year in both the Julian and Gregorian calendars. ... 1972 (MCMLXXII) was a leap year starting on Saturday. ...

Graph showing the difference between UT1 and UTC. Vertical segments correspond to leap seconds.

Take care not to confuse the difference between the length of the mean solar day and the SI day, with the leap second adjustment (which is approximately 0.7 seconds per year). This erroneous line of reasoning confuses velocity with travelled distance (in time). The correct reason for leap seconds is not the difference, but rather, the sum of the difference between the length of the SI day and the mean solar day (currently about 0.002 seconds), over a given period of time. Note that the actual rotational period varies on unpredictable factors such as tectonic motion and has to be observed rather than computed. Image File history File links Leapsecond. ... Image File history File links Leapsecond. ... Bridge across the Álfagjá rift valley in southwest Iceland, the boundary of the Eurasian and North American continental tectonic plates. ...

For example, assume you start counting the seconds from the Unix epoch of 12:00:00AM on January 1, 1970 with an atomic clock. At midnight on that day (as measured on UTC), your counter registers 0 seconds. After Earth has made one full rotation with respect to the mean Sun, your counter will register 86400.002 (once again, the precise value will vary) seconds. Based on your counter, you can calculate that the date is 12:00:00AM on January 2, 1970 UT1. After exactly 500 rotations, your counter will register 43,200,001 seconds. Since 86400 × 500 is 43,200,000 seconds, you will calculate that the date is 12:00:01AM on May 16, 1971 (exactly 500 days after January 1, 1970) as measured in atomic time (UTC), while it is only 12:00:00AM on May 16, 1971 in solar time (UT1). If you had added a leap second on December 31, 1970 to your counter, then the counter would have a value of 43,200,000 seconds at midnight on May 16, 1971 and allow you to calculate the correct date. The actual system involving leap seconds was set up to allow TAI and UT1 to have an offset of 0 seconds on January 1, 1958. Unix time, or POSIX time, is a system for describing points in time. ... January 1 is the first day of the calendar year in both the Julian and Gregorian calendars. ... 1970 (MCMLXX) was a common year starting on Thursday (the link is to a full 1970 calendar). ... Atomic clock Chip-Scale Atomic Clock Unveiled by NIST An atomic clock is a type of clock that uses an atomic resonance frequency standard as its counter. ... January 2 is the second day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1970 (MCMLXX) was a common year starting on Thursday (the link is to a full 1970 calendar). ... May 16 is the 136th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (137th in leap years). ... 1971 (MCMLXXI) was a common year starting on Friday (the link is to a full 1971 calendar). ... January 1 is the first day of the calendar year in both the Julian and Gregorian calendars. ... 1970 (MCMLXX) was a common year starting on Thursday (the link is to a full 1970 calendar). ... May 16 is the 136th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (137th in leap years). ... 1971 (MCMLXXI) was a common year starting on Friday (the link is to a full 1971 calendar). ... December 31 is the 365th day of the year (366th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 1970 (MCMLXX) was a common year starting on Thursday (the link is to a full 1970 calendar). ... May 16 is the 136th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (137th in leap years). ... 1971 (MCMLXXI) was a common year starting on Friday (the link is to a full 1971 calendar). ... January 1 is the first day of the calendar year in both the Julian and Gregorian calendars. ... 1958 (MCMLVIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ...

While tidal braking will slow down Earth's rotation, this will cause the number of SI seconds in a mean solar day to increase from approximately 86400.002 to 86400.005 over the course of 100 years. Water, Rabbit, and Deer: three of the 20 day symbols in the Aztec calendar, from the Aztec Sun Stone. ...

Announcement of leap seconds

The announcement to insert a leap second is usually issued whenever the difference between UTC and UT1 approaches 0.7s, to keep the difference between UTC and UT1 from exceeding ±0.9 s. After UTC 23:59:59, a positive leap second at 23:59:60 would be counted, before the clock indicates 00:00:00 of the next day. Negative leap seconds are also possible should the Earth's rotation become slightly faster; in that case, 23:59:58 would be followed by 00:00:00.

Leap seconds occur only at the end of a UTC month, and have only ever been inserted at the end of June 30 or December 31. Unlike leap days, they occur simultaneously worldwide; for example, the leap second on 31 December 2005 occurred at 23:59:60 UTC. This was 6:59:60 p.m. U.S. Eastern Standard Time and 0:59:60 a.m. on 1 January, 2006 Central European Time. It is the responsibility of the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS) to measure the Earth's rotation and determine whether a leap second is necessary. Their determination is announced in Bulletin C, typically published every six months. June 30 is the 181st day of the year (182nd in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 184 days remaining. ... December 31 is the 365th day of the year (366th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. ... A leap year (or intercalary year) is a year containing an extra day or month in order to keep the calendar year in sync with an astronomical or seasonal year. ... December 31 is the 365th day of the year (366th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. ... EST is UTC-5 The North American Eastern Standard Time Zone (abbreviated EST) is a geographic region that keeps time by subtracting five hours from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) resulting in UTC-5. ... January 1 is the first day of the calendar year in both the Julian and Gregorian calendars. ... Time zones of Europe: Light colours indicate countries not observing daylight saving Central European Time (CET) is one of the names of the time zone that is 1 hour ahead of Coordinated Universal Time. ... The International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service is the body responsible for maintaining global time and reference frame standards, notably through its Earth Orientation Parameter (EOP) and International Celestial Reference System (ICRS) groups. ...

Historically, leap seconds have been inserted about every 18 months. However, the Earth's rotation rate is unpredictable in the long term, so it is not possible to predict the need for them more than six months in advance. Between January 1972 and December 2005, the IERS gave instructions to insert a leap second on 23 occasions. The interval between 1999-01-01 and 2005-12-31 was the longest period without a leap second since the system was introduced. A rate is a special kind of ratio, of two measurements with different units. ... 1999 (MCMXCIX) was a common year starting on Friday, and was designated the International Year of Older Persons by the United Nations. ... January 1 is the first day of the calendar year in both the Julian and Gregorian calendars. ... 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar. ... December 31 is the 365th day of the year (366th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. ...

Leap seconds are also not included directly in GPS time, although a regularly broadcast message notes how far GPST and UTC are apart. GPS redirects here. ...

Some time signal broadcasts give voice announcements of the impending leap-second. A time signal is a visible, audible, mechanical, or electronic signal used as a reference to determine the time of day. ...

Proposal to redefine UTC and abolish leap seconds

On July 5, 2005, the Head of the Earth Orientation Center of the IERS sent a notice to IERS Bulletins C and D subscribers, soliciting comments on a U.S. proposal before the ITU-R Study Group 7's WP7-A to eliminate leap seconds from the UTC broadcast standard before 2008. (The ITU-R is responsible for the definition of UTC). The Wall Street Journal noted that the proposal was considered by a U.S. official to be a private matter internal to the ITU as of July, 2005. It was expected to be considered in November 2005, but the discussion has since been postponed [1]. Under the proposal, leap seconds would be technically replaced by leap hours as an attempt to satisfy the legal requirements of several ITU-R member nations that civil time be astronomically tied to the Sun. July 5 is the 186th day of the year (187th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 179 days remaining. ... 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar. ... ... The ITU Radiocommunication Sector (ITU-R) is a standards body subcommittee of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) relating to radio communication. ... ... The Wall Street Journal is an influential international daily newspaper published in New York City, New York with an average daily circulation of 1,800,607 (2002). ... Civil time is another name for mean solar time reckoned from midnight. ...

A number of objections to the proposal have been raised. Dr. P.Kenneth Seidelmann, editor of the Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac, wrote a letter [2] lamenting the lack of consistent public information about the proposal, or adequate justification. Steve Allen, of the University of California, Santa Cruz cited the large impact on astronomers in a Science News interview. Allen has an extensive online site devoted to the issues and the history of leap seconds, including a set of references about the U.S. proposal and arguments against it[3]. The University of California, Santa Cruz, also known as UCSC or UC Santa Cruz, is one of the ten campuses of the University of California. ...

The various arguments against the U.S. proposal include:

• Little justification for changing UTC has been presented.
• No serious analysis of the costs of the change (or not making a change) has been attempted.
• The meaning of the term UTC in existing documents (technical and legal) and existing software will become ambiguous. All references to UTC will have to be reviewed to ascertain whether the original intent was to be mean solar time or to be atomic time or simply to be the conventional civil time scale which happens to be in current use.
• All reported surveys inquiring about a change to UTC produced results which did not indicate that any change was desired.
• Two timescales that do not follow leap seconds are already available: International Atomic Time (TAI) and GPS time. GPS time is easily obtained with inexpensive receivers.
• The time indicated by sundials would no longer bear a fixed relation to civil time, but
  • United States Federal Law indicates that the legal time of the US is based on mean solar time.
  • The CGPM (general congress of weights and measures, the international force behind the SI) recommendation to use UTC is predicated on the fact that the leaps keep it reasonably close to mean solar time.
• When the proponents convened an international colloquium in 2003 they were told not to change UTC (because that would confuse everyone about its meaning), but to define a new time scale whose purpose was to serve their needs. They were also told that leap hours were not acceptable.
• The process of discussing the proposals has been mostly shrouded in secrecy for years. Relevant ITU documents and meetings are not publicly available.

On the other (pro) side of the discussion are several arguments. Some of these have only become relevant with the recent wide-spread proliferation of computers using UTC as their internal time representation. For example, as things presently stand, it is not possible to correctly compute the elapsed interval between two stated instants of UTC without consulting manually updated and maintained tables of when leap seconds have occurred. Moreover, it is not possible even in theory to compute such time intervals for instants more than about six months in the future. This is not a matter of computer programmers being "lazy"; rather, the uncertainty of leap seconds introduces to those applications needing accurate notions of elapsed time intervals either fundamentally new (and often untenable) operational burdens for computer systems (the need to be online and do lookups) or unsurmountable theoretical concerns (the inability in a UTC-based computer to accurately schedule any event more than six months in the future). International Atomic Time (TAI, from the French name Temps Atomique International) is a high-precision atomic time standard that tracks proper time on Earths geoid. ... GPS redirects here. ...

A counter to this argument is that computers need not use UTC. They could use either TAI or GPS time and convert to UTC or local civil time as necessary for output. GPS time is an especially convenient choice as inexpensive GPS timing receivers are readily available and the satellite broadcasts include the necessary information to convert GPS time to UTC. It is also easy to convert GPS time to TAI as TAI is always exactly 19 seconds ahead of GPS time. International Atomic Time (TAI, from the French name Temps Atomique International) is a high-precision atomic time standard that tracks proper time on Earths geoid. ...

Examples of systems based on GPS time include the CDMA digital cellular systems IS-95 and CDMA2000. General Information Generically (as a multiplexing scheme), code division multiple access (CDMA) is any use of any form of spread spectrum by multiple transmitters to send to the same receiver on the same frequency channel at the same time without harmful interference. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... CDMA2000 is a family of third-generation (3G) mobile telecommunications standards that use CDMA, a multiple access scheme for digital radio, to send voice, data, and signalling data (such as a dialed telephone number) between mobile phones and cell sites. ...

See also

• Unix time for a common example of lack of attention to leap seconds in computer systems
• Clock drift

Unix time, or POSIX time, is a system for describing points in time: it is the number of seconds elapsed since midnight UTC on the morning of January 1, 1970, not counting leap seconds. ... Clock drift refers to several related phenomena where a clock does not run in the exact right speed compared to another clock. ...

References

• Ahuja, Anjana (30 October 2005). "Savouring the last leap second in history". New Straits Times, p. F10.
• Grossman, Wendy M. (November 2005). "Wait a Second". Scientific American, p. 12–13.
• Cowen, Ron. (April 22, 2006). "To Leap or Not to Leap - Scientists debate a timely issue". Science News

October 30 is the 303rd day of the year (304th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 62 days remaining. ... 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar. ... The New Straits Times is a Malaysian English language newspaper. ... Scientific American is a popular-science magazine, published monthly since August 28, 1845, making it the oldest continuously published magazine in the United States. ... Science News is an American weekly magazine devoted to short articles about new scientific and technical developments, typically gleaned from recent scientific and technical journals. ...

External links

Wikinews has news related to:

Timekeeping will pause into the New Year with a 'Leap Second'

• UTC vs UT1 1972–2005
• IERS Bulletin C, where leap seconds are announced
• IERS information about Bulletin C and when leap seconds may occur
• IERS Archive, to view old announcements
• USNO article on leap seconds
• USNO Leapsecs mailing list (with an archive)
• Leap Seconds in NTP, GPS, DCF77
• Dynamic differences between UTC and TAI
• How to Watch a Leap Second
• The Year 2005 to Have 'Leap Second' Added, NPR audio segment by Joe Palca
• NIST FAQ about leap year and leap second

Image File history File links Wikinews-logo. ... Wikinews is a free-content news source and a project of the Wikimedia Foundation. ...

Should UTC be redefined and/or should leap seconds go away?

• The leap second: its history and possible future - R A Nelson et al, Metrologia, 2001
• UTC might be redefined without Leap Seconds - extensive references by Steve Allen at Lick Observatory
• Summary of the US Working Group proposal and brief responses, by Steve Allen
• Opposition to the change from Kenneth Seidelmann - a member of the US Working Party 7A (USWP7A)
• Efforts to abolish leap seconds from Markus Kuhn
• the LEAPSECS mailing list - archive and joining info