In French, most written-word-final consonants are silent in most contexts. Liaison is the pronunciation of such a consonant due to a following vowel sound. For example, the letter s in the word les (the) is generally silent, but it is pronounced /z/ in the combination les amis (the friends). In certain syntactic contexts, liaison is impossible; in others, it is necessary; and in yet others, it is possible but not necessary. The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is a system of phonetic notation devised by linguists to accurately and uniquely represent each of the wide variety of sounds (phones or phonemes) used in spoken human language. ... Phonetic (pho-NET-ic) is a nationwide voicemail-to-text messaging service available for most digital mobile phones in which a subscriber is provided a custom voice mailbox for the purpose of receiving all incoming voice messages as actual transcribed text for reading via short messaging (also known as SMS... Due to technical limitations, some web browsers may not display some special characters in this article. ... This is a concise version of the International Phonetic Alphabet for English sounds. ... A consonant is a sound in spoken language that is characterized by a closure or stricture of the vocal tract sufficient to cause audible turbulence. ... Note: This page contains IPA phonetic symbols in Unicode. ... {{ Categories: | | ...

Classification

Liaison is an external sandhi: a phonological process occurring at a word boundary. Like elision (as in *je aime → j'aime), it serves the euphonic purpose of preventing hiatus. Sandhi is a cover term for a wide variety of phonological processes that occur at morpheme or word boundaries. ... The vowels of modern (Standard) Arabic and (Israeli) Hebrew from the phonological point of view. ... In French, elision (from elide, to leave out or omit) refers to the practise of combining two logically separate words into one for the convenience of pronunication in live conversation. ... Euphony describes flowing and aesthetically pleasing speech. ... Hiatus in linguistics is the separate pronunciation of two adjacent vowels, sometimes with an intervening glottal stop. ...

It is a form of paragoge, the addition of a sound to the end of a word. Paragoge is the addition to a sound to the end of a word. ...

Unlike an ephelcystic consonant (like the /t/ in donne-t-il), the consonant in liaison is tied to the history of the language: it is a final consonant that is normally suppressed but that continues to be pronounced before an initial vowel. (See Historical linguistics.) Historical linguistics (also diachronic linguistics or comparative linguistics) is primarily the study of the ways in which languages change over time. ...

Realization of liaison

The (usually) silent final consonants of certain words can be pronounced, in certain syntactic contexts, when the following word begins with a vowel. Since the sound thus obtained is an ancient one, spellings that are based on the etymology of the word may not reflect the real pronunciation. Etymology is the study of the origins of words. ...

For example, final consonants are pronounced as follows in the case of liaison (the transcription uses IPA; in IPA, liaison is indicated by placing an undertie [‿] between the consonant and the vowel): The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is a system of phonetic notation devised by linguists to accurately and uniquely represent each of the wide variety of sounds (phones or phonemes) used in spoken human language. ...

• -d = [t]: grand homme ("tall man") = [gʁɑ̃t‿ɔm].
• -g = [k]: sang impur ("unclean blood") = [sɑ̃k‿ɛ̃pyʁ].
• -s = [z]: les enfants ("the children") = [lez‿ɑ̃fɑ̃].
• -x = [z]: six adultes ("six adults") = [siz‿adylt].

With most words whose spellings end in -n and whose pronunciations end in nasal vowels ([ɑ̃], [ɛ̃], [œ̃], or [ɔ̃]), the vowel will be denasalized during liaison: A nasal vowel is a vowel that is produced with a lowering of the velum so that air escapes both through the mouth and the nose. ...

• with denasalization: bon [bɔ̃], but bon ami [bɔ na mi]; certain [sɛʁ tɛ̃], but certain ami [sɛʁ tɛ na mi].
• without denasalization: mon [mɔ̃], mon ami [mɔ̃ na mi]; aucun [o kœ̃], aucun ami [o kœ̃ na mi].

Types of liaisons

We can broadly define three types of liaison in French. Liaison appears between words that are strongly connected grammatically within one phrasal tonic accent. We distinguish between the following:

• obligatory liaison (la liaison obligatoire)
• optional liaison (la liaison facultative)
• forbidden liaison (la liaison interdite, la liaison impossible, or disjunction)

Logical disjunction (usual symbol or) is a logical operator that results in true if either of the operands is true. ...

Obligatory liaison

The omission of an obligatory liaison is felt by French-speakers as an error in pronunciation, regardless of register. Liaison is obligatory: In linguistics, a register is a subset of a language used for a particular purpose or in a particular social setting. ...

• between a determiner or adjective and its noun: les enfants [le.zɑ̃.fɑ̃], petits enfants [pə.ti.zɑ̃.fɑ̃], tout homme [tu.tɔm].
• between a personal pronoun, on, en, or y and its verb, or vice versa: nous avons [nu.za.vɔ̃], ont-ils [ɔ̃.til], donnes-en [dɔn.zɑ̃] (with an ephelcystic s).
• in lexicalized expressions and compound words: petit à petit [pə.ti.tap.ti], non-agression [nɔ.na.grɛ.sjɔ̃].

A compound is a word (lexeme) that consists of more than one free morpheme. ...

Optional liaison

If some liaisons are truly obligatory, others are only "obligatory" in formal speech. The following are some of these optional liaisons, often omitted from everyday speech:

• after est ("is") as an impersonal verb: c'est incroyable ("that's unbelievable"), il est impossible de … ("it is impossible to …")
• after certain one-syllable adverbs and prepositions that are strongly connected to the words they precede: pas encore ("not yet"), plus ici ("no longer here"), sous un abri ("under protection"), sans un sou ("without a dime")
• between an adjective and its noun: enfants agréables ("pleasant children")
• with a word ending in -r followed by a silent consonant (other than the -s of a plural consonant) that is capable of liaison, the liaison can be omitted, the hiatus being resolved instead by the enchainment of the -r: so, pars avec lui ("leave with him") will be pronounced as [paʁavɛk lɥi] more readily than as [paʁz‿avɛk lɥi]

Other liaisons that are not explicitly forbidden (see below) are possible. Depending on their frequency, these are more or less pedantic: ils ont‿attendu ("they have waited") seems much less pedantic than tu as‿attendu ("you have waited"). (Note that the everyday spoken forms would more likely be [izɔ̃atɑ̃dy] and [taatɑ̃dy], or simply [taːtɑ̃dy].) An impersonal verb is a verb that cannot take a true subject, because it does not represent an action, occurrence, or state-of-being of any specific person, place, or thing. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ...

Forbidden liaison

Finally, certain liaisons are impossible:

• after et ("and") - which allows it to be distinguished from est ("is") in speech.
• after the silent final consonant of a singular common noun: coup X intéressant ("interesting deed"), rat X énorme ("enormous rat") - which allows a distinction between a noun and an adjective: un précieux‿insolent is a precious insolent person, while un précieux X insolent is an insolent member of the précieuses literary movement.
• after verbs with the second-person singular ending -es : tu manges X en paix ("you eat in peace"); the ending is elided instead.
• before a word beginning with an "aspirated h": les X haricots (green beans), ils X halètent ("they are gasping"). (Note that even the so-called "aspirated h" is not actually pronounced in modern French.) In the regulated language, hiatus is required here. In everyday registers, this phenomenon is frequently omitted, especially with little-known words.
• before certain words that start with vowels, such as onze ("eleven"), un when used to mean "one," and oui ("yes").

The literary style called préciosité (preciousness) arose from the lively conversations and playful word games of les précieuses the witty and educated intellectual ladies who frequented the salon of the marquise de Rambouillet, a Parisian refuge from the dangerous political factionism and coarse manners of the royal court... In music, see elision (music). ...

Errors of liaison

As can be seen, liaison, outlined above, is only obligatory in rare cases. The omission of such a liaison would be considered an error, not simply as taking liberties with the rule. In cases of optional liaison, the omission is common, and liaison appears only in careful speech.

On the other end, placing a liaison where one is impossible can also pass as an error, except in the cases of disjunction with aspirated h's: the liaison will indicate an uncultivated speaker. Even in familiar language, liaison before an aspirated h can seem unsophisticated.

Finally, it happens, due to hypercorrection or due to euphony, that a liaison is pronounced where it doesn't exist (where it is possible by spelling, but forbidden, as with et‿ainsi, or where it is impossible even by spelling, as with moi-z-avec). This phenomenon is called pataquès. In rare cases, these liaisons may be conserved by the language and become obligatory, such as in donnes-en and mange-t-il; see ephelcystic phoneme. Otherwise, they are felt in the same way as omissions of disjunction, suggesting a poorly cultivated or clumsy speaker. Such an error is sometimes called cuir ("leather") when the inserted consonant is [t], velours ("velvet") when it is [z], although dictionaries do not all agree on these terms: Hypercorrection is (1) elaborate, prescriptively based correction of common language usage, often introduced in an attempt to avoid vulgarity or informality, that results in wording commonly considered clumsier than the usual, colloquial usage (for example, in English, adherence to the proscription against split infinitives or the ending of a clause... Euphony describes flowing and aesthetically pleasing speech. ...

• cuir: tu peux-t-avoir;
• velours: moi-z-aussi.

Special cases: poetic verse and applied diction

The reading of poetry (whether said or sung) requires that all liaisons be used (except those described above as impossible), even those of -es in the second-person singular as well as the reading of all necessary “null e’s” (see the French article on poetry, for more details). The reading of the liaisons affects the number of syllables pronounced, hence is of chief importance for the correct pronunciation of a verse. French-speakers tend as much as possible to avoid a hiatus or a succession of two consonants between two words, in a more or less artificial way. Quatrain on Heavenly Mountain by Emperor Gaozong. ... A syllable (Ancient Greek: ) is a unit of organization for a sequence of speech sounds. ...

An applied reading (but without the obligatory reading of “null e’s”) is necessary in an oratory setting. The voice is in effect one of the tools of persuasion: it reflects through a pronunciation that feels exact—according to prevailing norms—intellectual qualities, culture, self-control, and finesse of wit. Pushed too far, the forced respect of liaisons can render a speech ridiculous. It has been pointed out that French politicians and speakers in the 2000s (Jacques Chirac, for example, has a habit of this) apply a strange diction, consisting of automatically pronouncing certain liaisons independently of the following word and introducing a pause (disjunction or euh) after the consonant of liaison. For example, ils ont entendu (“they heard”) is normally pronounced [ilz‿ɔ̃‿ɑ̃tɑ̃dy] or, in more careful speech, [ilz‿ɔ̃t‿ɑ̃tɑ̃dy]. A speaker using this incorrect pronunciation would say [ilz‿ɔ̃t (where [|] represents a pause; ils ont'... entendu). Worse, one might even hear ils ont décidé (“they decided”) pronounced [ilz‿ɔ̃t (ils ont’... décidé) or [ilz‿ɔ̃təː(ːːː) deside] (ils onteuh... décidé). In the first case, a pause between two words related so strongly can seem strange on the part of a speaker; in the second, the liaison is worse than a pataquès since it introduces a phoneme of liaison that is useless in the absence of hiatus. Jacques René Chirac (born November 29, 1932) is a French politician and the current President of the French Republic. ...

Origins of liaison

In order to understand the origins of liaison, as well as the divergencies between the written form and the pronunciation, it is necessary to study the language from a diachronic point of view. While the current orthography is recent and artificial, liaison produces the re-appearance of ancient consonants that had been masked by orthographical modifications. Diachronic study is the study of the development of a language over a period of time. ...

Medieval consonants

For example, the word grand is written grant in medieval manuscripts (grant served for both masculine and feminine gender). The orthography of that age was more phonetic; the word was in all likeliness pronounced [grɑ̃nt], with an audible final /t/, at least until the 12th century. When that consonant become mute (like the majority of ancient final consonants in French), the word continued to be written grant (the preservation of this written form is explained by other reasons; see note), and then become grand by influence of its Latin etymology grandis, with a new (analogic) feminine form grande. The current spelling with a final mute d allows to better show the alternation between grand and grande (an alternation gran ~ grande or grant ~ grande would look less regular to the eye), as well as the lexical relation to grandeur, grandir, grandiloquent, etc. The root grand is written thus regardless of whether the d is pronounced [d], [t] or mute in order for its derivatives to have a single graphic identity, which facilitates memorization and reading. The root is the primary lexical unit of a word, which carries the most significant aspects of semantic content and cannot be reduced into smaller constituents. ... There are several meanings of derivation: A derivation in abstract algebra is a linear map that satisfies Leibniz law. ...

However, the ancient final [t] of grand did not cease to be pronounced when the following word began with a vowel and belonged to the same tonic cell; It is effectively not at the end of the word anymore, since the ear identifies the stressed group (formed by univerbation), in which the final consonant and the initial vowel appear together, as a new group (or "word") within which the consonant in question has ceased to be final. Bearing in mind that stress in French falls on the last syllable of a word, or a group of words when they are bound grammatically, this situation can be symbolized as follows (the accute represents stress): In linguistics, stress is the relative emphasis given to certain syllables in a word. ...

• gránd is virtually ['gʁɑ̃t], which becomes ['grɑ̃] at the end of a stressed syllable;
• gránd + hómme = ['gʁɑ̃t] + ['ɔm], which becomes grand hómme [gʁɑ̃'tɔm] (a single group stress); grand does not elide the final consonant because the syllable is no longer stressed.

This has to do with what the hearer considers to be a word. If grand homme is analyzed as ʁɑ̃t‿ɔm], the ear in fact understands [gʁɑ̃'tɔm], a continuous group of phonemes whose tonic accent signals that they form a unit. It is possible to make a division as [gʁɑ̃] + [tɔm] instead of [gʁɑ̃t] + [ɔm]. Then this [t] will no longer be felt to be a final consonant but a pre-stress intervocalic consonant, and therefore it will resist the deletion that it would undergo if it were at the end of a stressed syllable. It can however undergo other modifications thereafter.

The written form, though, was adapted to criteria that are not phonetic, but etymological (among others): where grand is written, [gʁɑ̃t] is pronounced in front of certain vowels, without that being really awkward: the maintenance of the visual alternation -d ~ -de is more productive.

The other cases are explained in a similar fashion: sang, for example, was pronounced [sɑ̃ŋk] (and written sanc) in Old French, but the final -g has replaced the -c in order to recall the Latin etymology, sanguis, and derivatives like sanguinaire, sanguin. Currently this liaison is almost never heard except in one part of the singing of the Marseillaise ("qu'un san(g) /k/ impur") or in the expression "suer sang et eau". Outside those, the hiatus is tolerated. This article is about the anthem La Marseillaise. A sculpture popularly called La Marseillaise is part of the sculptural programme of the Arc de Triomphe. ...

Finally, the case of -s and -x pronounced [z] in liaison is explained differently. One must be aware, firstly, that word-final -x is a medieval shorthand for -us (in Old French people wrote chevax for chevaus, latter written chevaux when the idea behind this -x was forgotten). The sound noted -s and -x was a hard [s], which did not remain in French after the 12th century (it can be found in words like (tu) chantes or doux), but which was protected from complete elision when the following word began with a vowel (what effectively means when it was found between two vowels). However, in French, such [s] is voiced and becomes [z] (which explains why, in words like rose and mise, the s is pronounced [z] and not [s]).

Note: if the final -t of grant was kept in the Middle Ages in spite of the disappearance of the corresponding [t], it is because there existed, along with this form, others like grants (rather written granz), wherein the [t] was heard, protected from elisin by the following [s]. The ancient orthography rendered this alternation visible before another one replaced it (the one with d). Indeed, it would be false to state that the orthography of Old French did not follow usage, or that it was without rules.

Fluctuating usages

From the 16th century onward, it was common for grammarians who wished to describe the French language or discuss its orthography to write documents in a phonetic alphabet. From some of these documents, we can see that the liaisons have not always been pronounced as they are today.

For example, the Prayer by Gilles Vaudelin (a document compiled in 1713 using a phonetic alphabet, and introduced in the Nouvelle maniere d'écrire comme on parle en France ["A New Way of Writing as We Speak in France"]), probably representative of oral language, maybe rural, of the time, shows the absence of the following liaisons (Vaudelin's phonetic alphabet is transcribed using equivalent IPA):

• Saint Esprit: [sɛ̃ ɛspri] instead of [sɛ̃t‿ɛspri];
• tout à Vous glorifier: [tu a]... instead of [tut‿a];
• qui êtes aux cieux: [ki ɛt o sjø] instead of [ki ɛt(ə)z‿o sjø].

References

• An earlier version of this article was translated from the French Wikipedia.
• Le bon usage, M. Grevisse, 12th edition by A. Goosse, Duculot, Paris;
• Précis de phonétique historique, N. Laborderie, Nathan Université, 1994, Paris;
• Petite grammaire de l'ancien français, H. Bonnard and C. Régnier, Magnard, 1991.

Maurice Grevisse (October 7, 1895—July 4, 1980) is a Belgian grammarian. ...

See also

• Sandhi
• Metaplasm, Paragoge
• Linking consonant

Sandhi is a cover term for a wide variety of phonological processes that occur at morpheme or word boundaries. ... A metaplasm is a change to the orthography of a word. ... Paragoge is the addition to a sound to the end of a word. ... A linking consonant is a consonant that is inserted between two vowels. ...