Lingala Lingála
Spoken in:	Democratic Republic of the Congo, Republic of the Congo
Region:	Central and Eastern Africa
Total speakers:	2 million native speakers, 10 million with second-language speakers
Language family:	Niger-Congo  Atlantic-Congo   Volta-Congo    Benue-Congo     Bantoid      Southern       Narrow Bantu        Northwest         C          Bangi-Ntomba           Lingala
Writing system:	African reference alphabet (Latin alphabet), Mandombe
Official status
Official language of:	Republic of the Congo
Regulated by:	no official regulation
Language codes
ISO 639-1:	ln
ISO 639-2:	lin
ISO 639-3:	lin
Geographic distribution of Lingala speakers, showing regions of native speakers (dark green) and other regions of use
Note: This page may contain IPA phonetic symbols in Unicode. See IPA chart for English for an English-​based pronunciation key.

Lingala is a Bantu language spoken throughout the northwestern part of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Congo-Kinshasa) and a large part of the Republic of the Congo (Congo-Brazzaville), as well as to some degree in Angola and the Central African Republic. It has over 10 million speakers. It is classed C.36D under the Guthrie system for classifying Bantu languages and C.40 under the SIL system. Current distribution of Human Language Families Most languages are known to belong to language families. ... Map showing the distribution of Niger-Congo languages The Niger-Congo languages constitute one of the worlds major language families, and Africas largest in terms of geographical area, number of speakers, and number of distinct languages. ... Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this exact name. ... In the classification of African languages, Volta-Congo is the major branch (in terms of number of languages) of the Niger-Congo phylum. ... The Benue-Congo group of languages constitutes the largest branch of the Niger-Congo language family, both in terms of sheer number of languages, of which 938 are known (not counting mere dialects), and in terms of speakers, numbering perhaps 550 million. ... In the classification of African languages, Bantoid is a branch of the Benue-Congo subfamily of the Niger-Congo phylum. ... In the classification of African languages, Southern Bantoid (or South Bantoid) is one of the two branches of the Bantoid subfamily of the Niger-Congo phylum. ... In the classification of African languages, Narrow Bantu is a term commonly used to designate the branch of Niger-Congo containing the numerous Bantu languages as recognized by Guthrie (1948) in his seminal classification of the Bantu languages. ... Bangi-Ntomba is part of the Narrow Bantu languages. ... Writing systems of the world today. ... The proposal of an African reference alphabet was the result of a conference at Niamey in 1978 organized by the UNESCO. The alphabet was revised in 1982. ... The Latin alphabet, also called the Roman alphabet, is the most widely used alphabetic writing system in the world today. ... The word Mandombe in the Mandombe script. ... ISO 639-1 is the first part of the ISO 639 international-standard language-code family. ... ISO 639-2:1998 Codes for the representation of names of languages — Part 2: Alpha-3 code Twenty-two of the languages have two three-letter codes: a code for bibliographic use (ISO 639-2/B) a code for terminological use (ISO 639-2/T). ... ISO 639-3 is in process of development as an international standard for language codes. ... Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... For information on how to read IPA transcriptions of English words see here. ... Phonetics (from the Greek word φωνή, phone meaning sound, voice) is the study of sounds and the human voice. ... Unicode is an industry standard designed to allow text and symbols from all of the writing systems of the world to be consistently represented and manipulated by computers. ... This chart shows concisely the most common way in which the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is applied to represent the English language. ... The English language is a West Germanic language that originates in England. ... Map showing the approximate distribution of Bantu (dull yellow) vs. ... Kinshasa (formerly Léopoldville or, before 1960, also Leopoldstad) is the capital and largest city of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. ... Image of Kinshasa and Brazzaville, taken by NASA. Brazzaville is the capital and largest city of the Republic of the Congo and is located on the Congo River. ... Malcolm Guthrie (1903-1972), professor of Bantu languages, is known primarily for his classification of Bantu languages (Guthrie 1971). ... Map showing the approximate distribution of Bantu (dull yellow) vs. ...

History

The origins of Lingala lie in Bobangi, a language that was spoken along the Congo River between Lisala and Kinshasa. Bobangi functioned as a regional trade language before the genesis of the Congo Free State. In the last two decades of the 19th century, after King Leopold II of Belgium stimulated the exploration and occupation of the area, Bobangi came into wider use. The language was learned and influenced by intermediaries and interpreters of the Westerners and brought to the area from other parts of central and east Africa (e.g., (Zanzibar, Comoros and the Tanganyikan inland). The colonial administration, in need of a common language for the region, started to use the language for missionary and administrative purposes, calling it Bangala to set it apart from the old Bobangi. Around the turn of the century, CICM missionaries started a project to 'purify' the language in order to make it 'pure Bantu' again. Meeuwis (1998:7) writes the following: Bobangi can refer to: a precursor of the Lingala language a village in the Democratic republic of Congo, 0° 6. ... The Congo River (formerly known as some River) is the largest river in Western Central Africa. ... Lisala is a city in Mongala Province, Democratic Republic of the Congo. ... Kinshasa (formerly Léopoldville or, before 1960, also Leopoldstad) is the capital and largest city of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. ... Flag Capital Boma Government Monarchy Ruler and owner Leopold II of Belgium Historical era New Imperialism  - Established 1885  - Annexation by Belgium 15 November, 1908 The Congo Free State was a corporate state privately owned by King Leopold II of Belgium (not in his role as monarch) that included the entire... King Leopold II of the Belgians (April 9, 1835 – December 17, 1909) succeeded his father, Leopold I of Belgium, to the Belgian throne in 1865 and remained king until his death. ... Motto: Uhuru na Umoja (Swahili: Freedom and Unity) Anthem: Mungu ibariki Afrika (God Bless Africa) Capital (and largest city) Stone Town English Government Republic  - President Amani Abeid Karume  - Prime Minister Shamsi Vuai Nahodha Independence From the United Kingdom   - Tanganyika December 9, 1961   - Zanzibar December 19, 1963   - Merge April 26, 1964... Flag of Tanganyika Tanganyika was an East African republic within the Commonwealth of Nations, named after Lake Tanganyika, which formed its western border. ... The Congregatio Immaculatae Cordis Mariae (Latin, Congregation of the Immaculate Heart of Mary; French: La Congregation du Coeur Immacule de Marie; Flemish: Congregatie van het Onbevlekte Hart van Maria) also known as the Scheut fathers or Scheutists was a Belgian Roman Catholic missionary congregation established in 1862 by the priest...

[M]issionaries, such as the Protestant W. Stapleton and later, and more influentially, E. De Boeck himself, judged that the grammar and lexicon of this language were too poor for it to function properly as a medium of education, evangelization, and other types of vertical communication with the Africans in the northwestern and central-western parts of the colony (..). They set out to 'correct' and 'expand' the language by drawing on lexical and grammatical elements from surrounding vernacular languages.

In the process of this 'purification', the term Bangala was replaced with Lingala, borrowing a prefix from one of the surrounding languages. The term first appears in a written form in a publication by the C.I.C.M. missionary Egide De Boeck (1903). The Congregatio Immaculati Cordis Mariae (Latin), or the Congregation of the Immaculate Heart of Mary; (French: La Congrégation du Coeur Immaculé de Marie; Flemish: Congregatie van het Onbevlekte Hart van Maria) also known as the Scheut fathers or Scheutists is a Belgian Roman Catholic missionary congregation established in 1862... 1903 (MCMIII) was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar) of the Gregorian calendar or a common year starting on Friday of the 13-day slower Julian calendar. ...

Lingala's vocabulary has borrowed much French. There is also some Portuguese influence, such as in the words for butter (mántéka), table (mésa), shoes (sapátu), and some English or Dutch influences; for instance, the word for milk (míliki) or book (búku).^[1] Congolese rebels now use the cryptic forms of the language to pass messages undecipherable by Western intelligence agencies.^{[citation needed]} Butter is commonly sold in sticks (pictured) or blocks, and frequently served with the use of a butter knife. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Table leg. ... A shoe is an item of footwear often worn on the foot or feet of a human. ... The English language is a West Germanic language that originates in England. ... A glass of cows milk A goat kid feeding on its mothers milk Milk is the nutrient fluid secreted by the mammary glands of female mammals (including monotremes). ... A chained book in the Bodleian Library at Oxford University A Chinese bamboo book, in a collection at the University of California, Riverside. ...

Variations

The Lingala language can be divided in several dialects or variations. The major variations are considered to be Standard Lingala, Spoken Lingala, Kinshasa Lingala and Brazzaville Lingala.

Standard Lingala (called lingala littéraire or lingala classique in French) is mostly used in educational and news broadcastings on radio or television, in religious services in the Catholic Church and is the language taught as a subject at all educational levels. Standard Lingala is historically associated with the work of the Catholic Church and missionaries. It has a seven-vowel system /a/ /e/ /ɛ/ /i/ /o/ /ɔ/ /u/ with an obligatory tense-lax vowel harmony. It also has a full range of morphological noun prefixes with mandatory grammatical agreement system with subject-verb, or noun-modifier for each of class. Standard Lingala is largely used in formal functions. Vowel harmony (also metaphony) is a type of long-distance assimilatory phonological process involving vowels. ...

Spoken Lingala (called lingala parlé in French) is the variation mostly used in the day-to-day lives of Lingalaphones. It has a full morphological noun prefix system, but the agreement system is more lax than the standard variation, i.e. noun-modifier agreement is reduced to two classes. Regarding phonology, there is also a seven-vowel system but the vowel harmony is not mandatory. This variation of Lingala is historically associated with the Protestant missionaries' work. Spoken Lingala is largely used in informal functions, and the majority of Lingala songs use Spoken Lingala over other variations.

Kinshasa Lingala and Brazzaville Lingala are the dialects from the capitals of both Congos. They are both heavily influenced by other Bantu languages as well as French (the official language of both countries). They both have lots of borrowed words from those languages, as well as a simplified phonology and grammar.

Sounds

Vowels

Vowels Near-close Close-mid Mid Open-mid Near-open Open Where symbols appear in pairs, the one to the right represents a rounded vowel. ... A back vowel is a type of vowel sound used in some spoken languages. ... A close vowel is a type of vowel sound used in many spoken languages. ... A close-mid vowel is a type of vowel sound used in some spoken languages. ... The open-mid vowels make a class of vowel sounds used in some spoken languages. ... An open vowel is a vowel sound of a type used in most spoken languages. ... Vowels Near-close Close-mid Mid Open-mid Near-open Open Where symbols appear in pairs, the one to the right represents a rounded vowel. ... Vowels Near-close Close-mid Mid Open-mid Near-open Open Where symbols appear in pairs, the one to the right represents a rounded vowel. ... Vowels Near-close Close-mid Mid Open-mid Near-open Open Where symbols appear in pairs, the one to the right represents a rounded vowel. ... Vowels Near-close Close-mid Mid Open-mid Near-open Open Where symbols appear in pairs, the one to the right represents a rounded vowel. ... Vowels Near-close Close-mid Mid Open-mid Near-open Open Where symbols appear in pairs, the one to the right represents a rounded vowel. ... Vowels Near-close Close-mid Mid Open-mid Near-open Open Where symbols appear in pairs, the one to the right represents a rounded vowel. ... Vowels Near-close Close-mid Mid Open-mid Near-open Open Where symbols appear in pairs, the one to the right represents a rounded vowel. ...

Vowel harmony

Lingala words show vowel harmony to some extent. The close-mid vowels /e/ and /o/ normally do not mix with the open-mid vowels /ɛ/ and /ɔ/ in words. For example, the words ndɔbɔ fishhook and ndobo 'mouse trap' are found, but not *ndɔbo or *ndobɔ.

Vowel shift

The Lingala spoken in Kinshasa shows a vowel shift from /ɔ/ to /o/, leading to the absence of the phoneme /ɔ/ in favor of /o/. The same occurs with /ɛ/ and /e/, leading to just /e/. So in Kinshasa, a native speaker will say mbɔ́ tɛ as /^mbóte/, compared to the more traditional pronunciation of /^mbɔ́ tɛ/.

Consonants

(1) [^ɲʒ is allophonic with [[[voiced postalveolar fricative|ʒ]] depending on the dialect In phonetics, a bilabial consonant is a consonant articulated with both lips. ... In phonetics, labiodentals are consonants articulated with the lower lips and the upper teeth, or viceversa. ... Alveolar consonants are articulated with the tongue against or close to the superior alveolar ridge, which is called that because it contains the alveoli (the sockets) of the superior teeth. ... Postalveolar (or palato-alveolar) consonants are consonants articulated with the tip of the tongue between the alveolar ridge (the place of articulation for alveolar consonants) and the palate (the place of articulation for palatal consonants). ... Palatal consonants are consonants articulated with the body of the tongue raised against the hard palate (the middle part of the roof of the mouth). ... Velars are consonants articulated with the back part of the tongue (the dorsum) against the soft palate (the back part of the roof of the mouth, known also as the velum). ... A stop or plosive or occlusive is a consonant sound produced by stopping the airflow in the vocal tract. ... A nasal consonant is produced when the velum—that fleshy part of the palate near the back—is lowered, allowing air to escape freely through the nose. ... Fricatives (or spirants) are consonants produced by forcing air through a narrow channel made by placing two articulators close together. ... Approximants are speech sounds that could be regarded as intermediate between vowels and typical consonants. ... The voiceless bilabial plosive is a type of consonantal sound used in many spoken languages. ... The voiced bilabial plosive is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. ... The voiceless alveolar plosive is a type of consonantal sound used in many spoken languages. ... The voiced alveolar plosive is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. ... The voiceless velar plosive is a type of consonantal sound used in many spoken languages. ... The voiced velar plosive is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. ... The bilabial nasal is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. ... The alveolar nasal is a type of consonantal sound used in some spoken languages. ... The palatal nasal is a type of consonant, used in some spoken languages. ... The voiceless labiodental fricative is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. ... The voiced labiodental fricative is a type of consonantal sound used in some spoken languages. ... The voiceless alveolar fricatives are consonantal sounds. ... The voiced alveolar fricatives are consonantal sounds. ... The voiceless palato-alveolar fricative or domed postalveolar fricative is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. ... The alveolar lateral approximant is a type of consonantal sound used in some spoken languages. ... The palatal approximant is a type of consonantal sound, used in many spoken languages. ... The labial-velar approximant is a type of consonantal sound, used in certain spoken languages. ...

Prenasalized consonants

The prenasalized stops formed with a nasal followed by a voiceless plosive are allophonic to the voiceless plosives alone in some variations of Lingala. Prenasalized stops are phonetic sequences of nasal plus plosive that behave phonologically like single consonant. ... In phonetics, an allophone is one of several similar phones that belong to the same phoneme. ...

• /^mp/: [^mp] or [p]

  e.g.: mpɛmbɛ́ni is pronounced [^mpɛ^mbɛ́ni] but in some variations [pɛ^mbɛ́ni]

• /ⁿt/: [ⁿt] or [t]

  e.g.: ntɔ́ngó is pronounced ⁿtɔ́^ŋgó but in some variations [tɔ́^ŋgó]

• /^ŋk/: [^ŋk] or [k]

  e.g.: nkanya (fork) is pronounced [^ŋkaɲa] but in some variations [kaɲa]

• /ⁿs/: [ⁿs] or [s] (inside a word)

  e.g.: nyɔnsɔ is pronounced [ɲɔ́ⁿsɔ] but in some variations [ɲɔ́sɔ]

The prenasalized voiced occlusives, /^mb/, /ⁿd/, /^ŋg/, /ⁿz/ do not vary.

Tones

Lingala being a tonal language, tone is a distinguishing feature in minimal pairs, e.g.: moto (human being) and motó (head), or kokoma (to write) and kokóma (to arrive). There are two tones possible, the normal one is low and the second one is high. It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Tone (linguistics). ... In phonology, minimal pairs are pairs of words or phrases in a particular language, which differ in only one phone, phoneme, toneme or chroneme and have a distinct meaning. ...

Tonal morphology

Tense morphemes carry tones. In Linguistics, a morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit in a given language. ...

• koma (kom^L-a : write) inflected gives
  • simple present ^L-a^L :

    nakoma na^L-kom^L-a^L (I write)

  • subjunctive ^H-a^L :

    nákoma na^H-kom^L-a^L (I would write)

  • present:

    nakomí na^L-kom^L-i^H (I have been writing)

• sepela (se^Lpel-a : enjoy) inflected gives
  • simple present ^L-a^L :

    osepela o^L-se^Lpel^L-a^L (you-SG enjoy)

  • subjunctive ^H-a^L :

    ósepéla o^H-se^Lpel^H-a^H (you-SG would enjoy)

  • present ^L-i^H:

    osepelí o^L-se^Lpel^L-i^H (you-SG have been enjoying)

The subjunctive mood (sometimes referred to as the conjunctive mood) is a grammatical mood of the verb that expresses wishes, commands (in subordinate clauses), and statements that are contrary to fact. ... The present tense is the tense (form of a verb) that is often used to express: Action at the present time A state of being A habitual action An occurrence in the near future An action that occurred in the past and continues up to the present There are two... The subjunctive mood (sometimes referred to as the conjunctive mood) is a grammatical mood of the verb that expresses wishes, commands (in subordinate clauses), and statements that are contrary to fact. ... The present tense is the tense (form of a verb) that is often used to express: Action at the present time A state of being A habitual action An occurrence in the near future An action that occurred in the past and continues up to the present There are two...

Grammar

Main article: Lingala grammar

Noun class system

Like all Bantu languages, Lingala has a noun class system in which nouns are classified according to the prefixes they bear and according to the prefixes they trigger in sentences. The table below shows the noun classes of Lingala, ordered according to the numbering system that is widely used in descriptions of Bantu languages. Map showing the approximate distribution of Bantu (dull yellow) vs. ... In linguistics, the term noun class refers to a system of categorizing nouns. ... In linguistics, a prefix is a type of affix that precedes the morphemes to which it can attach. ...

Individual classes pair up with each other to form singular/plural pairs, sometimes called 'genders'. There are seven genders in total. The singular classes 1, 3, 5, 7, and 9 take their plural forms from classes 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, respectively. Additionally, many household items found in class 9 take a class 2 prefix (ba) in the plural: lutu > balutu 'spoon', mesa > bamesa 'table', sani > basani 'plate'. Words in class 11 usually take a class 10 plural. Most words from class 14 (abstract nouns) do not have a plural counterpart.

Class 9 and 10 have a nasal prefix, which assimilates to the following consonant. Thus, the prefix shows up as 'n' on words that start with t or d, e.g. ntaba 'sheep', but as 'm' on words that start with b or p (e.g. mbisi 'fish'). There is also a prefixless class 9a and 10a, exemplified by sánzá > sánzá 'moon(s) or month(s)'. Possible ambiguities are solved by the context. Assimilation is a regular and frequent sound change process by which a phoneme changes to match an adjacent phoneme in a word. ...

Noun class prefixes do not show up only on the noun itself, but serve as markers throughout the whole sentence. In the sentences below, the class prefixes are underlined. (There is a special verbal form 'a' of the prefix for class 1 nouns.)

• molakisi molai yango abiki (CL1.teacher CL1.tall that CL1:recovered) That tall teacher recovered
• bato bakúmisa Nkómbó ya Yɔ́(CL2.people CL2.praise name of You) (Let) people praise Your name (a sentence from the Lord's Prayer)

Only to a certain extent, noun class allocation is semantically governed. Classes 1/2, as in all Bantu languages, mainly contain words for human beings; similarly, classes 9/10 contain many words for animals. In other classes, semantical regularities are mostly absent or are obscured by many exceptions. Semantics (Greek semantikos, giving signs, significant, symptomatic, from sema, sign) refers to the aspects of meaning that are expressed in a language, code, or other form of representation. ...

Verb inflections and morphology

Verbal extensions

There are 4 morphemes modifying verbs. They are added to some verb root in the following order :

1. Reversive (-ol-)

   e.g.: kozinga to wrap and kozingola to develop

2. Causative (-is-)

   e.g. : koyéba to know and koyébisa to inform

3. Applicative (-el-)

   e.g. : kobíka to heal (self), to save (self) and kobíkela to heal (someone else), to save (someone)

4. Passive (-am-)

   e.g. : koboma to kill and kobomama to be killed

5. Reciprocal or stationary (-an-, sometimes -en-)

   e.g. : kokúta to find and kokútana to meet

Tense inflections

The first tone segment affects the subject part of the verb, the second tone segment attaches to the semantic morpheme attached to the root of the verb.

• present perfect (LH-í)
• simple present (LL-a)
• recurrent present (LL-aka)
• undefined recent past (LH-ákí)
• undefined distant past (LH-áká)
• future (L-ko-L-a)
• subjunctive (HL-a)

Writing system

The Lingala language has several different writing systems, being a spoken language more than a written language. Most of those writing systems are ad hoc. Due to the low literacy of Lingala speakers in Lingala (in the Congo-Brazzaville literacy rate in Lingala as a first language is between 10% to 30%), its popular orthograpy is very flexible and varies from one Congo to the other. Some orthographies are heavily influenced by the French language orthography; including double S, ss, to transcribe [s] (in Congo-Brazzaville); ou for [u] (in Congo-Brazzaville); i with umlaut, aï, to transcribe [áí] or [aí]; e with acute accent, é, to transcribe [e]; e to transcribe [ɛ], o with acute accent, ó, to transcribe [ɔ] or sometimes [o] in opposition to o transcribing [o] or [ɔ]; i or y can both transcribe [j]. The allophones are also found as alternating forms in the popular orthography; sango is an alternative to nsango (information or news); nyonso, nyoso, nionso, nioso (every) are all transcriptions of nyɔ́nsɔ.

In 1976 the Société Zaïroise des Linguistes (Zairian Linguists Society) adopted a writing system for Lingala, using the open e (ɛ) and the open o (ɔ) to write the vowels [ɛ] and [ɔ], and sporadic usage of accents to mark tone. Also, the limitations of input methods prevents Lingala writers from easily using the ɛ and ɔ and the accents. For example, it is almost impossible to type Lingala according to that convention with a common English or French keyboard. The convention of 1976 reduced the alternative orthography of characters but did not enforce tone marking. The lack of consistent accentuation is lessened by the disambiguation due to context. Motto: (French for Justice - Peace - Work) Anthem(s): Capital Kinshasa Largest city Kinshasa Official language(s) French (Lingala, Kikongo, Swahili, Tshiluba are national languages) Government Republic  - President Mobutu Sese Seko Independence From Belgium   - Date June 30, 1960  Area  - Total 2,345,410 km² (12th) 905,567 sq mi   - Water (%) 3. ...

The popular orthographies seem to be a step ahead of any academic based orthography. Many Lingala books, papers, even the translation of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and more recently, Internet forums, newsletters, and major websites, such as Google's Lingala, do not use Lingala specific characters (ɛ and ɔ). Tone marking is in most literary works. Eleanor Roosevelt with the Spanish version of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. ...

Alphabet

The Lingala language has 35 letters and digraphs. The digrams each have a specific order in the alphabet, for example mza will be expected to be ordered before mba, because the digram mb follows the letter m. The letters r and h are rare but present in borrowed words. The accents indicate the tones : Vintage German letter balance for home use Look up letter in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Note: This page contains IPA phonetic symbols in Unicode. ...

• no accent for default tone, the low tone
• acute accent for the high tone
• circumflex for descending tone
• caron for ascending tone

Sample

Lord's Prayer

The Lord's Prayer Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ...

Tatá wa bísó, ozala o likoló,

bato bakúmisa Nkómbó ya Yɔ́,

bandima bokonzi bwa Yɔ́, mpo elingo Yɔ́,

basálá yangó o nsé,

lokóla bakosalaka o likoló

Pésa bísó lɛlɔ́ biléi bya mokɔlɔ na mokɔlɔ,

límbisa mabé ma bísó,

lokóla bísó tokolimbisaka baníngá.

Sálisa bísó tondima masɛ́nginyá tê,

mpe bíkisa bísó o mabé.

See also

• Swadesh list of Lingala words

Bibliography

• Edama, Atibakwa Baboya (1994) Dictionnaire bangála - français - lingála. Agence de Coopération Culturelle et Technique SÉPIA.
• Etsio, Edouard (2003) Parlons lingala / Tobola lingala. Paris: L'Harmattan. ISBN 2-7475-3931-8
• Bokamba, Eyamba George et Bokamba, Molingo Virginie. Tósolola Na Lingála: Let's Speak Lingala (Let's Speak Series). National African Language Resource Center (May 30, 2005) ISBN 0-9679587-5-X
• Guthrie, Malcolm & Carrington, John F. (1988) Lingala: grammar and dictionary: English-Lingala, Lingala-English. London: Baptist Missionary Society.
• Meeuwis, Michael (1998) Lingala. (Languages of the world vol. 261). München: LINCOM Europa. ISBN 3-89586-595-8
• Samarin, William J. (1990) 'The origins of Kituba and Lingala', Journal of African Languages and Linguistics, 12, 47-77.
• Bwantsa-Kafungu, J'apprends le lingala tout seul en trois mois'. Centre de recherche pédagogique, Centre Linguistique Théorique et Appliquée, Kinshasa 1982.

External links

Lingala language edition of Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

• Initiation to Lingala (in French)
• Rosetta Project - Lingala
• UCLA Language Profiles : Lingala
• Google in Lingala
• Ethnologue report on Lingala (previous version)
• Inflections: Problems
• Small Collection of Lingala Online resources
• Small French-Lingala Online Dictionary (fr)
• PanAfriL10n page on Lingala

Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1058x1058, 477 KB) aa Wikipedia logo, version 1058px square, no text Wikipedia logo by Nohat (concept by Paullusmagnus); compare Wikipedia File links The following pages link to this file: Arabic language Talk:Anarcho-capitalism Talk:Algorithm Talk:Anno Domini Talk:The... Wikipedia - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia /**/ @import /skins-1. ...

Notes and references

1. ^ Le grand Dzo : nouveau dictionnaire illustré lingala-français / Adolphe Dzokanga. - 3e éd. Bonneuil sur Marne : A. Dzokanga, 1995