A logical fallacy may mean nothing more than a fallacy or it may mean an error in deductive reasoning, i.e., a formal fallacy. In the latter case, it is a flaw in the structure of a deductive argument as opposed to an error in the premises. When there is a formal fallacy in a deductive argument it is said to be invalid. The presence of a fallacy in a deductive argument does not imply anything about the argument's premises or its conclusion. Both may actually be true, but the deductive argument is still invalid because the conclusion does not follow from the premises. By extension, an argument can have a logical fallacy even if the argument is not a deductive one; for instance an inductive argument that incorrectly applies principles of probability or causality can be said to commit a logical fallacy. Jump to: navigation, search A fallacy is a bad argument. ... The word probability derives from the Latin probare (to prove, or to test). ... Jump to: navigation, search The philosophical concept of causality or causation refers to the set of all particular causal or cause-and-effect relations. ...

Recognizing fallacies in everyday arguments may be difficult since arguments are often imbedded in rhetorical patterns that obscure the logical connections between statements. Informal fallacies may also exploit the emotions or intellectual or psychological weaknesses of the audience. Having the capability to recognize fallacies in arguments will hopefully reduce the likelihood of such an occurrence. Jump to: navigation, search Rhetoric (from Greek ρήτωρ, rhêtôr, orator) is one of the three original liberal arts or trivium (the other members are dialectic and grammar) in Western culture. ... In psychology and common use, emotion is an aspect of a human beings mental state, normally based in or tied to the persons internal (physical) and external (social) sensory feeling. ... Jump to: navigation, search Psychology (Classical Greek: psyche = soul or mind, logos = study of) is an academic and applied field involving the study of behavior and its relationship to the mind and brain. ...

A different approach to understanding and classifying fallacies is provided by argumentation theory; see for instance the van Eemeren, Grootendorst reference below. In this approach, an argument is regarded as an interactive protocol between individuals which attempts to resolve a disagreement. The protocol is regulated by certain rules of interaction and violations of these rules are fallacies. Many of the fallacies in the list below are best understood as being fallacies in this sense. Argumentation theory, or argumentation, is the science of effective civil debate or dialogue and the effective propagation thereof, using rules of inference and logic, as applied in the real world setting. ... The word protocol derives from a Greek phrase meaning first leaf, referring to the first draft of a treaty. ...

(for examples of fallacious arguments see the article on Fallacy) Jump to: navigation, search A fallacy is a bad argument. ...

List of fallacies

The entries in the following list are neither exhaustive nor mutually exclusive, that is, several distinct entries may refer to the same pattern. As noted in the introduction, these fallacies describe erroneous or at least suspect patterns of argument in general, not necessarily argument based on formal logic. Many of the fallacies listed are traditionally recognized and discussed in works on critical thinking; others are more specialized.

• Ad hominem (also called argumentum ad hominem or personal attack) Including:
  • ad hominem abusive (also called argumentum ad personam)
  • ad hominem circumstantial (also called ad hominem circumstantiae)
  • ad hominem tu quoque (also called you too argument)
• Amphibology (also called amphiboly)
• Appeal to authority (also called argumentum ad verecundiam or argument by authority)
• Appeal to belief (also called argumentum ad populum or appeal to the majority)
• Appeal to emotion including:
  • Appeal to consequences (also called argumentum ad consequentiam)
  • Appeal to fear (also called argumentum ad metum or argumentum in terrorem)
  • Appeal to flattery
  • Appeal to pity (also called argumentum ad misericordiam)
  • Appeal to ridicule
  • Appeal to spite (also called argumentum ad odium)
  • Two wrongs make a right
  • Wishful thinking
• Appeal to motive
• Appeal to novelty (also called argumentum ad novitatem)
• Appeal to probability
• Appeal to tradition (also called argumentum ad antiquitatem or appeal to common practice)
• Argument from fallacy (also called argumentum ad logicam)
• Argument from ignorance (also called argumentum ad ignorantiam or argument by lack of imagination)
• Argument from silence (also called argumentum ex silentio)
• Argumentum ad baculum (also called appeal to force)
• Argumentum ad crumenam (also called appeal to wealth)
• Argumentum ad lazarum (also called appeal to poverty)
• Argumentum ad nauseam (also called argument from repetition)
• Argumentum ad numerum
• Bandwagon fallacy (also called appeal to popularity, appeal to the people, or argumentum ad populum)
• Base rate fallacy
• Begging the question (also called petitio principii, circular argument or circular reasoning)
• Cartesian fallacy
• Conjunction fallacy
• Continuum fallacy (also called fallacy of the beard)
• Correlative based fallacies including:
  • Fallacy of many questions (also called complex question, fallacy of presupposition, loaded question or plurium interrogationum)
  • False dilemma (also called false dichotomy or bifurcation)
  • Denying the correlative
  • Suppressed correlative
• Dicto simpliciter, including:
  • Accident (also called a dicto simpliciter ad dictum secundum quid)
  • Converse accident (also called a dicto secundum quid ad dictum simpliciter)
• Equivocation
• Fallacies of distribution:
  • Composition
  • Division
  • Ecological fallacy
• False analogy
• False premise
• False compromise
• Faulty generalization including:
  • Biased sample
  • Hasty generalization (also called fallacy of insufficient statistics, fallacy of insufficient sample, fallacy of the lonely fact, leaping to a conclusion, hasty induction, secundum quid)
  • Overwhelming exception
  • Statistical special pleading
• Gambler's fallacy/Inverse gambler's fallacy
• Genetic fallacy
• Guilt by association
• Historian's fallacy
• Homunculus fallacy
• Ideology over reality
• If-by-whiskey (argues both sides)
• Ignoratio elenchi (also called irrelevant conclusion)
• Inappropriate interpretations or applications of statistics including:
  • Biased sample
  • Correlation implies causation
  • Gambler's fallacy
  • Prosecutor's fallacy
  • Screening test fallacy
• Incomplete comparison
• Inconsistent comparison
• Intentional fallacy
• Invalid proof
• Judgemental language
• Juxtaposition
• Lump of labour fallacy (also called the fallacy of labour scarcity)
• Meaningless statement
• Middle ground (also called argumentum ad temperantiam)
• Misleading vividness
• Naturalistic fallacy
• Negative proof
• Non sequitur including:
  • Affirming the consequent
  • Denying the antecedent
• No true Scotsman
• Package deal fallacy
• Pathetic fallacy
• Perfect solution fallacy
• Poisoning the well
• Proof by assertion
• Proof by verbosity
• Questionable cause (also called non causa pro causa) including:
  • Correlation implies causation (also called cum hoc ergo propter hoc)
  • Fallacy of the single cause
  • Joint effect
  • Post hoc (also called post hoc ergo propter hoc)
  • Regression fallacy
  • Texas sharpshooter fallacy
  • Wrong direction
• Red herring (also called irrelevant conclusion)
• Reification (also called hypostatization)
• Relativist fallacy (also called subjectivist fallacy)
• Retrospective determinism (it happened so it was bound to)
• Shifting the Burden of proof
• Slippery slope
• Special pleading
• Straw man
• Style over substance fallacy
• Syllogistic fallacies, including:
  • Affirming a disjunct
  • Affirmative conclusion from a negative premise
  • Existential fallacy
  • Fallacy of exclusive premises
  • Fallacy of four terms (also called quaternio terminorum)
  • Fallacy of the undistributed middle
  • Illicit major
  • Illicit minor

Jump to: navigation, search An ad hominem argument, also known as argumentum ad hominem (Latin, literally argument to the man), is a logical fallacy that involves replying to an argument or assertion by addressing the person presenting the argument or assertion rather than the argument itself. ... Amphibology or amphiboly (from the Greek amphibolia) is, in logic, a verbal fallacy arising from ambiguity in the grammatical structure of a sentence. ... An appeal to authority is a type of argument in logic also known as argument from authority, argumentum ad verecundiam (Latin: argument to respect) or ipse dixit (Latin: he himself said it, where an unsupported assertion depends on the asserters credibility). ... In logic, an appeal to belief (also called the appeal to the majority or the argumentum ad populum) is a logical fallacy that is committed when someone asserts that a proposition should be held to be true, or more plausible, merely because it is widely believed. ... Appeal to emotion is a logical fallacy wherein the arguer (who is using this fallacy) takes advantage of emotion to prove his or her argument. ... Jump to: navigation, search Appeal to consequences, also known as argumentum ad consequentiam (Latin: argument to the consequences), is an argument that concludes a premise (typically a belief) to be either true or false based on whether the premise leads to desirable or undesirable consequences. ... An appeal to fear (also called argumentum ad metum or argumentum in terrorem) is a logical fallacy in which a person attempts to create support for their idea by playing on existing fears and prejudices. ... Appeal to flattery is a logical fallacy in which a person uses flattery in an attempt to win support for his side. ... An appeal to pity (also called argumentum ad misericordiam) is a logical fallacy in which someone tries to win support for their argument or idea by exploiting their opponents feelings of pity or guilt. ... Appeal to ridicule is a logical fallacy which presents the opponents argument in a way that appears ridiculous and mocking it: If Einstein is right that would mean that when I drive my car it gets shorter and heavier. ... Appeal to spite (also called argumentum ad odium) is a logical fallacy in which someone attempts to win favor for an argument by exploiting existing feelings of bitterness or spite in the opposing party. ... Two wrongs make a right is a logical fallacy that occurs when it is assumed that if one wrong is committed, another second wrong will cancel it out. ... Wishful thinking is the formation of beliefs and making decisions according to what might be pleasing to imagine instead of by appealing to evidence or rationality. ... Appeal to motive is a pattern of argument which consists in challenging a thesis by calling into question the motives of its proposer. ... The appeal to novelty (also called argumentum ad novitatem) is a logical fallacy in which someone claims that his or her idea or proposal is correct or superior because it is new and modern. ... The appeal to probability is a logical fallacy, often used in conjunction with other fallacies. ... Appeal to tradition, also known as appeal to common practice or argumentum ad antiquitatem is a common logical fallacy in which someone proclaims his or her accuracy by noting that this is how its always been done. ... The argument from fallacy, also known as argumentum ad logicam or fallacy fallacy, is a logical fallacy which assumes that because an argument is fallacious then its conclusion must be false. ... Jump to: navigation, search The argument from ignorance, also known as argumentum ad ignorantiam or argument by lack of imagination, is the assertion that if something is currently inexplicable to some people, then it did not (or could not) happen, or that if evidence of something has not been scientifically... The argument from silence (also called argumentum e(x) silentio in Latin) is that the silence of a speaker or writer about X proves or suggests that the speaker or writer is ignorant of X. Here is an example of a legitimate argument from silence: John: Do you know any... Argumentum ad baculum (Latin: argument to the cudgel or appeal to the stick), also known as appeal to horse, is said by some to be a logical fallacy. ... Argumentum ad crumenam is a logical fallacy of thinking a conclusion is correct because the person making the argument is rich. ... Argumentum ad lazarum is the logical fallacy of thinking a conclusion is correct because the subject of the argument is poor. ... Ad nauseam is a Latin term used to describe something that has been continuing to the point of nausea. ... The Argumentum ad numerum or argument from numbers is a logical fallacy that consists of the assertion that the more people who accept or believe an assertion, the more likely that assertion is to be true. ... The bandwagon fallacy, also known as appeal to the people, authority of the many, consensus gentium (from Latin consensus gentium), argument by consensus, appeal to the gallery, appeal to popularity or argumentum ad populum, is a fallacy where something is proven by stating that many or all people believe it... The base rate fallacy, also called base rate neglect, is a logical fallacy that occurs when irrelevant information is used to make a probability judgment, especially when empirical statistics about the probability are available (called the base rate or prior probability). In some experiments, students were asked to estimate the... Jump to: navigation, search In logic, begging the question is the term for a type of fallacy occurring in deductive reasoning in which the proposition to be proved is assumed implicitly or explicitly in one of the premises. ... The term Cartesian Fallacy is used by those who disagree with it to describe the view of philosopher René Descartes with regard to the human mind and body. ... The conjunction fallacy is a logical fallacy that occurs when it is assumed that specific conditions are more probable than general ones. ... In logic, correlative based fallacies, also known as fallacies of distraction, are logical fallacies based on correlative conjunctions. ... Many questions, also known as complex question, loaded question, or plurium interrogationum (Latin, of many questions), is a logical fallacy. ... Jump to: navigation, search The logical fallacy of false dilemma, which is also known as fallacy of the excluded middle, false dichotomy, either/or dilemma or bifurcation, involves a situation in which two alternative points of view are held to be the only options, when in reality there exist one... The logical fallacy of denying the correlative is the opposite of the false dilemma, where an attempt is made at introducing alternatives where there are none. ... The logical fallacy of suppressed correlative is a type of argument which tries to redefine a correlative (two mutually exclusive options) so that one alternative encompasses the other, i. ... The introduction of this article does not provide enough context for readers unfamiliar with the subject. ... The logical fallacy of accident, also called destroying the exception or a dicto simpliciter ad dictum secundum quid, is a deductive fallacy occurring in statistical syllogisms (an argument based on a generalization) when an exception to the generalization is ignored. ... The logical fallacy of converse accident (also called reverse accident, destroying the exception or a dicto secundum quid ad dictum simpliciter) is a deductive fallacy that can occur in a statistical syllogism when an exception to a generalization is wrongly called for. ... The fallacy of equivocation is committed when someone uses the same word in different meanings in an argument, implying that the word means the same each time round. ... A fallacy of distribution is a logical fallacy occurring when an argument assumes there is no difference between a term in the distributive (referring to every member of a class) and collective (referring to the class itself as a whole) sense. ... A fallacy of composition arises when one claims the whole is true because its part is true. ... A fallacy of division occurs when someone reasons logically that something that is true of a thing must also be true of its constituents. ... The ecological fallacy is a widely recognised error in the interpretation of statistical data, whereby inferences about the nature of individuals are based solely upon aggregate statistics collected for the group to which those individuals belong. ... False analogy is a logical fallacy applying to inductive arguments. ... A false premise is an erroneous proposition on which a statement is made or conclusion is drawn. ... A false compromise is a logical fallacy: X and Y are opposite alternatives. ... A faulty generalization, also known as an inductive fallacy, is any of several errors of inductive inference: Hasty generalization is the fallacy of examining just one or very few examples or studying a single case, and generalizing that to be representative of the whole class of objects or phenomena. ... A biased sample is one that is falsely taken to be typical of a population from which it is drawn. ... Hasty generalization, also known as fallacy of insufficient statistics, fallacy of insufficient sample, fallacy of the lonely fact, leaping to a conclusion, hasty induction or secundum quid, is the logical fallacy of reaching an inductive generalization based on too little evidence. ... Statistical special pleading is a logical fallacy which occurs when the interpretation of the relevant statistic is massaged by looking for ways to reclassify or requantify data from one portion of results, but not applying the same scrutiny to other categories. ... The gamblers fallacy is one of many common misunderstandings which arise in everyday reasoning about probabilities, many of which have been studied in a great detail. ... The inverse gamblers fallacy is a tempting mistake in judgments of probability, comparable to the gamblers fallacy whence its name derives. ... The genetic fallacy is a logical fallacy in which the origin of a belief, claim, or theory is confused with its justification. ... Guilt by association, also known as the bad company fallacy or the company that you keep fallacy, is the logical fallacy of claiming that something must be false because of the people or organisations who support it. ... The historians fallacy is a logical fallacy that occurs by assuming that decision makers of the past viewed events from the same perspective and having the same information as those subsequently analyzing the decision. ... A homunculus argument accounts for a phenomenon in terms of the very phenomenon that it is supposed to explain. ... This article does not cite its references or sources. ... In political discourse, if-by-whiskey is a relativist fallacy where the response to a question is contingent on the questioners opinion. ... Ignoratio elenchi (also known as irrelevant conclusion) is the logical fallacy of presenting an argument that may in itself be valid, but which proves or supports a different proposition than the one it is purporting to prove or support. ... A biased sample is one that is falsely taken to be typical of a population from which it is drawn. ... Correlation implies causation, also known as cum hoc ergo propter hoc (Latin for with this, therefore because of this) and false cause, is a logical fallacy by which two events that occur together are claimed to be cause and effect. ... The gamblers fallacy is one of many common misunderstandings which arise in everyday reasoning about probabilities, many of which have been studied in a great detail. ... The prosecutors fallacy is a fallacy of statistical reasoning that takes several forms. ... Bayesian inference is statistical inference in which probabilities are interpreted not as frequencies or proportions or the like, but rather as degrees of belief. ... Intentional fallacy is a literary term that asserts that the meaning intended by the author of a literary work is not the only, and perhaps not the most important, meaning of the piece. ... In mathematics, there are a variety of spurious proofs of obvious contradictions. ... Judgemental language is a subset of Style over substance fallacy and Red herring fallacies. ... Juxtaposition (noun) is an act or instance of placing two things close together or side by side. ... This article may be too technical for most readers to understand. ... A meaningless statement is a statement which posits nothing of substance which can be agreed or disagreed with. ... The middle ground (also called argumentum ad temperantiam) between extreme points of view is often described as the logical place to find truth. ... The logical fallacy of misleading vividness involves describing some occurrence in vivid detail, even if it is an exceptional occurrence, to convince someone that it is a problem. ... George E. Moore The naturalistic fallacy is an alleged logical fallacy, identified by British philosopher G.E. Moore in Principia Ethica (1903), which Moore stated was committed whenever a philosopher attempts to prove a claim about ethics by appealing to a definition of the term good in terms of one... Jump to: navigation, search The fallacy of appealing to lack of proof of the negative is a type of logical fallacy of the following form: This exists because there is no proof that it does not exist. ... Non sequitur is Latin for it does not follow. ... Affirming the consequent is a logical fallacy in the form of a hypothetical proposition. ... Denying the antecedent is a type of logical fallacy. ... No true Scotsman is a term coined by Antony Flew in his 1975 book It refers to an argument which takes this form: Argument: Ach! No Scotsman puts sugar on his porridge. ... The logical fallacy of the package deal consists of assuming that things often grouped together by tradition or culture must always be grouped that way. ... Jump to: navigation, search The pathetic fallacy is the logical fallacy of treating nonhuman or inanimate objects or conceptual entities such as countries as if they have thoughts or feelings. ... The perfect solution fallacy is a logical fallacy that occurs when an argument assumes that a perfect solution exists and/or that a solution should be rejected because some part of the problem would still exist after it was implemented. ... Poisoning the well is a pre-emptive logical fallacy where adverse information about someone is presented to an audience, with the intention of discrediting everything he is about to say. ... Proof by verbosity is a term used to describe an excessively verbose mathematical proof that may or may not actually prove the result. ... Fallacies of questionable cause, also known as causal fallacies, non causa pro causa (non-cause for cause in Latin) or false cause, are informal fallacies where a cause is incorrectly identified. ... Correlation implies causation, also known as cum hoc ergo propter hoc (Latin for with this, therefore because of this) and false cause, is a logical fallacy by which two events that occur together are claimed to be cause and effect. ... The fallacy of the single cause, also known as joint effect or causal oversimplification, is a logical fallacy of causation that occurs when it is assumed that there is one, simple cause of an outcome when in reality it may have been caused by a number of only jointly sufficient... Joint effect is a logical fallacy of causation in which two phenomena that have a common cause are thought to be cause and effect themselves. ... Post hoc ergo propter hoc is Latin for after this, therefore because of this. ... The regression (or regressive) fallacy is a logical fallacy where regression towards the mean is seen not as a natural fluctuation but as being brought about by a specific cause. ... The Texas sharpshooter fallacy is a logical fallacy where a cluster of statistically non-significant data is taken from its context, and therefore thought to have a common cause. ... Wrong direction is a logical fallacy of causation where cause and effect are reversed. ... Ignoratio elenchi (also known as irrelevant conclusion) is the logical fallacy of presenting an argument that may in itself be valid, but which proves or supports a different proposition than the one it is purporting to prove or support. ... Reification, also called hypostatisation, is treating an abstract concept as if it were a real, concrete thing. ... The relativist fallacy, also known as the subjectivist fallacy, is a logical fallacy committed, roughly speaking, when one person claims that something may be true for one person but not true for someone else. ... Retrospective determinism is the logical fallacy that because something happened, it was therefore bound to happen. ... Jump to: navigation, search In the common law, burden of proof is the obligation to prove allegations which are presented in a legal action. ... In the contexts of debate or of rhetoric, the phrase slippery slope, also appearing as the thin end of the wedge or the camels nose, refers both to an argument about the likelihood of one event given another, and to a fallacy about the inevitability of one event given... Special pleading is a form of spurious argumentation. ... Jump to: navigation, search A straw man or man of straw is a dummy in the shape of a human created by stuffing straw into clothes. ... The Style over substance fallacy occurs when one emphasises the way in which the argument is presented, while marginalising (or outright ignoring) the content of the argument. ... Syllogistic fallacies are logical fallacies that occur in syllogisms. ... The logical fallacy of affirming a disjunct occurs in a disjunctive syllogism when an argument takes the form: Either A or B (this is the disjunct) A (Affirming the middle term) Therefore, not B The fallacy lies in concluding that B must be false because A is true; in fact... Affirmative conclusion from a negative premise is a logical fallacy that is committed when a categorical syllogism has a positive conclusion, but one or two negative premises. ... The existential fallacy is a logical fallacy committed in a categorical syllogism that is invalid because it has two universal premises and a particular conclusion. ... The fallacy of exclusive premises is a formal fallacy committed in a categorical syllogism that is invalid because both of its premises are negative. ... The fallacy of four terms (Latin: quaternio terminorum) is a logical fallacy that occurs when a three-part syllogism has four terms. ... The fallacy of the undistributed middle is a logical fallacy that is committed when the middle term in a categorical syllogism isnt distributed. ... This article may be too technical for most readers to understand. ... Illicit minor is a logical fallacy committed in a categorical syllogism that is invalid because its minor term is undistributed in the minor premise but distributed in the conclusion. ...

See also

• Anecdotal evidence
• Cogency
• Cognitive bias
• College logic
• Critical thinking
• Demagogy
• Fallacy
• Fallacies of definition
• False statement
• Good argument
• Informal logic
• Invalid proof
• Sophism
• Soundness
• Spurious relationship
• Validity

Anecdotal evidence is unreliable evidence based on personal observations and experiences (often recounted by way of anecdote) that has not been empirically tested, and which is often used in an argument as if it had been scientifically or statistically proven. ... An argument is cogent if, and only if, supposing the premises all to be true, then the conclusion is probably (but not necessarily) true. ... Cognitive bias is any of a wide range of observer effects identified in cognitive science, including very basic statistical and memory errors that are common to all human beings and drastically skew the reliability of anecdotal and legal evidence. ... Logic is the study of argument — not angry disagreements or fisticuffs, but instead the giving of reasons to believe things. ... are you kiddin ? i was lookin for it for hours ... Demagogy is the set of methods used by demagogues. ... Jump to: navigation, search A fallacy is a bad argument. ... Fallacies of definition refer to the various ways in which definitions can fail to have merit. ... This article is being considered for deletion in accordance with Wikipedias deletion policy. ... An argument is cogent if, and only if, supposing the premises all to be true, then the conclusion is probably (but not necessarily) true. ... Informal logic is the study of arguments as presented in ordinary language, as contrasted with the presentations of arguments in an artificial (technical) or formal language (see formal logic). ... In mathematics, there are a variety of spurious proofs of obvious contradictions. ... Sophism was originally a term for the techniques taught by a highly respected group of philosophy and rhetoric teachers in ancient Greece. ... (This article discusses the soundess notion of informal logic. ... In statistics, a spurious relationship (or, sometimes, spurious correlation) is a mathematical relationship in which two occurrences have no logical connection, yet it may be implied that they do, due to a certain third, unseen factor (referred to as a confounding factor or lurking variable). The spurious relationship gives an... This article discusses validity in logic, for the term in the social sciences see validity (psychometric). ...

References

• Aristoteles, On Sophistical Refutations, De Sophistici Elenchi.
• William of Ockham, Summa of Logic (ca. 1323) Part III.4.
• John Buridan, Summulae de dialectica Book VII.
• Francis Bacon, the doctrine of the idols in Novum Organum Scientiarum, Aphorisms concerning The Interpretation of Nature and the Kingdom of Man, XXIIIff.
• The Art of Controversy | Die Kunst, Recht zu behalten - The Art Of Controversy (bilingual), by Arthur Schopenhauer
• John Stuart Mill, A System of Logic - Raciocinative and Inductive. Book 5, Chapter 7, Fallacies of Confusion.
• C. L. Hamblin, Fallacies. Methuen London, 1970.
• D. H. Fischer, Historians' Fallacies: Toward a Logic of Historical Thought, Harper Torchbooks, 1970.
• Douglas N. Walton, Informal logic: A handbook for critical argumentation. Cambridge University Press, 1989.
• F. H. van Eemeren and R. Grootendorst, Argumentation, Communication and Fallacies: A Pragma-Dialectical Perspective, Lawrence Erlbaum and Associates, 1992.
• "Logic", an article from Philosophical Society.com

Arthur Schopenhauer (February 22, 1788 – September 21, 1860) was a German philosopher. ... Jump to: navigation, search 1970 was a common year starting on Thursday. ... Jump to: navigation, search 1989 is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Jump to: navigation, search 1992 was a leap year starting on Wednesday. ...

External links

• The Fallacy Files by Gary N. Curtis
• Logical Fallacies from Philosophical Society.com
• Logical Fallacies Online edition of Madsen Pirie's Book of the Fallacy
• Logic & Fallacies, from Atheism Web (no strict relation to Atheism)
• Logic and fallacies: How to spot a problem argument
• Stephen's Guide to the Logical Fallacies (Mirror)(Mirror)
• Bruce Thompson's table of fallacies
• Logical fallacies on WikiWikiWeb
• The Woolly-Thinker's Guide to Rhetoric
• The Autonomist's Logical Fallacies
• A list of Fallacious Arguments
• Propaganda techniques at Disinfopedia
• Logical fallacies > Bad logic or propaganda? connection between logical fallacy and propaganda
• Informal Fallacies by Michael Connelly, contributed to the Critical Thinking Across the Curriculum Project.
• Papers on fallacies and argumentation by Douglas N. Walton.
• A Guide to Logical Fallacies by Paul Newall, aimed at beginners.
• Geometric Fallacies