Paradigm shift is the term first used by Thomas Kuhn in his 1962 book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions to describe a change in basic assumptions within the ruling theory of science Image File history File links Question_book-3. ... Image File history File links Gnome-globe. ... Thomas Samuel Kuhn (July 18, 1922 – June 17, 1996) was an American intellectual who wrote extensively on the history of science and developed several important notions in the philosophy of science. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ...

List of paradigm shifts in science

• Throughout history, there has been changes to the biological kingdoms as new ones have been discovered. Carolus Linnaeus initially classified living things as either animal or vegetable (plant), with a third category (mineral) for non-living things. The invention of the microscope and the discovery of microscopic organisms eventually led to the creation of the bacteria and protist kingdoms. In 1968, it was proposed that fungi should be in their own kingdom, as they are dinstinct from plants. The discovery of archaebacteria proposed adding a sixth kingdom. Each of these discoveries was a paradigm shift for biologists.

• 16th and 17th Centuries: The theory of impetus, used to explain the nature of falling objects, is replaced by the concept of inertia developed by Galileo Galilei and Isaac Newton.

• 17th Century: The transition from a Ptolemaic cosmology to a Copernican one.

• 18th Century: The unification of classical physics by Newton into a coherent mechanical worldview.

• 18th Century or 19th Century: The acceptance of Lavoisier's theory of chemical reactions and combustion in place of phlogiston theory, known as the Chemical Revolution. Lavoisier's theory also refuted the alchemy concept of transmutation.

• 1872: The shift in geometric outlook from particular structures to symmetry groups in Felix Klein's Erlangen program.

• Late 19th Century: The transition of biology from a creationist model to an evolutionary model.

• 1880s to Early 20th Century: The Germ theory of disease replaces all other models of infection.

• 1909: Ernest Rutherford demonstrates in his gold-foil experiment that even though objects may appear to be solid, all matter consists of mostly empty space.

• Early 20th Century: The transition between the worldview of Newtonian physics and the Einsteinian Relativistic worldview.

• Early 20th Century: The transition between the Maxwellian Electromagnetic worldview and the Einsteinian Relativistic worldview.

• Early 20th Century: Development of the Big Bang model as an alternative to the creationist origin of the universe.

• Early 20th Century: The discoveries of nuclear fission and nuclear fusion demonstrate that mechanisms exist to transmute one chemical element into another.

• 1912-1961: Plate tectonics vindicates Wegener's theory of continental drift.

• 1930s: The development of Quantum mechanics, which redefined classical mechanics.

• Mid to late 20th Century: The movement, known as the Cognitive revolution, away from Behaviourist approaches to psychological study and the acceptance of cognition as central to studying human behaviour.

• Late 20th Century: The change in psychiatry from Freudian psychoanalysis to a basis of neurochemistry.

• Late 20th Century: With the discovery of chaos theory, the realization that the behavior of complex systems cannot be predicted with perfect certainty.

• 1970s to 1980s: The revision of the central dogma of molecular biology, which states that information can only be passed from DNA to RNA to protein, after HIV and other retroviruses were found to make DNA from RNA, and by the discovery of prions.

• 1990s: The discovery of the infectious agent Helicobacter pylori as the cause of peptic ulcers and gastroesophageal reflux disease replaces the common assumption that the conditions are caused by stress.

Ernst Haeckels presentation of a three-kingdom system (Plantae, Protista, Animalia) in his 1866 Generelle Morphologie der Organismen). ... Carl Linnaeus, Latinized as Carolus Linnaeus, also known after his ennoblement as  , (May 13, 1707[1] – January 10, 1778), was a Swedish botanist, physician and zoologist[2] who laid the foundations for the modern scheme of nomenclature. ... For other uses, see Animal (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Plant (disambiguation). ... Phyla Actinobacteria Aquificae Chlamydiae Bacteroidetes/Chlorobi Chloroflexi Chrysiogenetes Cyanobacteria Deferribacteres Deinococcus-Thermus Dictyoglomi Fibrobacteres/Acidobacteria Firmicutes Fusobacteria Gemmatimonadetes Lentisphaerae Nitrospirae Planctomycetes Proteobacteria Spirochaetes Thermodesulfobacteria Thermomicrobia Thermotogae Verrucomicrobia Bacteria (singular: bacterium) are unicellular microorganisms. ... Typical phyla Chromalveolata Chromista Heterokontophyta Haptophyta Cryptophyta (cryptomonads) Alveolata Dinoflagellata Apicomplexa Ciliophora (ciliates) Cabozoa Excavata Euglenozoa Percolozoa Metamonada Rhizaria Radiolaria Foraminifera Cercozoa Archaeplastida (in part) Rhodophyta (red algae) Glaucophyta (basal archaeplastids) Amoebozoa Choanozoa Many others; classification varies Protists (IPA: (RP); (GenAm)), Greek protiston -a meaning the (most) first of all... Divisions Chytridiomycota Zygomycota Ascomycota Basidiomycota The Fungi (singular: fungus) are a large group of organisms ranked as a kingdom within the Domain Eukaryota. ... Phyla / Classes Phylum Crenarchaeota Phylum Euryarchaeota     Halobacteria     Methanobacteria     Methanococci     Methanopyri     Archaeoglobi     Thermoplasmata     Thermococci Phylum Korarchaeota Phylum Nanoarchaeota The Archaea are a major group of prokaryotes. ... The Theory of impetus is a now obsolete theory of Classical mechanics developed in the 14th century. ... This article is about inertia as it applies to local motion. ... Galileo redirects here. ... Sir Isaac Newton FRS (4 January 1643 – 31 March 1727) [ OS: 25 December 1642 – 20 March 1727][1] was an English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, natural philosopher, and alchemist. ... This article is about the historical term. ... Cosmology, from the Greek: κοσμολογία (cosmologia, κόσμος (cosmos) order + λογια (logia) discourse) is the study of the Universe in its totality, and by extension, humanitys place in it. ... Heliocentric Solar System Heliocentrism (lower panel) in comparison to the geocentric model (upper panel) In astronomy, heliocentrism is the theory that the sun is at the centre of the Universe and/or the Solar System. ... Sir Isaac Newton FRS (4 January 1643 – 31 March 1727) [ OS: 25 December 1642 – 20 March 1727][1] was an English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, natural philosopher, and alchemist. ... Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier (August 26, 1743 - May 8, 1794) was a French nobleman prominent in the histories of chemistry, finance, biology, and economics. ... Phlogiston theory was a 17th century attempt to explain oxidation processes, such as fire and rust. ... The Chemical Revolution (or the first chemical revolution) denotes the reformulation of chemistry based on the Law of Conservation of Matter and the oxygen theory of combustion, and centered on the work of Antoine Lavoisier. ... For other uses, see Alchemy (disambiguation). ... Calabi-Yau manifold Geometry (Greek γεωμετρία; geo = earth, metria = measure) is a part of mathematics concerned with questions of size, shape, and relative position of figures and with properties of space. ... Sphere symmetry group o. ... Felix Christian Klein (April 25, 1849, Düsseldorf, Germany – June 22, 1925, Göttingen) was a German mathematician, known for his work in group theory, function theory, non-Euclidean geometry, and on the connections between geometry and group theory. ... An influential research programme and manifesto was published in 1872 by Felix Klein, under the title Vergleichende Betrachtungen über neuere geometrische Forschungen. ... Creationism is generally the belief that the universe was created by a deity, or alternatively by one or more powerful and intelligent beings. ... This article is about evolution in biology. ... The germ theory of disease, also called the pathogenic theory of medicine, is a theory that proposes that microorganisms are the cause of many diseases. ... Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron Rutherford of Nelson OM PC FRS (30 August 1871 - 19 October 1937), widely referred to as Lord Rutherford, was a nuclear physicist who became known as the father of nuclear physics. ... Classical mechanics is a model of the physics of forces acting upon bodies. ... “Einstein” redirects here. ... Two-dimensional analogy of space-time curvature described in General Relativity. ... James Clerk Maxwell (13 June 1831 – 5 November 1879) was a Scottish mathematician and theoretical physicist from Edinburgh, Scotland, UK. His most significant achievement was aggregating a set of equations in electricity, magnetism and inductance — eponymously named Maxwells equations — including an important modification (extension) of the Ampères... The luminiferous aether: it was hypothesised that the Earth moves through a medium of aether that carries light In the late 19th century the luminiferous aether (light-bearing aether), or ether, was a substance postulated to be the medium for the propagation of light. ... “Einstein” redirects here. ... Two-dimensional analogy of space-time curvature described in General Relativity. ... For other uses, see Big Bang (disambiguation). ... Creationism is generally the belief that the universe was created by a deity, or alternatively by one or more powerful and intelligent beings. ... An induced nuclear fission event. ... The deuterium-tritium (D-T) fusion reaction is considered the most promising for producing fusion power. ... The tectonic plates of the world were mapped in the second half of the 20th century. ... Plates in the crust of the earth, according to the plate tectonics theory Continental drift refers to the movement of the Earths continents relative to each other. ... For a less technical and generally accessible introduction to the topic, see Introduction to quantum mechanics. ... The cognitive revolution is a name for an intellectual movement in the 1950s that combined new thinking in psychology, anthropology and linguistics with the nascent fields of computer science and neuroscience. ... Psychiatry is a branch of medicine dealing with the prevention, assessment, diagnosis, treatment, and rehabilitation of the mind and mental illness. ... pychoanalysis today comprises several interlocking theories concerning the functioning of the mind; the term also refers to a specific type of treatment where the analyst, upon hearing the thoughts of the analysand (analytic patient), formulates and then explains the unconscious bases for the patients symptoms and character problems. ... Neurochemistry is a branch of neuroscience that is heavily devoted to the study of neurochemicals. ... For other uses, see Chaos Theory (disambiguation). ... Information flow in biological systems The central dogma of molecular biology was first enunciated by Francis Crick in 1958[1] and re-stated in a Nature paper published in 1970:[2] POSTLEWAITE IS A TOOL The central dogma of molecular biology deals with the detailed residue-by-residue transfer of... The structure of part of a DNA double helix Deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA, is a nucleic acid molecule that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms. ... Ribonucleic acid or RNA is a nucleic acid polymer consisting of nucleotide monomers that plays several important roles in the processes that translate genetic information from deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) into protein products; RNA acts as a messenger between DNA and the protein synthesis complexes known as ribosomes, forms vital portions... A representation of the 3D structure of myoglobin, showing coloured alpha helices. ... Species Human immunodeficiency virus 1 Human immunodeficiency virus 2 Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a retrovirus that causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS, a condition in humans in which the immune system begins to fail, leading to life-threatening opportunistic infections). ... Genera Alpharetrovirus Betaretrovirus Gammaretrovirus Deltaretrovirus Epsilonretrovirus Lentivirus Spumavirus A retrovirus is a virus which has a genome consisting of two identical plus sense RNA molecules. ... For the bird called a prion, see Prion (bird) Prions - short for proteinaceous infectious particle - are infectious self-reproducing protein structures. ... Binomial name ((Marshall 1985) Goodwin 1989) ICD-9 code: 041. ... Peptic ulcer is a non-malignant ulcer of the stomach (called gastric ulcer) or duodenum (called duodenal ulcer). ... Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD; or GORD when spelling Å“sophageal, the BrE form) is defined as chronic symptoms or mucosal damage produced by the abnormal reflux in the esophagus[1]. This is commonly due to transient or permanent changes in the barrier between the esophagus and the stomach. ...

See also

• Social effect of evolutionary theory
• Scientific revolution
• Natural philosophy
• Scientific skepticism
• Philosophical skepticism
• Rationalism
• Scientific mythology