Preparing C-4 explosive

This article is concerned solely with chemical explosives. There are many other varieties of more exotic explosive material, and theoretical methods of causing explosions such as nuclear explosives and antimatter, and other methods of producing explosions, such as abrupt heating with a high-intensity laser or electric arc.

Any explosive material has the following characteristics: Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (3008x1960, 4192 KB) Lifted from [1] Caption: Pfc. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (3008x1960, 4192 KB) Lifted from [1] Caption: Pfc. ... Preparing C-4 explosive C-4 or Composition C-4 is a common variety of military plastic explosive. ... A chemical compound is a chemical substance formed from two or more elements, with a fixed ratio determining the composition. ... A nuclear explosive is an explosive device that derives its energy from nuclear reactions. ... Antimatter or contra-terrene matter is matter that is composed of the antiparticles of those that constitute normal matter. ... Lasers range in size from microscopic diode lasers (top) with numerous applications, to football field sized neodymium glass lasers (bottom) used for inertial confinement fusion, nuclear weapons research and other high energy density physics experiments. ... An electric arc can melt calcium oxide. ...

• It is chemically or otherwise energetically unstable.
• The initiation produces a sudden expansion of the material accompanied by the production of heat and large changes in pressure (and typically also a flash or loud noise) which is called the explosion.

Multicolored chemicals are frequent hallmarks of chemistry. ... In physics, heat is defined as energy in transit. ...

Chemical explosives

Explosives are classified as low or high explosives according to their rates of decomposition: low explosives burn rapidly (or deflagrate), while high explosives undergo detonation. No sharp distinction exists between low and high explosives, because of the difficulties inherent in precisely observing and measuring rapid decomposition. The chemical decomposition of an explosive may take years, days, hours, or a fraction of a second. The slower processes of decomposition take place in storage and are of interest only from a stability standpoint. Of more interest are the two rapid forms of decomposition, deflagration and detonation. The term "detonation" is used to describe an explosive phenomenon whereby the decomposition is propagated by the explosive shockwave traversing the explosive material. The shockwave front is capable of passing through the high explosive material at great speeds, typically thousands of meters per second. Explosive force is released in a direction perpendicular to the surface of the explosive. If the surface is cut or shaped, the explosive forces can be focused directionally, and will produce a greater local effect. This is known as a shaped charge. In a low explosive, the decomposition is propagated by a flame front which travels much more slowly through the explosive material. The properties of the explosive indicate the class into which it falls. In some cases explosives can be made to fall into either class by the conditions under which they are initiated. In sufficiently massive quantities, almost all low explosives can undergo true detonation like high explosives. For convenience, low and high explosives may be differentiated by the shipping and storage classes. chemical decomposition is the gradual fragmentation of a chemical compound into smaller molecules. ... This article is in need of attention; please see the talk page. ... A year is the time between two recurrences of an event related to the orbit of the Earth around the Sun. ... A day (symbol: d) is a unit of time equal to 24 hours. ... The hour (symbol: h) is a unit of time. ... Look up second in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Deflagration is a process of subsonic combustion that usually propagates through thermoconductivity (hot burning material heats next layer of cold material and ignites it). ... A weapons cache is detonated at the East River Range on Bagram Airfield, Afghanistan Detonation is a process of supersonic combustion that involves a shock wave and a reaction zone behind it. ... A weapons cache is detonated at the East River Range on Bagram Airfield, Afghanistan Detonation is a process of supersonic combustion that involves a shock wave and a reaction zone behind it. ... A phenomenon (plural: phenomena) is an observable event, especially something special (literally something that can be seen from the Greek word phainomenon = observable). ... The word propagation can mean: Multiplication or increase, as by natural reproduction. ... For the vector animation platform, see Macromedia Shockwave. ... Sectioned HEAT round with the inner shaped charge visible A shaped charge is an explosive charge shaped to focus the effect of the explosives energy. ... Differentiation can mean the following: In biology: cellular differentiation; evolutionary differentiation; In mathematics: see: derivative In cosmogony: planetary differentiation Differentiation (geology); Differentiation (logic); Differentiation (marketing). ...

Explosive compatibility groupings

Explosives warning sign

Shipping tags will include a UN or US DOT hazardous material class with compatibility letter as follows. Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... The United States Department of Transportation (DOT) is a Cabinet department of the United States government concerned with transport. ... A hazardous material (HAZMAT) is any solid, liquid, or gas that can cause harm to humans, other living organisms, or the environment due to being radioactive, flammable, explosive, toxic, corrosive, a biohazard, an oxidizer, an asphyxiant, or capable of causing severe allergic reactions. ...

• 1.1 Mass Explosion Hazard
• 1.2 Nonmass explosion, fragment-producing
• 1.3 Mass fire, minor blast or fragment hazard
• 1.4 Moderate fire, no blast or fragment: consumer fireworks are 1.4G or 1.4S
• 1.5 Explosive substance, very insensitive (with a mass explosion hazard)
• 1.6 Explosive article, extremely insensitive

A Primary explosive substance (1.1A, 1.2A)

B An article containing a primary explosive substance and not containing two or more effective protective features. Some articles, such as detonator assemblies for blasting and primers, cap-type, are included. (1.1B, 1.2B, 1.4B)

C Propellant explosive substance or other deflagrating explosive substance or article containing such explosive substance (1.1C, 1.2C, 1.3C, 1.4C)

D Secondary detonating explosive substance or black powder or article containing a secondary detonating explosive substance, in each case without means of initiation and without a propelling charge, or article containing a primary explosive substance and containing two or more effective protective features. (1.1D, 1.2D, 1.4D, 1.5D)

E Article containing a secondary detonating explosive substance without means of initiation, with a propelling charge (other than one containing flammable liquid, gel or hypergolic liquid) (1.1E, 1.2E, 1.4E)

F Article containing a secondary detonating explosive substance with its means of initiation, with a propelling charge (other than one containing flammable liquid, gel or hypergolic liquid) or without a propelling charge (1.1F, 1.2F, 1.3F, 1.4F)

G Pyrotechnic substance or article containing a pyrotechnic substance, or article containing both an explosive substance and an illuminating, incendiary, tear-producing or smoke-producing substance (other than a water-activated article or one containing white phosphorus, phosphide or flammable liquid or gel or hypergolic liquid) (1.1G, 1.2G, 1.3G, 1.4G)

H Article containing both an explosive substance and white phosphorus (1.2H, 1.3H)

J Article containing both an explosive substance and flammable liquid or gel (1.1J, 1.2J, 1.3J)

K Article containing both an explosive substance and a toxic chemical agent (1.2K, 1.3K)

L Explosive substance or article containing an explosive substance and presenting a special risk (e.g., due to water-activation or presence of hypergolic liquids, phosphides or pyrophoric substances) needing isolation of each type (1.1L, 1.2L, 1.3L)

N Articles containing only extremely insensitive detonating substances (1.6N)

S Substance or article so packed or designed that any hazardous effects arising from accidental functioning are limited to the extent that they do not significantly hinder or prohibit fire fighting or other emergency response efforts in the immediate vicinity of the package (1.4S)

Low Explosives

A low explosive is a combustible substance that decomposes rapidly (deflagration), but does not explode under normal conditions. Under certain conditions, though, it is possible for them to detonate, usually through the combined use with high explosives. For other uses see fire (disambiguation). ... Deflagration is a process of subsonic combustion that usually propagates through thermoconductivity (hot burning material heats next layer of cold material and ignites it). ... A weapons cache is detonated at the East River Range on Bagram Airfield, Afghanistan Detonation is a process of supersonic combustion that involves a shock wave and a reaction zone behind it. ... This article is concerned solely with chemical explosives. ...

Low explosives are normally employed as propellants. Most low explosives are mixtures; most high explosives are compounds, but to both there are notable exceptions. They undergo deflagration at rates that vary from a few centimeters per second to approximately 400 meters per second. Included in this group are smokeless powders and pyrotechnics such as flares and illumination devices. A propellant is a material that is used to move an object by applying a motive force. ... Deflagration is a process of subsonic combustion that usually propagates through thermoconductivity (hot burning material heats next layer of cold material and ignites it). ... cm redirects here, alternate uses: cm (disambiguation) A centimetre (symbol cm; American spelling: centimeter) is an SI unit of length. ... metre or meter, see meter (disambiguation) The metre is the basic unit of length in the International System of Units. ...

High Explosives

High explosives are normally employed in mining, demolition, and military warheads. They undergo detonation at rates of 1,000 to 9,000 meters per second. High explosives are conventionally subdivided into two classes differentiated by sensitivity:

• Primary explosives are extremely sensitive to shock, friction, and heat. They will burn rapidly or detonate if ignited.
• Secondary explosives, also called base explosives, are relatively insensitive to shock, friction, and heat. They may burn when ignited in small, unconfined quantities, but detonation can occur. These are sometimes added in small amounts to blasting caps to boost their power. Dynamite, TNT, RDX, PETN, HMX, and others are secondary explosives. PETN is often considered a benchmark compound, with materials that are more sensitive than PETN being classified as primary explosives.

Some definitions add a third category: A primary explosive is an explosive that is extremely sensitive to stimuli such as impact, friction, thermal, or electrostatic sources of initiation. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Trinitrotoluene (TNT, or Trotyl) is a pale yellow crystalline aromatic hydrocarbon compound that melts at 354 K (178 Â°F, 81 °C). ... Wikibooks Chemical synthesis has more about this subject: Cyclonite synthesis Cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine, also known as RDX, cyclonite, hexogen, and T4, is an nitroamine and explosive material widely used by the military. ... PETN (Pentaerythritol Tetranitrate, also known as Penthrite) is one of the strongest known high explosives, with a relative effectiveness factor (R.E. factor) of 1. ... HMX, also called octogen or cyclotetramethylene-tetranitramine, is a powerful, and relatively insensitive, nitroamine high explosive, chemically related to RDX. History First made in 1930, it is used almost exclusively in military applications including as the detonators in nuclear weapons, in the form of plastic bonded explosive, and as a...

• Tertiary explosives, also called blasting agents, are so insensitive to shock that they cannot be reliably detonated by practical quantities of primary explosive, and instead require an intermediate explosive booster of secondary explosive. Examples include an Ammonium Nitrate/Fuel Oil mixture (ANFO) and slurry or 'Wet Bag' explosives. These are primarily used in large-scale mining and construction operations.

Note that many if not most explosive chemical compounds may usefully deflagrate as well as detonate, and are used in high as well as low explosive compositions. This also means that under extreme conditions, a propellant can detonate. For example, nitrocellulose deflagrates if ignited, but detonates if initiated by a detonator. An explosive booster acts as a bridge between a low energy explosive and a low sensitivity (but typically high energy) explosive. ... ANFO stands for Ammonium Nitrate / Fuel Oil (most often diesel fuel, sometimes kerosene). ... Deflagration is a process of subsonic combustion that usually propagates through thermoconductivity (hot burning material heats next layer of cold material and ignites it). ... Nitrocellulose (Cellulose nitrate, guncotton) is a highly flammable compound formed by nitrating cellulose (e. ...

Detonation of an Explosive Charge

Also called an initiation sequence or a firing train, this is the sequence of events that progresses from relatively low levels of energy to cause a chain reaction to initiate the final explosive material or main charge. They can be either low or high explosive trains. Low explosive trains are as simple as a rifle cartridge, including a primer and a propellant charge. High explosives trains can be more complex, either two-step (e.g., detonator and dynamite) or three-step (e.g., detonator, booster of primary explosive, and main charge of secondary explosive). Detonators are often made from tetryl and fulminates, A detonator is a device used to trigger bombs, shaped charges and other forms of explosive material and explosive devices. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... An explosive booster acts as a bridge between a low energy explosive and a low sensitivity (but typically high energy) explosive. ... Tetryl is a sensitive explosive compound used to make detonators. ... Fulminates are chemical compounds which includes the fulminate anion. ...

Composition of the material

Mixtures of an oxidizer and a fuel

• Black powder: potassium nitrate, charcoal and sulfur
• Flash powder: fine metal powder (usually aluminium or magnesium) and a strong oxidizer (e.g. potassium chlorate or perchlorate).
• Ammonal: ammonium nitrate and aluminium powder.
• Armstrong's mixture: potassium chlorate and red phosphorus. This is a very sensitive mixture. It is a primary high explosive in which sulfur is substitute for some or all phosphorus to slightly decrease sensitivity.
• Sprengel explosives: a very general class incorporating any strong oxidizer and highly reactive fuel, although in practice the name most commonly was applied to mixtures of chlorates and nitroaromatics
  • ANFO: ammonium nitrate and fuel oil.
  • Cheddites: chlorates or perchlorates and oil
  • Oxyliquits: mixtures of organic materials and liquid oxygen

Chemically pure compounds Black powder - here a 100 grams container - can be freely bought in Switzerland. ... R-phrases   S-phrases   Supplementary data page Structure and properties n, εr, etc. ... Charcoal is the blackish residue consisting of impure carbon obtained by removing water and other volatile constituents of animal and vegetable substances. ... General Name, Symbol, Number sulfur, S, 16 Chemical series nonmetals Group, Period, Block 16, 3, p Appearance lemon yellow Atomic mass 32. ... Flash powder is a mixture of oxidizer and metallic fuel which burns extremely quickly and if confined will produce a loud report. ... This article or section contains information that has not been verified and thus might not be reliable. ... General Name, Symbol, Number magnesium, Mg, 12 Chemical series alkaline earth metals Group, Period, Block 2, 3, s Appearance silvery white Atomic mass 24. ... R-phrases R9, R22, R51/53 S-phrases S2, S13, S17, S46, S61 Flash point none Supplementary data page Structure and properties n, εr, etc. ... Potassium perchlorate, chemical formula KClO4, is a strong oxidizer. ... Ammonal is an explosive mixture of ammonium nitrate, aluminium dust and stearic acid. ... RTECS number BR9050000 Supplementary data page Structure and properties n, εr, etc. ... This article or section contains information that has not been verified and thus might not be reliable. ... Armstrongs mixture is a highly sensitive primary explosive that is produced by mixing red phosphorus with potassium chlorate. ... R-phrases R9, R22, R51/53 S-phrases S2, S13, S17, S46, S61 Flash point none Supplementary data page Structure and properties n, εr, etc. ... This article is about the chemical element. ... Sprengel explosives are a highly generic class of explosives invented by Hermann Sprengel in the 1870s. ... ANFO stands for Ammonium Nitrate / Fuel Oil (most often diesel fuel, sometimes kerosene). ... RTECS number BR9050000 Supplementary data page Structure and properties n, εr, etc. ... Fuel oil is a fraction obtained from petroleum distillation, either as a distillate or a residue. ... Cheddites were a class of explosive materials originally manufactured in the town of Chedde in Savoy, France in the early twentieth century. ... Definition The chlorate ion ClO3-. A chlorate (compound) is a compound that contains this group, with chlorine in oxidation state +5. ... Perchlorates are the salts derived from perchloric acid (HClO4). ... An oxyliquit is an explosive material made of a mixture of liquid oxygen (LOX) with a suitable fuel, usually carbon (as lampblack) or some organic chemical (eg. ... Liquid oxygen (also LOx, LOX or Lox in the aerospace industry) is the liquid form of oxygen. ...

• Nitroglycerin: a highly unstable and sensitive liquid, known as dynamite when mixed into sawdust, powdered silica, or most commonly diatomaceous earth, which act as stabilizers.
• Acetone peroxide: A very unstable white organic peroxide
• TNT: Yellow insensitive crystals that can be melted and cast without detonation.
• Nitrocellulose: A nitrated polymer which can be a high or low explosive depending on nitration level and conditions.
• RDX, PETN, HMX: Very powerful explosives which can be used pure or in plastic explosives.
  • C-4 (or Composition C-4): An RDX plastic explosive plasticized to be adhesive and malleable.

The above compositions may describe the majority of the explosive material, but a practical explosive will often include small percentages of other materials. Plastics and polymers may be added to bind powders of explosive compounds; waxes may be incorporated to make them safer to handle; aluminum powder may be introduced to increase total energy and blast effect. Explosive compounds are also often "alloyed": HMX or RDX powders maybe mixed (typically by melt-casting) with TNT to form Octol or Cyclotol. Nitroglycerin, also known as nitroglycerine, trinitroglycerin, and glyceryl trinitrate, is a chemical compound. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Sawdust is composed of fine particles of wood. ... The chemical compound silicon dioxide, also known as silica, is the oxide of silicon, chemical formula SiO2. ... Diatomaceous earth, also known as diatomite, kieselguhr, kieselgur, and Celite, is a naturally occurring, soft, chalk-like, sedimentary rock that is easily crumbled into a fine white to off-white powder. ... Acetone peroxide (triacetone triperoxide, peroxyacetone, TATP, TCAP) is an organic peroxide and a primary high explosive. ... Organic peroxides are organic molecules containing the peroxide functional group ROOR If the R is hydrogen, the compound is called an organic hydroperoxide or a peroxy acid. ... Trinitrotoluene (TNT, or Trotyl) is a pale yellow crystalline aromatic hydrocarbon compound that melts at 354 K (178 Â°F, 81 °C). ... Nitrocellulose (Cellulose nitrate, guncotton) is a highly flammable compound formed by nitrating cellulose (e. ... Wikibooks Chemical synthesis has more about this subject: Cyclonite synthesis Cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine, also known as RDX, cyclonite, hexogen, and T4, is an nitroamine and explosive material widely used by the military. ... PETN (Pentaerythritol Tetranitrate, also known as Penthrite) is one of the strongest known high explosives, with a relative effectiveness factor (R.E. factor) of 1. ... HMX, also called octogen or cyclotetramethylene-tetranitramine, is a powerful, and relatively insensitive, nitroamine high explosive, chemically related to RDX. History First made in 1930, it is used almost exclusively in military applications including as the detonators in nuclear weapons, in the form of plastic bonded explosive, and as a... C4 or Composition C4 is a common variety of military plastic explosive. ... Wikibooks Chemical synthesis has more about this subject: Cyclonite synthesis Cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine, also known as RDX, cyclonite, hexogen, and T4, is an nitroamine and explosive material widely used by the military. ... Plastic explosive (or plastique) is a specialised form of explosive material. ... OKTOL or OCTOL is an explosive that consists of 75% HMX and 25% TNT. See also OKFOL, another HMX based explosive. ... Cyclotol is an explosive made from a mixture of RDX and TNT.    This article is a stub. ...

Chemical explosive reaction

A chemical explosive is a compound or mixture which, upon the application of heat or shock, decomposes or rearranges with extreme rapidity, yielding much gas and heat. Many substances not ordinarily classed as explosives may do one, or even two, of these things. For example, a mixture of nitrogen and oxygen can be made to react with great rapidity and yield the gaseous product nitric oxide; yet the mixture is not an explosive since it does not evolve heat, but rather absorbs heat. Decomposition is the reduction of bodies and other formerly living organisms into simpler forms of matter; and most particularly to the fate of the body, after death. ... A gas is one of the four main phases of matter (after solid and liquid, and followed by plasma), that subsequently appear as a solid material is subjected to increasingly higher temperatures. ... General Name, Symbol, Number nitrogen, N, 7 Chemical series nonmetals Group, Period, Block 15, 2, p Appearance colorless Atomic mass 14. ... General Name, Symbol, Number oxygen, O, 8 Chemical series Nonmetals, chalcogens Group, Period, Block 16, 2, p Appearance colorless Atomic mass 15. ... The chemical compound nitric oxide is a gas with chemical formula NO. It is an important signaling molecule in the body of mammals including humans, one of the few gaseous signaling molecules known. ...

N₂ + O₂ → 2NO - 43,200 calories (or 180 kJ) per mole of N₂

For a chemical to be an explosive, it must exhibit all of the following: A calorie refers to a unit of energy. ... The joule (symbol: J) is the SI unit of energy, or work with base units of kg·m²/s² (N·m). ... The mole and its simple conversions into different units of measurements. ...

• Exhibit Rapid Expansion (eg. rapid production of gasses or rapid heating of surroundings)
• Evolution of heat
• Rapidity of reaction
• Initiation of reaction

Formation of gases

Gases may be evolved from substances in a variety of ways. When wood or coal is burned in the atmosphere, the carbon and hydrogen in the fuel combine with the oxygen in the atmosphere to form carbon dioxide and steam, together with flame and smoke. When the wood or coal is pulverized, so that the total surface in contact with the oxygen is increased, and burned in a furnace or forge where more air can be supplied, the burning can be made more rapid and the combustion more complete. When the wood or coal is immersed in liquid oxygen or suspended in air in the form of dust, the burning takes place with explosive violence. In each case, the same action occurs: a burning combustible forms a gas. A tree trunk as found at the Veluwe, The Netherlands Wood derives from woody plants, notably trees but also shrubs. ... Coal (previously referred to as pitcoal or seacoal) is a fossil fuel extracted from the ground by underground mining or open-pit mining (surface mining). ... Layers of Atmosphere (NOAA) Earths atmosphere is a layer of gases surrounding the planet Earth and retained by the Earths gravity. ... General Name, Symbol, Number carbon, C, 6 Chemical series nonmetals Group, Period, Block 14, 2, p Appearance black (graphite) colorless (diamond) Atomic mass 12. ... General Name, Symbol, Number hydrogen, H, 1 Chemical series nonmetals Group, Period, Block 1, 1, s Appearance colorless Atomic mass 1. ... Carbon dioxide is an atmospheric gas comprised of one carbon and two oxygen atoms. ... Liquid oxygen (also LOx, LOX or Lox in the aerospace industry) is the liquid form of oxygen. ...

Evolution of heat

The generation of heat in large quantities accompanies every explosive chemical reaction. It is this rapid liberation of heat that causes the gaseous products of reaction to expand and generate high pressures. This rapid generation of high pressures of the released gas constitutes the explosion. It should be noted that the liberation of heat with insufficient rapidity will not cause an explosion. For example, although a pound of coal yields five times as much heat as a pound of nitroglycerin, the coal cannot be used as an explosive because the rate at which it yields this heat is quite slow. Pressure (symbol: p) is the force per unit area acting on a surface in a direction perpendicular to that surface. ... Pressure (symbol: p) is the force per unit area acting on a surface in a direction perpendicular to that surface. ... Nitroglycerin, also known as nitroglycerine, trinitroglycerin, and glyceryl trinitrate, is a chemical compound. ...

Rapidity of reaction

Rapidity of reaction distinguishes the explosive reaction from an ordinary combustion reaction by the great speed with which it takes place. Unless the reaction occurs rapidly, the thermally expanded gases will be dissipated in the medium, and there will be no explosion. Again, consider a wood or coal fire. As the fire burns, there is the evolution of heat and the formation of gases, but neither is liberated rapidly enough to cause an explosion. For those who know something about electronics, this can be likened to the energy discharge of a battery, which is slow; to a flash capacitor, like that in a camera flash and releases its energy all at once. The term discharge can have several meanings in different contexts: To discharge a weapon is to fire it. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... A capacitor is a device that stores energy in the electric field created between a pair of conductors on which equal magnitude but opposite sign electric charges have been placed. ... A camera is a device used to take pictures (usually photographs), either singly or in sequence, with or without sound recording, such as with video cameras. ...

Initiation of reaction

A reaction must be capable of being initiated by the application of shock or heat to a small portion of the mass of the explosive material. A material in which the first three factors exist cannot be accepted as an explosive unless the reaction can be made to occur when desired.

Sensitiser

A sensitiser is a powdered or fine particulate material that is sometimes used to create voids that aid in the initiation or propagation of the detonation wave. [1] It may be as high-tech as glass beads (Glass Bubbles[2]) or as simple as black cumin seeds[3]. The English common name Black Cumin is usually used for Nigella sativa L. but also, less commonly for Bunium persicum [Boiss. ...

Military explosives

To determine the suitability of an explosive substance for military use, its physical properties must first be investigated. The usefulness of a military explosive can only be appreciated when these properties and the factors affecting them are fully understood. Many explosives have been studied in past years to determine their suitability for military use and most have been found wanting. Several of those found acceptable have displayed certain characteristics that are considered undesirable and, therefore, limit their usefulness in military applications. The requirements of a military explosive are stringent, and very few explosives display all of the characteristics necessary to make them acceptable for military standardization. Some of the more important characteristics are discussed below: Physics (from the Greek, φυσικός (physikos), natural, and φύσις (physis), nature) is the science of the natural world dealing with the fundamental constituents of the universe, the forces they exert on one another, and the results produced by these forces. ... A property is an intrinsic or extrinsic quality of an object—where an object may be of any differing nature, depending on the context and field — be it computing, philosophy, etc. ... The word characteristic has several meanings: In mathematics, see characteristic (algebra) characteristic function characteristic subgroup Euler characteristic method of characteristics In genetics, see characteristic (genetics). ... Standardization, in the context related to technologies and industries, is the process of establishing a technical standard among competing entities in a market, where this will bring benefits without hurting competition. ...

Availability and cost

In view of the enormous quantity demands of modern warfare, explosives must be produced from cheap raw materials that are nonstrategic and available in great quantity. In addition, manufacturing operations must be reasonably simple, cheap, and safe.

Sensitivity

Regarding an explosive, this refers to the ease with which it can be ignited or detonated—i.e., the amount and intensity of shock, friction, or heat that is required. When the term sensitivity is used, care must be taken to clarify what kind of sensitivity is under discussion. The relative sensitivity of a given explosive to impact may vary greatly from its sensitivity to friction or heat. Some of the test methods used to determine sensitivity are as follows: In medicine, shock (hypoperfusion) is a life-threatening medical emergency characterized by inability of the circulatory system to supply enough oxygen to meet tissue requirements. ... It has been suggested that Frictional force be merged into this article or section. ... In physics, heat is defined as energy in transit. ... See: Sensitivity (electronics) Sensitivity (human) Sensitivity (tests) For sensitivity in finance, see beta coefficient This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ...

• Impact Sensitivity is expressed in terms of the distance through which a standard weight must be dropped to cause the material to explode.
• Friction Sensitivity is expressed in terms of what occurs when a weighted pendulum scrapes across the material (snaps, crackles, ignites, and/or explodes).
• Heat Sensitivity is expressed in terms of the temperature at which flashing or explosion of the material occurs.

Sensitivity is an important consideration in selecting an explosive for a particular purpose. The explosive in an armor-piercing projectile must be relatively insensitive, or the shock of impact would cause it to detonate before it penetrated to the point desired. Look up impact in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... It has been suggested that Frictional force be merged into this article or section. ... In physics, heat is defined as energy in transit. ...

Stability

Stability is the ability of an explosive to be stored without deterioration. The following factors affect the stability of an explosive:

• Chemical constitution. The very fact that some common chemical compounds can undergo explosion when heated indicates that there is something unstable in their structures. While no precise explanation has been developed for this, it is generally recognized that certain groups, nitro dioxide (NO₂), nitrate (NO₃), and azide (N₃), are intrinsically in a condition of internal strain. Increased strain through heating can cause a sudden disruption of the molecule and consequent explosion. In some cases, this condition of molecular instability is so great that decomposition takes place at ordinary temperatures.
• Temperature of storage. The rate of decomposition of explosives increases at higher temperatures. All of the standard military explosives may be considered to be of a high order of stability at temperatures of -10 to +35 °C, but each has a high temperature at which the rate of decomposition becomes rapidly accelerated and stability is reduced. As a rule of thumb, most explosives become dangerously unstable at temperatures exceeding 70 °C.
• Exposure to sun. If exposed to the ultraviolet rays of the sun, many explosive compounds that contain nitrogen groups will rapidly decompose, affecting their stability.
• Electrical discharge. Electrostatic or spark sensitivity to initiation is common to a number of explosives. Static or other electrical discharge may be sufficient to inspire detonation under some circumstances. As a result, the safe handling of explosives and pyrotechnics almost always requires electrical grounding of the operator.

In chemistry, a molecule is an aggregate of at least two atoms in a definite arrangement held together by special forces. ... Temperature is also the name of a song by Sean Paul. ... This article is in need of attention; please see the talk page. ... Exposure can be: A condition of poor health or death resulting from prolonged exposure to weather radiation poisoning Exposure of the skin to sunshine, etc. ... The Sun is the star at the center of Earths solar system. ... Ultraviolet (UV) light is electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength shorter than that of visible light, but longer than soft X-rays. ... General Name, Symbol, Number nitrogen, N, 7 Chemical series nonmetals Group, Period, Block 15, 2, p Appearance colorless Atomic mass 14. ... An electrostatic discharge (ESD) is a sudden flow of electric current through a material that is normally an insulator. ... Electrostatics is the branch of physics that deals with the force exerted by a static (i. ... Look up Spark in Wiktionary, the free dictionary The word spark has several meanings: Sparks produced by grinding In electricity, spark usually refers to a momentary electrostatic discharge across a spark gap. ... Pyrotechnics are used in the entertainment industry The band Rammsteins stage acts centers largely around pyrotechnics Pyrotechnics is a field of study often thought synonymous with the manufacture of fireworks, but more accurately has a wider scope that includes items for military and industrial uses. ... There are several meanings of the term Grounding: Grounding is also used to describe the connection of part of an electrical circuit to an electrical ground. ...

Power

The term "power" (or more properly, performance) as applied to an explosive refers to its ability to do work. In practice it is defined as the explosive's ability to accomplish what is intended in the way of energy delivery (i.e., fragment projection, air blast, high-velocity jets, underwater shock and bubble energy, etc.). Explosive power or performance is evaluated by a tailored series of tests to assess the material for its intended use. Of the tests listed below, cylinder expansion and air-blast tests are common to most testing programs, and the others support specific applications. This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ...

• Cylinder expansion test. A standard amount of explosive is loaded within a long hollow cylinder, usually of copper, and detonated at one end. Data are collected concerning the rate of radial expansion of the cylinder and maximum cylinder wall velocity. This also establishes the Gurney constant or 2E.
• Cylinder fragmentation test. A standard steel cylinder is charged with explosive and fired in a sawdust pit. The fragments are collected and the size distribution analyzed.
• Detonation pressure (Chapman-Jouguet). Detonation pressure data derived from measurements of shock waves transmitted into water by the detonation of cylindrical explosive charges of a standard size.
• Determination of critical diameter. This test establishes the minimum physical size a charge of a specific explosive must be to sustain its own detonation wave. The procedure involves the detonation of a series of charges of different diameters until difficulty in detonation wave propagation is observed.
• Infinity diameter detonation velocity. Detonation velocity is dependent on landing density (c), charge diameter, and grain size. The hydrodynamic theory of detonation used in predicting explosive phenomena does not include diameter of the charge, and therefore a detonation velocity, for an imaginary charge of infinite diameter. This procedure requires a series of charges of the same density and physical structure, but different diameters, to be fired and the resulting detonation velocities extrapolated to predict the detonation velocity of a charge of infinite diameter.
• Pressure versus scaled distance. A charge of specific size is detonated and its pressure effects measured at a standard distance. The values obtained are compared with that for TNT.
• Impulse versus scaled distance. A charge of specific size is detonated and its impulse (the area under the pressure-time curve) measured versus distance. The results are tabulated and expressed in TNT equivalent.
• Relative bubble energy (RBE). A 5 to 50 kg charge is detonated in water and piezoelectric gauges are used to measure peak pressure, time constant, impulse, and energy.

The RBE may be defined as K_x 3

RBE = K_s

where K = bubble expansion period for experimental (x) or standard (s) charge.

A right circular cylinder In mathematics, a cylinder is a quadric, i. ... Fragmentation is a term that occurs in several fields and describes a process of something breaking or being divided into pieces (fragments). ... A weapons cache is detonated at the East River Range on Bagram Airfield, Afghanistan Detonation is a process of supersonic combustion that involves a shock wave and a reaction zone behind it. ... Pressure (symbol: p) is the force per unit area acting on a surface in a direction perpendicular to that surface. ... Infinity is a word carrying a number of different meanings in mathematics, philosophy, theology and everyday life. ...

Brisance

Main article: Brisance

In addition to strength, explosives display a second characteristic, which is their shattering effect or brisance (from the French meaning to "break"), which is distinguished from their total work capacity. This characteristic is of practical importance in determining the effectiveness of an explosion in fragmenting shells, bomb casings, grenades, and the like. The rapidity with which an explosive reaches its peak pressure is a measure of its brisance. Brisance values are primarily employed in France and Russia. Brisance is a measure of the rapidity with which an explosive develops its maximum pressure. ... Grenade may refer to: The well-known hand grenade commonly used by soldiers. ...

The sand crush test is commonly employed to determine the relative brisance in comparison to TNT. No single test is capable of directly comparing the explosive properties of two or more compounds; it is important to examine the data from several such tests (sand crush, trauzl, and so forth) in order to gauge relative brisance. True values for comparison will require field experiments.

Density

Density of loading refers to the mass of an explosive per unit volume. Several methods of loading are available, and the one used is determined by the characteristics of the explosive. The methods available include pellet loading, cast loading, and press loading. Dependent upon the method employed, an average density of the loaded charge can be obtained that is within 80-99% of the theoretical maximum density of the explosive. High load density can reduce sensitivity by making the mass more resistant to internal friction. However, if density is increased to the extent that individual crystals are crushed, the explosive may become more sensitive. Increased load density also permits the use of more explosive, thereby increasing the power of the warhead. Density (symbol: ρ - Greek: rho) is a measure of mass per unit of volume. ... See: Sensitivity (electronics) Sensitivity (human) Sensitivity (tests) For sensitivity in finance, see beta coefficient This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... Mass is a property of a physical object that quantifies the amount of matter it contains. ... ... It has been suggested that Frictional force be merged into this article or section. ... Crystal (disambiguation) Insulin crystals A crystal is a solid in which the constituent atoms, molecules, or ions are packed in a regularly ordered, repeating pattern extending in all three spatial dimensions. ... A warhead is an explosive device used in military conflicts, used to destroy enemy vehicles or buildings. ...

Volatility

Volatility, or the readiness with which a substance vaporizes, is an undesirable characteristic in military explosives. Explosives must be no more than slightly volatile at the temperature at which they are loaded or at their highest storage temperature. Excessive volatility often results in the development of pressure within rounds of ammunition and separation of mixtures into their constituents. Stability, as mentioned before, is the ability of an explosive to stand up under storage conditions without deteriorating. Volatility affects the chemical composition of the explosive such that a marked reduction in stability may occur, which results in an increase in the danger of handling. Maximum allowable volatility is 2 ml of gas evolved in 48 hours. Volatility is the standard deviation of the change in value of a financial instrument with a specific time horizon. ... Evaporation is the process whereby atoms or molecules in a liquid state (or solid state if the substance sublimes) gain sufficient energy to enter the gaseous state. ...

Hygroscopicity

The introduction of moisture into an explosive is highly undesirable since it reduces the sensitivity, strength, and velocity of detonation of the explosive. Hygroscopicity is used as a measure of a material's moisture-absorbing tendencies. Moisture affects explosives adversely by acting as an inert material that absorbs heat when vaporized, and by acting as a solvent medium that can cause undesired chemical reactions. Sensitivity, strength, and velocity of detonation are reduced by inert materials that reduce the continuity of the explosive mass. When the moisture content evaporates during detonation, cooling occurs, which reduces the temperature of reaction. Stability is also affected by the presence of moisture since moisture promotes decomposition of the explosive and, in addition, causes corrosion of the explosive's metal container. For all of these reasons, hygroscopicity must be negligible in military explosives. Moisture generally refers to the presence of water in trace amounts. ... A hygroscopic substance is a substance that absorbs water readily from its surroundings. ...

Toxicity

Due to their chemical structure, most explosives are toxic to some extent. Since the toxic effect may vary from a mild headache to serious damage of internal organs, care must be taken to limit toxicity in military explosives to a minimum. Any explosive of high toxicity is unacceptable for military use. Explosive product gases can also be toxic.

Measurement of chemical explosive reaction

The development of new and improved types of ammunition requires a continuous program of research and development. Adoption of an explosive for a particular use is based upon both proving ground and service tests. Before these tests, however, preliminary estimates of the characteristics of the explosive are made. The principles of thermochemistry are applied for this process. Thermochemistry is a branch of chemistry that deals with the interrelation of heat with chemical reactions or with a physical change of state. ...

Thermochemistry is concerned with the changes in internal energy, principally as heat, in chemical reactions. An explosion consists of a series of reactions, highly exothermic, involving decomposition of the ingredients and recombination to form the products of explosion. Energy changes in explosive reactions are calculated either from known chemical laws or by analysis of the products.

For most common reactions, tables based on previous investigations permit rapid calculation of energy changes. Products of an explosive remaining in a closed calorimetric bomb (a constant-volume explosion) after cooling the bomb back to room temperature and pressure are rarely those present at the instant of maximum temperature and pressure. Since only the final products may be analyzed conveniently, indirect or theoretical methods are often used to determine the maximum temperature and pressure values.

Some of the important characteristics of an explosive that can be determined by such theoretical computations are:

• Oxygen balance
• Heat of explosion or reaction
• Volume of products of explosion
• Potential of the explosive

Oxygen balance (OB%)

Oxygen balance is an expression that is used to indicate the degree to which an explosive can be oxidized. If an explosive molecule contains just enough oxygen to convert all of its carbon to carbon dioxide, all of its hydrogen to water, and all of its metal to metal oxide with no excess, the molecule is said to have a zero oxygen balance. The molecule is said to have a positive oxygen balance if it contains more oxygen than is needed and a negative oxygen balance if it contains less oxygen than is needed. The sensitivity, strength, and brisance of an explosive are all somewhat dependent upon oxygen balance and tend to approach their maximums as oxygen balance approaches zero.

The oxygen balance (OB) is calculated from the empirical formula of a compound in percentage of oxygen required for complete conversion of carbon to carbon dioxide, hydrogen to water, and metal to metal oxide.

The procedure for calculating oxygen balance in terms of 100 grams of the explosive material is to determine the number of moles of oxygen that are excess or deficient for 100 grams of a compound.

where

X = number of atoms of carbon, Y = number of atoms of hydrogen, Z = number of atoms of oxygen, and M = number of atoms of metal (metallic oxide produced).

In the case of TNT (C₆H₂(NO₂)₃CH₃),

Molecular weight = 227.1

X = 7 (number of carbon atoms)

Y = 5 (number of hydrogen atoms)

Z = 6 (number of oxygen atoms)

Therefore

OB% = -74% for TNT

Because sensitivity, brisance, and strength are properties resulting from a complex explosive chemical reaction, a simple relationship such as oxygen balance cannot be depended upon to yield universally consistent results. When using oxygen balance to predict properties of one explosive relative to another, it is to be expected that one with an oxygen balance closer to zero will be the more brisant, powerful, and sensitive; however, many exceptions to this rule do exist. More complicated predictive calculations, such as those discussed in the next section, result in more accurate predictions.

One area in which oxygen balance can be applied is in the processing of mixtures of explosives. The family of explosives called amatols are mixtures of ammonium nitrate and TNT. Ammonium nitrate has an oxygen balance of +20% and TNT has an oxygen balance of −74%, so it would appear that the mixture yielding an oxygen balance of zero would also result in the best explosive properties. In actual practice a mixture of 80% ammonium nitrate and 20% TNT by weight yields an oxygen balance of +1%, the best properties of all mixtures, and an increase in strength of 30% over TNT.

Heat of explosion

When a chemical compound is formed from its constituents, the reaction may either absorb or give off heat. The quantity of heat absorbed or given off during transformation is called the heat of formation. The heats of formations for solids and gases found in explosive reactions have been determined for a temperature of 15 °C and atmospheric pressure, and are normally tabulated in units of kilocalories per gram molecule. (See table 12-1). Where a negative value is given, it indicates that heat is absorbed during the formation of the compound from its elements. Such a reaction is called an endothermic reaction. The convention usually employed in simple thermochemical calculations is arbitrarily to take heat contents of all elements as zero in their standard states at all temperatures (standard state being defined as the state at which the elements are found under natural or ambient conditions). Since the heat of formation of a compound is the net difference between the heat content of the compound and that of its elements, and since the latter are taken as zero by convention, it follows that the heat content of a compound is equal to its heat of formation in such nonrigorous calculations. This leads us to the principle of initial and final state, which may be expressed as follows: "The net quantity of heat liberated or absorbed in any chemical modification of a system depends solely upon the initial and final states of the system, provided the transformation takes place at constant volume or at constant pressure. It is completely independent of the intermediate transformations and of the time required for the reactions." In chemistry, the standard state of a material is its state at 1 bar (100 kilopascals) and 25 degrees Celsius (298. ...

From this it follows that the heat liberated in any transformation accomplished through successive reactions is the algebraic sum of the heats liberated or absorbed in the different reactions. Consider the formation of the original explosive from its elements as an intermediate reaction in the formation of the products of explosion. The net amount of heat liberated during an explosion is the sum of the heats of formation of the products of explosion, minus the heat of formation of the original explosive.

The net heat difference between heats of formations of the reactants and products in a chemical reaction is termed the heat of reaction. For oxidation this heat of reaction may be termed heat of combustion. The Heat of combustion (ΔcH0) is the energy released as heat when a compound undergoes complete combustion with oxygen. ...

In explosive technology only materials that are exothermic — that is, have a heat of reaction that causes net liberation of heat — are of interest. Hence, in this text, heats of reaction are virtually all positive. Reaction heat is measured under conditions either of constant pressure or constant volume. It is this heat of reaction that may be properly expressed as "heat of the explosion."

Balancing chemical explosion equations

In order to assist in balancing chemical equations, an order of priorities is presented in table 12-2. Explosives containing C, H, O, and N and/or a metal will form the products of reaction in the priority sequence shown. Some observation you might want to make as you balance an equation:

• The progression is from top to bottom; you may skip steps that are not applicable, but you never back up.
• At each separate step there are never more than two compositions and two products.
• At the conclusion of the balancing, elemental forms, nitrogen, oxygen, and hydrogen, are always found in diatomic form.

Example, TNT:

C₆H₂(NO₂)₃CH₃; constituents: 7C + 5H + 3N + 6O

Using the order of priorities in table 12-1, priority 4 gives the first reaction products:

7C + 6O → 6CO with one mol of carbon remaining

Next, since all the oxygen has been combined with the carbon to form CO, priority 7 results in:

3N → 1.5N₂

Finally, priority 9 results in: 5H → 2.5H₂

The balanced equation, showing the products of reaction resulting from the detonation of TNT is:

C₆H₂(NO₂)₃CH₃ → 6CO + 2.5H₂ + 1.5N₂ + C

Notice that partial moles are permitted in these calculations. The number of moles of gas formed is 10. The product, carbon, is a solid.

Volume of products of explosion

The law of Avogadro states that equal volumes of all gases under the same conditions of temperature and pressure contain the same number of molecules. From this law, it follows that the molar volume of one gas is equal to the molar volume of any other gas. The molar volume of any gas at 0 °C and under normal atmospheric pressure is very nearly 22.4 liters or 22.4 cubic decimeters. Thus, considering the nitroglycerin reaction. In 1811 Amedeo Avogadro stated the hypothesis which we now call Avogadros law: (See: this site for an English translation of his 1811 paper). ... In chemistry, the molar volume of a substance is the ratio of the volume of a sample of that substance to the amount of substance (usually in mole) in the sample. ...

C₃H₅(NO₃)₃ → 3CO₂ + 2.5H₂O + 1.5N₂ + 0.25O₂

the explosion of one mole of nitroglycerin produces in the gaseous state: 3 moles of CO₂; 2.5 moles of O₂. Since a molar volume is the volume of one mole of gas, one mole of nitroglycerin produces 3 + 2.5 + 1.5 + 0.25 = 7.25 molar volumes of gas; and these molar volumes at 0 °C and atmospheric pressure form an actual volume of 7.25 × 22.4 = 162.4 liters of gas. (Note that the products H₂O and CO₂ are in their gaseous form.)

Based upon this simple beginning, it can be seen that the volume of the products of explosion can be predicted for any quantity of the explosive. Further, by employing Charles' Law for perfect gases, the volume of the products of explosion may also be calculated for any given temperature. This law states that at a constant pressure a perfect gas expands 1/273.15 of its volume at 0 °C, for each degree Celsius of rise in temperature. Charless law (sometimes called the Law of Charles and Gay-Lussac) is one of the gas laws; it relates the volume and temperature of an ideal gas held at a constant pressure. ...

Therefore, at 15 °C the molar volume of an ideal gas is,

V₁₅ = 22.414 (288.15/273.15) = 23.64 liters per mole

Thus, at 15 °C the volume of gas produced by the explosive decomposition of one mole of nitroglycerin becomes

V = (23.64 l/mol)(7.25 mol) = 171.4 l

Explosive strength

The potential of an explosive is the total work that can be performed by the gas resulting from its explosion, when expanded adiabatically from its original volume, until its pressure is reduced to atmospheric pressure and its temperature to 15 °C. The potential is therefore the total quantity of heat given off at constant volume when expressed in equivalent work units and is a measure of the strength of the explosive.

An explosion may occur under two general conditions: the first, unconfined, as in the open air where the pressure (atmospheric) is constant; the second, confined, as in a closed chamber where the volume is constant. The same amount of heat energy is liberated in each case, but in the unconfined explosion, a certain amount is used as work energy in pushing back the surrounding air, and therefore is lost as heat. In a confined explosion, where the explosive volume is small (such as occurs in the powder chamber of a firearm), practically all the heat of explosion is conserved as useful energy. If the quantity of heat liberated at constant volume under adiabatic conditions is calculated and converted from heat units to equivalent work units, the potential or capacity for work results.

Therefore, if

Q_mp represents the total quantity of heat given off by a mole of explosive of 15 °C and constant pressure (atmospheric);

Q_mv represents the total heat given off by a mole of explosive at 15 °C and constant volume; and

W represents the work energy expended in pushing back the surrounding air in an unconfined explosion and thus is not available as net theoretical heat;

Then, because of the conversion of energy to work in the constant pressure case,

Q_mv = Q_mp + W

from which the value of Q_mv may be determined. Subsequently, the potential of a mole of an explosive may be calculated. Using this value, the potential for any other weight of explosive may be determined by simple proportion.

Using the principle of the initial and final state, and heat of formation table (resulting from experimental data), the heat released at constant pressure may be readily calculated.

m n

Q_mp = v_iQ_fi - v_kQ_fk

1 1

where:

Q_fi = heat of formation of product i at constant pressure

Q_fk = heat of formation of reactant k at constant pressure

v = number of moles of each product/reactants (m is the number of products and n the number of reactants)

The work energy expended by the gaseous products of detonation is expressed by:

W = P dv

With pressure constant and negligible initial volume, this expression reduces to:

W = P·V₂

Since heats of formation are calculated for standard atmospheric pressure (101 325 Pa, where 1 Pa = 1 N/m²) and 15 °C, V₂ is the volume occupied by the product gases under these conditions. At this point

W/mol = (101 325 N/m²)(23.63 L/mol)(1 m³/1000 L) = 2394 N·m/mol = 2394 J/mol

and by applying the appropriate conversion factors, work can be converted to units of kilocalories.

W/mol = 0.572 kcal/mol

Once the chemical reaction has been balanced, one can calculate the volume of gas produced and the work of expansion. With this completed, the calculations necessary to determine potential may be accomplished.

For TNT:

C₆H₂(NO₂)₃CH₃ → 6CO + 2.5H₂ + 1.5N₂ + C

for 10 mol

Then:

Q_mp = 6(26.43) - 16.5 = 142.08 kcal/mol

Note: Elements in their natural state (H₂, O₂, N₂, C, etc.) are used as the basis for heat of formation tables and are assigned a value of zero. See table 12-2.

Q_mv = 142.08 + 0.572(10) = 147.8 kcal/mol

As previously stated, Q_mv converted to equivalent work units is the potential of the explosive. (MW = Molecular Weight of Explosive)

Potential = Q_mv kcal/mol × 4185 J/kcal × 10³ g/kg × 1 mol/(mol·g)

Potential = Q_mv (4.185 × 10⁶) J/(mol·kg)

For TNT,

Potential = 147.8 (4.185 × 10⁶)/227.1 = 2.72 × 10⁶ J/kg

Rather than tabulate such large numbers, in the field of explosives, TNT is taken as the standard explosive, and others are assigned strengths relative to that of TNT. The potential of TNT has been calculated above to be 2.72 × 10⁶ J/kg. Relative strength (RS) may be expressed as

R.S. = Potential of Explosive/(2.72 × 10⁶)

Example of thermochemical calculations

The PETN reaction will be examined as an example of thermo-chemical calculations.

PETN: C(CH₂ONO₂)₄

Molecular weight = 316.15 g/mol

Heat of formation = 119.4 kcal/mol

(1) Balance the chemical reaction equation. Using table 12-1, priority 4 gives the first reaction products:

5C + 12O → 5CO + 7O

Next, the hydrogen combines with remaining oxygen:

8H + 7O → 4H₂O + 3O

Then the remaining oxygen will combine with the CO to form CO and CO₂.

5CO + 3O → 2CO + 3CO₂

Finally the remaining nitrogen forms in its natural state (N₂).

4N → 2N₂

The balanced reaction equation is:

C(CH₂ONO₂)₄ → 2CO + 4H₂O + 3CO₂ + 2N₂

(2) Determine the number of molar volumes of gas per mole. Since the molar volume of one gas is equal to the molar volume of any other gas, and since all the products of the PETN reaction are gaseous, the resulting number of molar volumes of gas (N_m) is:

N_m = 2 + 4 + 3 + 2 = 11 V_molar/mol

(3) Determine the potential (capacity for doing work). If the total heat liberated by an explosive under constant volume conditions (Q_m) is converted to the equivalent work units, the result is the potential of that explosive.

The heat liberated at constant volume (Q_mv) is equivalent to the liberated at constant pressure (Q_mp) plus that heat converted to work in expanding the surrounding medium. Hence, Q_mv = Q_mp + work (converted).

a. Q_mp = Q_fi (products) - Q_fk (reactants)

where: Q_f = heat of formation (see table 12-2)

For the PETN reaction:

Q_mp = 2(26.343) + 4(57.81) + 3(94.39) - (119.4) = 447.87 kcal/mol

(If the compound produced a metallic oxide, that heat of formation would be included in Q_mp.

b. Work = 0.572N_m = 0.572(11) = 6.292 kcal/mol

As previously stated, Q_mv converted to equivalent work units is taken as the potential of the explosive.

c. Potential J = Q_mv (4.185 × 10⁶ kg)(MW) = 454.16 (4.185 × 10⁶) 316.15 = 6.01 × 10⁶ J kg

This product may then be used to find the relative strength (RS) of PETN, which is

d. RS = Pot (PETN) = 6.01 × 10⁶ = 2.21 Pot (TNT) 2.72 × 10⁶

See also

• Blasting cap
• Nuclear weapon
• Shaped charge
• Weapon
• Explosive velocity

A blasting cap is a small explosive device generally used to detonate a larger, more powerful explosive such as dynamite. ... The mushroom cloud of the atomic bombing of Nagasaki, Japan, 1945, rose some 18 km (11 mi) above the hypocenter. ... Sectioned HEAT round with the inner shaped charge visible A shaped charge is an explosive charge shaped to focus the effect of the explosives energy. ... The bayonet, still used in war as both knife and spearpoint. ... djbdasjkhfohasoiflkasdfioalkjsfoijaoislkna wu9832u09q1b oai iu3y hq oi23u89q This page meets Wikipedias criteria for speedy deletion. ...

External links

• The Explosives and Weapons Forum
• Megalomanias Controversial Chem Lab
• Blaster Exchange - Explosives Industry Portal
• Military Explosives
• UN hazard classification code
• Class 1 Hazmat Placards

References

• Army Research Office. Elements of Armament Engineering (Part One). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Army Material Command, 1964.
• Commander, Naval Ordnance Systems Command. Safety and Performance Tests for Qualification of Explosives. NAVORD OD 44811. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1972.
• Commander, Naval Ordnance Systems Command. Weapons Systems Fundamentals. NAVORD OP 3000, vol. 2, 1st rev. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1971.
• Departments of the Army and Air Force. Military Explosives. Washington, D.C.: 1967.
• USDOT Hazardous Materials Transportation Placards