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Encyclopedia > Lymphoma in animals

Lymphoma in animals is a type of cancer defined by a proliferation of malignant lymphocytes within solid organs such as the lymph nodes, bone marrow, liver and spleen. The disease also may occur in the eye, skin, and gastrointestinal system. It is also known as lymphosarcoma. Cancer is a class of diseases or disorders characterized by uncontrolled division of cells and the ability of these cells to invade other tissues, either by direct growth into adjacent tissue through invasion, or by implantation into distant sites by metastasis. ... In medicine, malignant is a clinical term that is used to describe a clinical course that progresses rapidly to death. ... A lymphocyte is a type of white blood cell involved in the human bodys immune system. ... Structure of the lymph node. ... Grays Anatomy illustration of cells in bone marrow. ... The liver is an organ in some animals, including mammals (and therefore humans), birds, and reptiles. ... The spleen is a ductless, vertebrate gland that is closely associated with the circulatory system, where it functions in the destruction of old red blood cells in holding a reservoir of blood. ... A human eye. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Epidermis (skin). ... For the Physics term GUT, please refer to Grand unification theory The gastrointestinal or digestive tract, also referred to as the GI tract or the alimentary canal or the gut, is the system of organs within multicellular animals which takes in food, digests it to extract energy and nutrients, and...

Lymphoma in a Golden Retriever
Lymphoma in a Golden Retriever
Cytology of lymphoma in a dog
Cytology of lymphoma in a dog

Contents

Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (2592x1944, 2027 KB) This is a 12 year old Golden Retriever with lymphoma. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (2592x1944, 2027 KB) This is a 12 year old Golden Retriever with lymphoma. ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (1192x885, 123 KB) Cytology from a needle aspiration biopsy of a lymph node of a dog with lymphoma. ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (1192x885, 123 KB) Cytology from a needle aspiration biopsy of a lymph node of a dog with lymphoma. ...

Lymphoma in dogs

Lymphoma is one of the most common malignant tumors to occur in dogs. The cause is genetic, but there also suspected environmental factors involved,[1] including in one study an increased risk with the use of the herbicide 2,4-D.[2] This risk was not confirmed in another study.[3] Tumor or tumour literally means swelling, and is sometimes still used with that meaning. ... For a non-technical introduction to the topic, please see Introduction to genetics. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... 2,4-D (or 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid) is a common systemic herbicide used in the control of broadleaf weeds. ...


Commonly affected breeds

The Golden Retriever is especially prone to developing lymphoma, with a lifetime risk of 1:8.[4] Boxers are a breed of stocky, medium-sized, short-haired dog with a smooth fawn or brindled coat and square-jawed muzzle. ... Scottish Terriers are a breed of dog best known for their distinctive profile, their fierce loyalty, and their die-hard spirit. ... The Basset Hound is a short-legged breed of dog of the hound family. ... The Airedale Terrier (often shortened to Airedale) is a large and versatile terrier dog breed originating from Airedale in Yorkshire, England, in the UK. It is often called the King of Terriers because it is the largest of the terrier breeds, 50 to 70 pounds (23-32 kg). ... Chow-chow is a combination of different vegetables: cabbage, carrots, beans, asparagus, cauliflower, and peas which are pickled in a jar and served cold. ... The German Shepherd Dog or Alsatian (see Breed names), is a breed of dog. ... The Poodle is a breed of dog; specifically, it is a gun dog noted for its ability in the water and bird hunting skills. ... Wikimedia Commons has media related to: St. ... Country of origin United Kingdom Classification Breed standards (external links) FCI, AKC, ANKC KC(UK), NZKC, UKC The English Bulldog, often called simply the Bulldog, is a medium-sized dog breed that originated in the United Kingdom. ... This article is about the dog breed; for other meanings of Beagle see Beagle (disambiguation). ... This article is about the dog breed. ... The Golden Retriever is a very popular breed of dog. ...


Classification

The cancer is classified into low and high grade types. Classification is also based on location. The four location types are multicentric, mediastinal, gastrointestinal, and extranodal (involving the kidney, central nervous system, skin, heart, or eye). Multicentric lymphoma, the most common type (by greater than 80 percent)[5], is found in the lymph nodes, with or without involvement in the liver, spleen, or bone marrow. Mediastinal lymphoma occurs in the lymph nodes in that area and possibly the thymus. Gastrointestinal lymphoma occurs as either a solitary tumor or diffuse invasion of the stomach or intestines, with or without involvement in the surrounding lymph nodes, liver or spleen.[6] Classification is further based on involvement of B-lymphocytes or T-lymphocytes. Approximately 70 percent are B-cell lymphoma.[7] Cutaneous lymphoma can be classified as epitheliotropic (closely conforming to the epidermis) or non-epitheliotropic. The epitheliotropic form is typically of T-cell origin and is also called mycosis fungoides. The non-epitheliotropic form is typically of B-cell origin.[8] In pathology, Grading is a measure of the progress of tumors. ... FIG. 967– Transverse section through the upper margin of the second thoracic vertebra The mediastinum is a non-delineated group of structures in the thorax (chest), surrounded by loose connective tissue. ... A diagram showing the CNS: 1. ... In human anatomy, the thymus is an organ located in the upper anterior portion of the chest cavity. ... B cells are lymphocytes that play a large role in the humoral immune response (as opposed to the cell-mediated immune response). ... T cells belong to group of white blood cells known as lymphocytes and play a central role in cell-mediated immunity. ... Look up Epidermis in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Mycosis Fungoides, also known as Alibert-Bazin syndrome or granuloma fungoides, is a rare form of non-Hodgkins lymphoma. ...


Symptoms

General symptoms include depression, fever, weight loss, loss of appetite, and vomiting. Hypercalcemia (high blood calcium levels) occurs in some cases of lymphoma, and can lead to the above symptoms plus increased water drinking, increased urination, and arrhythmias. Hypercalcaemia is an elevated calcium level in the blood. ... General Name, Symbol, Number calcium, Ca, 20 Chemical series alkaline earth metals Group, Period, Block 2, 4, s Appearance silvery white Atomic mass 40. ... A cardiac arrhythmia, also called cardiac dysrhythmia, is a disturbance in the regular rhythm of the heartbeat. ...


Multicentric lymphoma presents as painless enlargement of the peripheral lymph nodes. This is seen in areas such as under the jaw, the armpits, the groin, and behind the knees. Enlargement of the liver and spleen causes the abdomen to distend. Mediastinal lymphoma can cause fluid to collect around the lungs, leading to coughing and difficulty breathing. Hypercalcemia is most commonly associated with this type.[9]


Gastrointestinal lymphoma causes vomiting, diarrhea, and melena (digested blood in the stool). Low albumin levels and hypercalcemia can also occur.[6] In medicine, melena or melaena refers to the black, tarry feces that are associated with gastrointestinal hemorrhage. ... Albumin can refer to ovalbumin, the principal protein in egg white albumins, a group of proteins including serum albumin and together constituting roughly 60% of the protein in blood plasma. ...


Lymphoma of the skin is an uncommon occurrence. The epitheliotropic form typically appears as itchy inflammation of the skin progressing to nodules and plaques. The non-epitheliotropic form can have a wide variety of appearances, from a single lump to large areas of bruised, ulcerated, hairless skin.[8] The epitheliotropic form must be differentiated from similar appearing conditions such as pemphigus vulgaris, bullous pemphigoid, and lupus erythematosus.[10] Endoscopic images of a duodenal ulcer. ... Pemphigus is an autoimmune disorder that causes blistering and raw sores on skin and mucous membranes. ... This page meets Wikipedias criteria for speedy deletion. ...


Symptoms for lymphoma in other sites depend on the location. Central nervous system involvement can cause seizures or paralysis. Eye involvement, seen in 20 to 25 percent of cases,[11] can lead to glaucoma, uveitis, bleeding within the eye, retinal detachment, and blindness. Lymphoma in the bone marrow causes anemia, low platelet count, and low white blood cell count. This article is about the medical term, epileptic seizure, as distinct from psychogenic non-epileptic seizure. ... Paralysis is the complete loss of muscle function for one or more muscle groups. ... Uveitis specifically refers to inflammation of the middle layer of the eye, termed the uvea but in common usage may refer to any inflammatory process involving the interior of the eye. ... Retinal detachment is a disorder of the eye in which the retina peels away from its underlying layer of support tissue. ... Anemia (AmE) or anaemia (BrE), from the Greek () meaning without blood, refers to a deficiency of red blood cells (RBCs) and/or hemoglobin. ... A 250 ml bag of newly collected platelets. ... White blood cells or leucocytes are cells which form a component of the blood. ...


Diagnosis

Biopsy of affected lymph nodes or organs confirms the diagnosis, although a needle aspiration of an affected lymph node can increase suspicion of the disease. X-rays, ultrasound, blood analysis, and bone marrow biopsy reveal other locations of the cancer. The stage of the disease is important to treatment and prognosis. A biopsy (in Greek: bios = life and opsy = look/appearance) is a medical test involving the removal of cells or tissues for examination. ... In the NATO phonetic alphabet, X-ray represents the letter X. An X-ray picture (radiograph) taken by Röntgen An X-ray is a form of electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength approximately in the range of 5 pm to 10 nanometers (corresponding to frequencies in the range 30 PHz... A fetus in its mothers womb, viewed in a sonogram (brightness scan) A fetus, aged 29 weeks, in a 3D ultrasound Ultrasound is sound with a frequency greater than the upper limit of human hearing, this limit being approximately 20 kilohertz (20,000 hertz). ... Prognosis (older Greek πρόγνωσις, modern Greek πρόγνωση - literally fore-knowing, foreseeing) is a medical term denoting the doctors prediction of how a patients disease will progress, and whether there is chance of recovery. ...

  • Stage I - only one lymph node or lymphoid tissue in one organ involved.
  • Stage II - lymph nodes in only one area of the body involved.
  • Stage III - generalized lymph node involvement.
  • Stage IV - any of the above with liver or spleen involvement.
  • Stage V - any of the above with blood or bone marrow involvement.[1]

Each stage is divided into those with systemic symptoms (loss of appetite, weight loss, etc.) and those without. The human lymphatic system The lymphatic system is a complex network of lymphoid organs, lymph nodes, lymph ducts, lymph tissues, lymph capillaries and lymph vessels that produce and transport lymph fluid from tissues to the circulatory system. ...


Treatment

Complete cure is rare with lymphoma, but long remission times are possible with chemotherapy. With effective protocols, average first remission times are 6 to 8 months. Second remissions are shorter and harder to accomplish. Average survival is 9 to 12 months. The most common treatment is a combination of cyclophosphamide, vincristine, prednisone, L-asparaginase, and doxorubicin.[1] Other chemotherapy drugs such as chlorambucil, lomustine (CCNU), cytosine arabinoside, and mitoxantrone are sometimes used in the treatment of lymphoma by themselves or in substitution for other drugs. In most cases, appropriate treatment protocols cause few side effects, but white blood cell counts must be monitored. Remission is the state of absence of disease activity in patients with known chronic illness. ... Chemotherapy is the use of chemical substances to treat disease. ... Cyclophosphamide (the generic name for Cytoxan, Neosar) is a nitrogen mustard alkylating agent, used to treat various types of cancer and some autoimmune disorders. ... Vincristine (Oncovin®) is a vinca alkaloid from the Madagascar periwinkle (Catharanthus roseus, formerly Vinca rosea and hence its name). ... Prednisone is a synthetic corticosteroid drug which is usually taken orally and can be used for a large number of different conditions. ... Asparaginase (EC 3. ... Doxorubicin or adriamycin or hydroxyldaunorubicin is a DNA-interacting drug widely used in chemotherapy. ... Chlorambucil (marketed as Leukeran by GlaxoSmithKline) is a chemotherapy drug that has been mainly used in the treatment of chronic lymphocytic leukemia. ... Lomustine (or CCNU) is an alkylating nitrosourea compound used in chemotherapy. ... Cytarabine is a shortened form of cytosine arabinoside, a commonly used chemotherapy agent used mainly in the treatment of leukemia and non-Hodgkin lymphoma. ... Mitoxantrone belongs to the general group of medicines known as antineoplastics, specifically the anthracycline class. ...


Allogenic stem cell transplantation (as is commonly done in humans) has recently shown to be a possible treatment option for dogs.[12] Most of the basic research on transplantation biology was generated in dogs.


When cost is a factor, prednisone used alone can improve the symptoms dramatically, but it does not significantly affect the survival rate. The average survival times of dogs treated with prednisone and untreated dogs are both one to two months.[1] Using prednisone alone can cause the cancer to become resistant to other chemotherapy agents, so it should only be used if there is definitely no chance of further treatment. Prednisone is a synthetic corticosteroid drug which is usually taken orally and can be used for a large number of different conditions. ...


Isotretinoin can be used to treat cutaneous lymphoma.[8] Isotretinoin (INN) (IPA: ) is a medication used for the treatment of severe acne. ...


Prognosis

Untreated dogs have an average survival time of sixty days.[13] Lymphoma with a histologic high grade generally respond better to treatment but have shorter survival times than dogs with low grade lymphoma.[6] Dogs with B-lymphocyte tumors have a longer survival time than T-lymphocyte tumors.[1] Mediastinal lymphoma has a poorer prognosis than other types, especially those with hypercalcemia.[11] Otherwise, the stage of the disease is the best prognostic factor. A thin section of lung tissue stained with hematoxylin and eosin. ...


Lymphoma in cats

Lymphoma is the most common malignancy diagnosed in cats.[14] Lymphoma in young cats occurs most frequently following infection with feline leukemia virus (FeLV) or to a lesser degree feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV). These cats tend to have involvement of lymph nodes, spine, or mediastinum. Cats with FeLV are 62 times more likely to develop lymphoma, and cats with both FeLV and FIV are 77 times more likely.[15] Younger cats tend to have T-cell lymphoma and older cats tend to have B-cell lymphoma.[16] Cats living with smokers are more than twice as likely to develop lymphoma.[17] Older cats tend to have gastrointestinal lymphoma without FeLV infection,[18] although tests more sensitive to low level FeLV infections and replication-defective FeLV have found that many of these cats have been previously exposed.[19] The same forms of lymphoma that are found in dogs also occur in cats, but gastrointestinal is the most common type. Lymphoma of the kidney is the most common kidney tumor in cats, and lymphoma is also the most common heart tumor.[1] Feline leukemia virus (FeLV) is a retrovirus that infects cats. ... Feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) is a lentivirus that affects domesticated housecats worldwide. ...


Classification

Gastrointestinal lymphoma is classified into low grade, intermediate grade, and high grade. Low grade types include lymphocytic and small cell lymphoma. High grade types include lymphoblastic, immunoblastic, and large cell lymphoma. Low grade lymphoma is only found in the small intestine, while large grade can commonly be found in the stomach.[20] Small cell lymphoma (or small lymphocytic lymphoma) is a type of follicular B-cell lymphoma. ... Lymphoblasts are interferons produced predominantly by leucocyte cells. ... Large cell is a term used in oncology. ...


Symptoms

Cats that develop lymphoma are much more likely to develop more severe symptoms than dogs. Whereas dogs often appear healthy initially except for swollen lymph nodes, cats will often be physically ill. The symptoms correspond closely to the location of the lymphoma. The most common sites for alimentary (gastrointestinal) lymphoma are, in decreasing frequency, the small intestine, the stomach, the junction of the ileum, cecum, and colon, and the colon. Cats with the alimentary form of lymphoma often present with weight loss, rough hair coat, loss of appetite, vomiting and diarrhea, although vomiting and diarrhea are commonly absent as symptoms.[21] The tumor can also cause life-threatening blockage of the intestine. Cats with the mediastinal form often have respiratory distress and fluid in the lung cavity. If lymphoma develops in the kidney, the cat may have increased water consumption and increased urination. Lymphoma of the kidney presents as bilateral kidney enlargement and failure. If the lymphoma is located in the nose, the cat may have discharge from the nose and facial swelling. Lymphoma of the heart causes congestive heart failure, pericardial effusion, and arrhythmias. Cats who are also infected with FeLV often present with pale mucous membranes due to anemia. Anemia is a common problem in all cats with lymphoma, but hypercalcemia is rare. In biology the small intestine is the part of the gastrointestinal tract (gut) between the stomach and the large intestine. ... In anatomy, the stomach (in ancient Greek στόμαχος) is an organ of the gastrointestinal tract involved in the second phase of digestion, following mastication. ... Grays Fig. ... In anatomy of the digestive system, the cecum or caecum is a pouch connected to the large intestine between the ileum. ... Colon has several meanings: colon (anatomy) colon (punctuation) colon (rhetoric) See also Colón This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... Congestive heart failure (CHF), also called congestive cardiac failure (CCF) or just heart failure, is a condition that can result from any structural or functional cardiac disorder that impairs the ability of the heart to fill with or pump a sufficient amount of blood throughout the body. ... Pericardial effusion is an abnormal accumulation of fluid in the pericardial cavity. ... A cardiac arrhythmia, also called cardiac dysrhythmia, is a disturbance in the regular rhythm of the heartbeat. ...


Diagnosis is similar to dogs, except cats should be tested for FeLV and FIV. It is important to differentiate the alimentary form of lymphoma from inflammatory bowel disease because the signs are so similar in cats. A biopsy is necessary to do this.[22] In medicine, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a group of inflammatory conditions of the large intestine and, in some cases, the small intestine. ...


Treatment and prognosis

Chemotherapy is the mainstay of treatment for lymphoma in cats. Most of the drugs used in dogs are used in cats, but the most common protocol uses cyclophosphamide, vincristine, and prednisolone.[14] Gastrointestinal lymphoma has also commonly been treated with a combination of prednisolone and high dose pulse chlorambucil with success.[20] The white blood cell count must be monitored. Remission and survival times are comparable to dogs. Lower stage lymphoma has a better prognosis. Multicentric lymphoma has a better response to treatment than the gastrointestinal form, but infection with FeLV worsens the prognosis.[1] Chemotherapy is the use of chemical substances to treat disease. ... Chlorambucil (marketed as Leukeran by GlaxoSmithKline) is a chemotherapy drug that has been mainly used in the treatment of chronic lymphocytic leukemia. ...


Lymphoma in ferrets

Lymphoma is common in ferrets and is the most common cancer in young ferrets. There is some evidence that a retrovirus may play a role in the development of lymphoma like in cats.[23] The most commonly affected tissues are the lymph nodes, spleen, liver, intestine, mediastinum, bone marrow, lung, and kidney. Trinomial name Mustela putorius furo (Linnaeus, 1758) In general use, a ferret is a domestic ferret (Mustela putorius furo). ... Genera Alpharetrovirus Betaretrovirus Gammaretrovirus Deltaretrovirus Epsilonretrovirus Lentivirus Spumavirus A retrovirus is any virus belonging to the viral family Retroviridae. ...


In young ferrets, the disease progresses rapidly. The most common symptom is difficulty breathing caused by enlargement of the thymus.[24] Other symptoms include loss of appetite, weight loss, weakness, depression, and coughing. It can also masquerade as a chronic disease such as an upper respiratory infection or gastrointestinal disease. In older ferrets, lymphoma is usually chronic and can exhibit no symptoms for years.[25] Symptoms seen are the same as in young ferrets, plus splenomegaly, abdominal masses, and peripheral lymph node enlargement. In human anatomy, the thymus is an organ located in the upper anterior portion of the chest cavity. ... Splenomegaly is an enlargement of the spleen, which usually lies in the left upper quadrant (LUQ) of the human abdomen. ...


Diagnosis is through biopsy and x-rays. There may also be an increased lymphocyte count. Treatment includes surgery for solitary tumors, splenectomy (when the spleen is very large), and chemotherapy. The most common protocol uses prednisone, vincristine, and cyclophosphamide.[26] Doxorubicin is used in some cases. Chemotherapy in relatively healthy ferrets is tolerated very well, but possible side effects include loss of appetite, depression, weakness, vomiting, and loss of whiskers. The white blood cell count must be monitored. Prednisone used alone can work very well for weeks to months, but it may cause resistance to other chemotherapy agents. Alternative treatments include vitamin C and Pau d'Arco (a bark extract).[26] A lymphocyte is a type of white blood cell involved in the human bodys immune system. ... A splenectomy is a procedure that involves the removal of the spleen by operative means. ... Vitamin C is a nutrient required in very small amounts to allow a range of essential metabolic reactions in the body. ...


The prognosis for lymphoma in ferrets depends on the their health and the location of the cancer. Lymphoma in the mediastinum, spleen, skin, and peripheral lymph nodes has the best prognosis, while lymphoma in the intestine, liver, abdominal lymph nodes, and bone marrow has the worst.[26]


References

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h Morrison, Wallace B. (1998). Cancer in Dogs and Cats, 1st ed., Williams and Wilkins. ISBN 0-683-06105-4. 
  2. ^ Zahm S, Blair A (1992). "Pesticides and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma". Cancer Res 52 (19 Suppl): 5485s-5488s. PMID 1394159.
  3. ^ Kaneene J, Miller R (1999). "Re-analysis of 2,4-D use and the occurrence of canine malignant lymphoma". Vet Hum Toxicol 41 (3): 164-70. PMID 10349709.
  4. ^ Modiano J, Breen M, Burnett R, Parker H, Inusah S, Thomas R, Avery P, Lindblad-Toh K, Ostrander E, Cutter G, Avery A (2005). "Distinct B-cell and T-cell lymphoproliferative disease prevalence among dog breeds indicates heritable risk". Cancer Res 65 (13): 5654-61. PMID 15994938.
  5. ^ Canine Malignant Lymphoma: Introduction. The Merck Veterinary Manual (2006). Retrieved on 2007-01-28.
  6. ^ a b c Lowe A (2004). "Alimentary lymphosarcoma in a 4-year-old Labrador retriever". Can Vet J 45 (7): 610-2. PMID 15317395.
  7. ^ Simon, Daniela (2006). Malignant lymphoma in the dog: Short and long term chemotherapy. Proceedings of the North American Veterinary Conference. Retrieved on 2007-01-28.
  8. ^ a b c Hoskins, Johnny D. (May 2006). "Cutaneous paraneoplastic disease". DVM: 6S-7S.
  9. ^ Hypercalcemia of Malignancy. The Merck Veterinary Manual (2006). Retrieved on 2007-01-28.
  10. ^ Bhang D, Choi U, Kim M, Choi E, Kang M, Hwang C, Kim D, Youn H, Lee C (2006). "Epitheliotropic cutaneous lymphoma (mycosis fungoides) in a dog". J Vet Sci 7 (1): 97-9. PMID 16434861.
  11. ^ a b Ogilvie, Gregory K. (2004). Canine Lymphoma: Protocols For 2004. Proceedings of the 29th World Congress of the World Small Animal Veterinary Association. Retrieved on 2006-08-20.
  12. ^ Lupu M, Sullivan E, Westfall T, Little M, Weigler B, Moore P, Stroup P, Zellmer E, Kuhr C, Storb R (2006). "Use of multigeneration-family molecular dog leukocyte antigen typing to select a hematopoietic cell transplant donor for a dog with T-cell lymphoma". J Am Vet Med Assoc 228 (5): 728-32. PMID 16506937.
  13. ^ Siedlecki C, Kass P, Jakubiak M, Dank G, Lyons J, Kent M (2006). "Evaluation of an actinomycin-D-containing combination chemotherapy protocol with extended maintenance therapy for canine lymphoma". Can Vet J 47 (1): 52-9. PMID 16536229.
  14. ^ a b Feline Leukemia Virus and Related Diseases: Introduction. The Merck Veterinary Manual (2006). Retrieved on 2007-01-28.
  15. ^ Ettinger, Stephen J.;Feldman, Edward C. (1995). Textbook of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 4th ed., W.B. Saunders Company. ISBN 0-7216-6795-3. 
  16. ^ Seo K, Choi U, Bae B, Park M, Hwang C, Kim D, Youn H (2006). "Mediastinal lymphoma in a young Turkish Angora cat". J Vet Sci 7 (2): 199-201. PMID 16645348.
  17. ^ O'Rourke, Kate (November 1, 2002). Lymphoma risk in cats more than doubles if owners are smokers. JAVMA News. Retrieved on 2006-08-20.
  18. ^ Gastrointestinal Neoplasia. The Merck Veterinary Manual (2006). Retrieved on 2007-01-28.
  19. ^ Richter, Keith P. (2006). Feline gastrointestinal lymphoma. Proceedings of the North American Veterinary Conference. Retrieved on 2007-01-28.
  20. ^ a b Matz, Michael E. (Jan. 2007). "Chronic Vomiting in a Cat". Clinician's Brief 5 (1): 29-31.
  21. ^ Gaschen, Frédéric (2006). Small Intestinal Diarrhea: Causes and Treatment. Proceedings of the 31st World Congress of the World Small Animal Veterinary Association. Retrieved on 2007-01-28.
  22. ^ Evans S, Bonczynski J, Broussard J, Han E, Baer K (2006). "Comparison of endoscopic and full-thickness biopsy specimens for diagnosis of inflammatory bowel disease and alimentary tract lymphoma in cats". J Am Vet Med Assoc 229 (9): 1447-50. PMID 17078807.
  23. ^ Hernández-Divers, Sonia M. (2005). Ferret Diseases. Proceedings of the 30th World Congress of the World Small Animal Veterinary Association. Retrieved on 2007-01-28.
  24. ^ Mayer, Joerg (2006). Update on ferret lymphoma. Proceedings of the North American Veterinary Conference. Retrieved on 2007-01-28.
  25. ^ Ferret Neoplasia. The Merck Veterinary Manual (2006). Retrieved on 2007-01-01.
  26. ^ a b c Hillyer, Elizabeth V.;Quesenberry, Katherin E. (1997). Ferrets, Rabbits, and Rodents: Clinical Medicine and Surgery, 1st ed., W.B. Saunders Company. ISBN 0-7216-4023-0. 

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External links

  • Dog Cancer help. Canine Lymphoma treatment information.
 

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