Part of a series of articles on Discrimination General forms Racism · Sexism · Ageism Religious intolerance · Xenophobia Manifestations Slavery Racial profiling Lynching Hate speech Hate crime Genocide (examples) Ethnocide Ethnic cleansing Pogrom Race war Religious persecution Blood libel Paternalism Police brutality Movements Policies Discriminatory Race / Religion / Sex segregation Apartheid Redlining Internment Ethnocracy Anti-discriminatory Affirmative action in the United States Emancipation Civil rights Desegregation Integration Equal opportunity... Manifestations Slavery Racial profiling Lynching Hate speech Hate crime Genocide (examples) Ethnocide Ethnic cleansing Pogrom Race war Religious persecution Blood libel Paternalism Police brutality Movements Policies Discriminatory Race / Religion / Sex segregation Apartheid Redlining Internment Ethnocracy Anti-discriminatory Emancipation Civil rights Desegregation Integration Equal opportunity Counter-discriminatory Affirmative action Racial quota... Manifestations Slavery Racial profiling Lynching Hate speech Hate crime Genocide (examples) Ethnocide Ethnic cleansing Pogrom Race war Religious persecution Gay bashing Blood libel Paternalism Police brutality Movements Policies Discriminatory Race / Religion / Sex segregation Apartheid Redlining Internment Anti-discriminatory Emancipation Civil rights Desegregation Integration Equal opportunity Counter-discriminatory Affirmative action Racial... Manifestations Slavery Racial profiling Lynching Hate speech Hate crime Genocide (examples) Ethnocide Ethnic cleansing Pogrom Race war Religious persecution Blood libel Paternalism Police brutality Movements Policies Discriminatory Race / Religion / Sex segregation Apartheid Redlining Internment Ethnocracy Anti-discriminatory Emancipation Civil rights Desegregation Integration Equal opportunity Counter-discriminatory Affirmative action Racial quota... Religious intolerance is either intolerance motivated by ones own religious beliefs or intolerance against anothers religious beliefs or practices. ... Look up xenophobia in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Specific forms Social Ableism · Adultism · Biphobia · Classism Elitism · Ephebiphobia · Gerontophobia Heightism · Heterosexism · Homophobia Lesbophobia · Lookism · Misandry Misogyny · Pediaphobia · Sizeism Transphobia Manifestations Slavery Racial profiling Lynching Hate speech Hate crime Genocide (examples) Ethnocide Ethnic cleansing Pogrom Race war Religious persecution Gay bashing Blood libel Paternalism Police brutality Movements Policies Discriminatory Race / Religion / Sex segregation Apartheid Redlining Internment Anti-discriminatory Emancipation Civil rights Desegregation Integration Equal opportunity Counter-discriminatory Affirmative action Racial... Adultism is a predisposition towards adults, which some see as biased against children, youth, and all young people who arent addressed or viewed as adults. ... Biphobia is the fear of, discrimination against, or hatred of bisexuals (although in practice it extends to pansexual people too). ... Classism (a term formed by analogy with racism) is any form of prejudice or oppression against people who are in, or who are perceived as being like those who are in, a lower social class (especially in the form of lower or higher socioeconomic status) within a class society. ... Elitism is the belief or attitude that the people who are considered to be the elite — a selected group of persons with outstanding personal abilities, wealth, specialised training or experience, or other distinctive attributes — are the people whose views on a matter are to be taken the most seriously, or... The psychological and social fear of youth is called ephebiphobia. ... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... Manifestations Slavery Racial profiling Lynching Hate speech Hate crime Genocide (examples) Ethnocide Ethnic cleansing Pogrom Race war Religious persecution Blood libel Paternalism Police brutality Movements Policies Discriminatory Race / Religion / Sex segregation Apartheid Redlining Internment Ethnocracy Anti-discriminatory Emancipation Civil rights Desegregation Integration Equal opportunity Counter-discriminatory Affirmative action Racial quota... Heterosexism is the presumption that everyone is straight or heterosexual (i. ... A protest by The Westboro Baptist Church, a group identified by the Anti-Defamation League as virulently homophobic. ... Lesbophobia (sometimes Lesbiphobia) is a term which describes prejudice, discrimination, harassment or abuse, either specifically targeting a lesbian person, based on their lesbian identity, or, more generally, targetting lesbians as a class. ... Lookism is discrimination against or prejudice towards others based on their appearance. ... Look up Misandry in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... In Eva Prima Pandora, by Jean Cousin (Louvre Museum), Eve, the equivalent of Pandora embodies Original Sin Misogyny (pronounced ) is hatred or strong prejudice against women; an antonym of philogyny. ... Fear of children and/or infants or childhood is alternately called pedophobia or pediaphobia. ... The fat acceptance movement, also referred to as the fat liberation movement, is a grass-roots effort to change societal attitudes about fat people. ... Manifestations Slavery · Racial profiling · Lynching Hate speech · Hate crime · Hate groups Genocide · Holocaust · Pogrom Ethnocide · Ethnic cleansing · Race war Religious persecution · Gay bashing Pedophobia · Ephebiphobia Movements Discriminatory Aryanism · Neo-Nazism · Supremacism Kahanism Anti-discriminatory Abolitionism · Civil rights LGBT rights Womens/Universal suffrage · Feminism Mens/Fathers rights · Masculinism Children... Against cultures American · Arab · Armenian Australian · Blacks · Canadian · Catalan Chinese · English · European · French German · Igbo · Indian · Iranian · Irish Italian · Japanese · Jewish Malay · Mexican · Native Americans Polish · Portuguese · Quebec · Roma Romanian · Russian · Scottish Serbian · Spanish · Turkish · Whites Anti-Arabism or Arabophobia is a term that refers to prejudice or hostility against people of Arabic origin. ... This article discusses stereotypes of blacks of African descent present in American culture. ... Anti-Catalanism is the collective name given to various political attitudes in Spain. ... This article or section needs a complete rewrite for the reasons listed on the talk page. ... Anti-Europeanism is opposition or hostility toward the governments, culture, or people of the countries of Europe. ... This box:      Anti-Igbo sentiment refers to hostility against Igbo people, their Igbo, or Igbo culture. ... Antisemitism (alternatively spelled anti-semitism or anti-Semitism, also known as judeophobia) is prejudice and hostility toward Jews as a religious, racial, or ethnic group. ... This box:      Anti-Malay racism refers to prejudice against ethnic Malays. ... Wise American Indian chief from the movie Drums Across the River This article discusses the various stereotypes of Native Americans present in Western societies. ... Anti-Quebec sentiment is opposition or hostility toward the government, culture, or people of Quebec, that is French-Canadians, English Quebecers and people from other origins. ... Manifestations Slavery Racial profiling Lynching Hate speech Hate crime Genocide (examples) Ethnocide Ethnic cleansing Pogrom Race war Religious persecution Gay bashing Blood libel Paternalism Police brutality Movements Policies Discriminatory Race / Religion / Sex segregation Apartheid Redlining Internment Anti-discriminatory Emancipation Civil rights Desegregation Integration Equal opportunity Counter-discriminatory Affirmative action Racial... The Nazi inscription reads: The Russian must die so that we may live (1941) Anti-Russian sentiment covers a wide spectrum of dislikes or fears of Russia, Russians, or Russian culture, including Russophobia. ... Serbs rule ... This article is about ethnic stereotypes directed against of Caucasian or European descent, or more broadly anyone who appears to be light-skinned. ... Against beliefs Atheism · Bahá'í · Catholicism Christianity · Hinduism · Judaism Mormonism · Islam · Neopaganism Protestantism New religious movements Manifestations Slavery Racial profiling Lynching Hate speech Hate crime Genocide (examples) Ethnocide Ethnic cleansing Pogrom Race war Religious persecution Blood libel Paternalism Police brutality Movements Policies Discriminatory Race / Religion / Sex segregation Apartheid Redlining Internment Ethnocracy Anti-discriminatory Emancipation Civil rights Desegregation Integration Equal opportunity Counter-discriminatory Affirmative action Racial quota... The persecution of Baháís refers to the religious persecution of Baháís in various countries, especially in Iran, the nation of origin of the Baháí Faith, Irans largest religious minority and the location of one of the largest Baháí populations in the world. ... Anti-Catholicism is discrimination, hostility or prejudice directed at Catholics or the Catholic Church. ... This box:      Anti-Christian discrimination, anti-Christian prejudice, Christianophobia or Christophobia is a negative categorical bias against Christians or the religion of Christianity. ... Manifestations Slavery Racial profiling Lynching Hate speech Hate crime Genocide (examples) Ethnocide Ethnic cleansing Pogrom Race war Religious persecution Gay bashing Blood libel Paternalism Police brutality Movements Policies Discriminatory Race / Religion / Sex segregation Apartheid Redlining Internment Anti-discriminatory Emancipation Civil rights Desegregation Integration Equal opportunity Counter-discriminatory Affirmative action Racial... An example of state-sponsored atheist anti-Judaism. ... An anti-Mormon political cartoon from the late nineteenth century. ... Islamophobia is a controversial[1][2] though increasingly accepted[3][4] term that refers to prejudice or discrimination against Islam or Muslims. ... Religious discrimination against adherents of various neopagan denominations. ... Anti-Protestantism is an institutional, ideological or emotional bias against Protestantism and its followers. ... Opposition to cults and new religious movements (NRMs) comes from several sources with diverse concerns. ... Manifestations Slavery · Racial profiling · Lynching Hate speech · Hate crime Genocide (examples) · Ethnocide Ethnic cleansing · Pogrom · Race war  · Religious persecution · Blood libel · Paternalism Police brutality Slave redirects here. ... Racial profiling, also known as ethnic profiling, is the inclusion of racial or ethnic characteristics in determining whether a person is considered likely to commit a particular type of crime (see Offender Profiling). ... Manifestations Slavery Racial profiling Lynching Hate speech Hate crime Genocide (examples) Ethnocide Ethnic cleansing Pogrom Race war Religious persecution Gay bashing Blood libel Paternalism Police brutality Movements Policies Discriminatory Race / Religion / Sex segregation Apartheid Redlining Internment Anti-discriminatory Emancipation Civil rights Desegregation Integration Equal opportunity Counter-discriminatory Affirmative action Racial... Manifestations Slavery Racial profiling Lynching Hate speech Hate crime Genocide (examples) Ethnocide Ethnic cleansing Pogrom Race war Religious persecution Gay bashing Blood libel Paternalism Police brutality Movements Policies Discriminatory Race / Religion / Sex segregation Apartheid Redlining Internment Anti-discriminatory Emancipation Civil rights Desegregation Integration Equal opportunity Counter-discriminatory Affirmative action Racial... A Jewish cemetery in France after being defaced by Neo-Nazis. ... For other uses, see Genocide (disambiguation). ... Genocide is the mass killing of a group of people, as defined by Article 2 of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (CPPCG) as any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or... Ethnocide is a concept related to genocide; unlike genocide, which has entered into international law, ethnocide remains primarily the province of ethnologists, who have not yet settled on a single cohesive meaning for the term. ... For the video game, see Ethnic Cleansing (computer game). ... Pogrom (from Russian: ; from громить IPA: - to wreak havoc, to demolish violently) is a form of riot directed against a particular group, whether ethnic, religious or other, and characterized by destruction of their homes, businesses and religious centres. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Religious persecution is systematic mistreatment of an individual or group due to their religious affiliation. ... Blood libels are unfounded allegations that a particular group eats people as a form of human sacrifice, often accompanied by the claim of using the blood of their victims in various rituals. ... Image of traditional cultural paternalism: Father Junipero Serra in a modern portrayal at Mission San Juan Capistrano, California Paternalism refers usually to an attitude or a policy stemming from the hierarchic pattern of a family based on patriarchy, that is, there is a figurehead (the father, pater in Latin) that... January 31 1919: David Kirkwood on the ground after being struck by batons of the Glasgow police Police brutality is a term used to describe the excessive use of physical force, assault, verbal attacks, and threats by police officers and other law enforcement officers. ... Movements Discriminatory Aryanism  · Hate groups · Ku Klux Klan Neo-Nazism · American Nazi Party South African National Party Supremacism Proto-Indo-European Indo-European studies The Aryan race is a notion mentioned in the Old Persian inscriptions and other Persian sources from c. ... A hate group is an organized group or movement that advocates hate, hostility or violence towards a group of people or some organization upon spurious grounds, despite a wider consensus that these people are not necessarily better or worse than any others. ... Members of the second Ku Klux Klan at a rally during the 1920s. ... The terms Neo-Nazism and Neo-Fascism refer to any social or political movement to revive Nazism or Fascism, respectively, and postdates the Second World War. ... GOP redirects here. ... The National Party (Afrikaans: Nasionale Party) (with its members sometimes known as Nationalists or Nats) was the governing party of South Africa from June 4th 1948 until May 9th 1994, and was disbanded in 2005. ... Not to be confused with suprematism. ... Anti-discriminatory Abolitionism · Civil rights Women's / Universal suffrage LGBT rights · Feminism Masculism · Men's / Fathers' rights Children's rights · Youth rights Disability rights (Inclusion) Autistic rights · Equalism This article is about the abolition of slavery. ... Civil rights or positive rights are those legal rights retained by citizens and protected by the government. ... The term womens suffrage refers to an economic and political reform movement aimed at extending suffrage — the right to vote — to women. ... Elections Part of the Politics series Politics Portal This box:      Universal suffrage (also general suffrage or common suffrage) consists of the extension of the right to vote to all adults, without distinction as to race, sex, belief, intelligence, or economic or social status. ... This list indexes the articles on LGBT rights in each country and significant non-country region (e. ... Feminists redirects here. ... Masculism (also referred to as masculinism) consists of social theories, political movements, and moral philosophies primarily based on the experiences of men. ... This box:      Mens Rights involves the promotion of male equality, rights, and freedoms in society. ... The Fathers rights movement or Parents rights movement is part of the mens movement and/or the parents movement that emerged in the 1970s as a loose social movement providing a network of interest groups, primarily in western countries. ... Manifestations Slavery · Racial profiling · Lynching Hate speech · Hate crime · Hate groups Genocide · Holocaust · Pogrom Ethnocide · Ethnic cleansing · Race war Religious persecution · Gay bashing Movements Discriminatory Aryanism · Neo-Nazism · Supremacism Fundamentalism · Kahanism Anti-discriminatory Abolitionism · Civil rights · Gay rights Womens/Universal suffrage · Mens rights Childrens rights · Youth rights... Manifestations Slavery · Racial profiling · Lynching Hate speech · Hate crime · Hate groups Genocide · Holocaust · Pogrom Ethnocide · Ethnic cleansing · Race war Religious persecution · Gay bashing Pedophobia · Ephebiphobia Movements Discriminatory Aryanism · Neo-Nazism · Supremacism Kahanism Anti-discriminatory Abolitionism · Civil rights · Gay rights Womens/Universal suffrage · Mens rights Childrens rights · Youth... The disability rights movement aims to improve the quality of life of people with disabilities. ... For the concept of inclusion in organizational culture, see the article Inclusion (value and practice). ... This box:      The autism rights movement (which has also been called autistic self-advocacy movement [1] and autistic liberation movement [2]) was started by adult autistic individuals in order to advocate and demand tolerance for what they refer to as neurodiversity. ... Graffiti in Madrid promoting equality, reads todos somos iguales, or we are all equal. Equalism is a name often given to forms of egalitarianism (advocacy of equality) concerned with issues of gender or race. ... Policies Discriminatory Race / Religion / Sex segregation Apartheid · Redlining · Internment · Ethnocracy Racial segregation characterised by separation of different races in daily life, such as eating in a restaurant, drinking from a water fountain, using a rest room, attending school, going to the movies, or in the rental or purchase of a home. ... Sex segregation is the separation, or segregation, of people according to sex or gender. ... A segregated beach in South Africa, 1982. ... For the automotive term, see redline. ... This article is about the usage and history of the terms concentration camp, internment camp and internment. ... Ethnocracy is a form of government where all offices are held by a certain ethnic group purposefully and the other ethnic groups are subdued and sometimes killed by the state because of their race or cultural differences. ... Anti-discriminatory Affirmative action in the United States · Emancipation · Civil rights Desegregation · Integration Equal opportunity Affirmative action is a policy or a program of giving preferential treatment to certain designated groups allegedly seeking to redress discrimination or bias through active measures, as in education and employment. ... For other uses, see Emancipation (disambiguation). ... Civil rights or positive rights are those legal rights retained by citizens and protected by the government. ... Manifestations Slavery Racial profiling Lynching Hate speech Hate crime Genocide (examples) Ethnocide Ethnic cleansing Pogrom Race war Religious persecution Blood libel Paternalism Police brutality Movements Policies Discriminatory Race / Religion / Sex segregation Apartheid Redlining Internment Ethnocracy Anti-discriminatory Affirmative action in the United States Emancipation Civil rights Desegregation Integration Equal opportunity... Children at a parade in North College Hill, Ohio Manifestations Slavery Racial profiling Lynching Hate speech Hate crime Genocide (examples) Ethnocide Ethnic cleansing Pogrom Race war Religious persecution Blood libel Paternalism Police brutality Movements Policies Discriminatory Race / Religion / Sex segregation Apartheid Redlining Internment Ethnocracy Anti-discriminatory Emancipation Civil rights Desegregation... Equal opportunity is a descriptive term for an approach intended to provide a certain social environment in which people are not excluded from the activities of society, such as education, employment, or health care, on the basis of immutable traits. ... Counter-discriminatory Affirmative action · Racial quota Reservation (India) · Reparation Forced busing Employment equity (Canada) Manifestations Slavery Racial profiling Lynching Hate speech Hate crime Genocide (examples) Ethnocide Ethnic cleansing Pogrom Race war Religious persecution Blood libel Paternalism Police brutality Movements Policies Discriminatory Race / Religion / Sex segregation Apartheid Redlining Internment Ethnocracy Anti-discriminatory Affirmative action in the United States Emancipation Civil rights Desegregation Integration Equal opportunity... Manifestations Slavery Racial profiling Lynching Hate speech Hate crime Genocide (examples) Ethnocide Ethnic cleansing Pogrom Race war Religious persecution Gay bashing Blood libel Paternalism Police brutality Movements Policies Discriminatory Race / Religion / Sex segregation Apartheid Redlining Internment Anti-discriminatory Emancipation Civil rights Desegregation Integration Equal opportunity Counter-discriminatory Affirmative action Racial... Reservation in Indian law is a term used to describe the governmental policy whereby a percentage of seats are reserved in the Parliament of India, State Legislative Assemblies, Central and State Civil Services, Public Sector Units, Central and State Governmental Departments and in all Public and Private Educational Institutions, except... In the philosophy of justice, reparation is the idea that a just sentence ought to compensate the victim of a crime appropriately. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... Employment equity refers to Canadian policies that require or encourage preferential treatment in employment practices for certain designated groups: women, people with disabilities, Aboriginal peoples, and visible minorities. ... Law Discriminatory Anti-miscegenation · Anti-immigration Alien and Sedition Acts · Jim Crow laws Test Act · Apartheid laws Ketuanan Melayu · Nuremberg Laws Anti-miscegenation laws (also known as miscegenation laws) were laws that banned interracial marriage and sometimes also interracial sex. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Text of the act. ... Manifestations Slavery Racial profiling Lynching Hate speech Hate crime Genocide (examples) Ethnocide Ethnic cleansing Pogrom Race war Religious persecution Gay bashing Blood libel Paternalism Police brutality Movements Policies Discriminatory Race / Religion / Sex segregation Apartheid Redlining Internment Anti-discriminatory Emancipation Civil rights Desegregation Integration Equal opportunity Counter-discriminatory Affirmative action Racial... The several Test Acts were a series of English penal laws that imposed various civil disabilities on Roman Catholics and Nonconformists. ... The Apartheid Legislation in South Africa was a series of different laws and acts which were to help the apartheid-government to enforce the segregation of different races and cement the power and the dominance by the Whites, of substantially European descent, over the other race groups. ... United Malays National Organisation (UMNO) Youth Chief Hishammuddin Hussein brandishing the kris (dagger), an action seen by some as a defense of ketuanan Melayu. ... The Nuremberg Laws of 1935 were denaturalization laws passed in Nazi Germany. ... Anti-discriminatory Anti-discrimination acts Anti-discrimination law 14th Amendment · Crime of apartheid This is a list of anti-discrimination acts (often called discrimination acts), which are laws designed to prevent discrimination. ... President Johnson signs the Civil Rights Act of 1964. ... Amendment XIV in the National Archives The Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution (Amendment XIV) is one of the post-Civil War amendments (known as the Reconstruction Amendments), first intended to secure rights for former slaves. ... The crime of apartheid is defined by the 2002 Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court which established the International Criminal Court as inhumane acts of a character similar to other crimes against humanity committed in the context of an institutionalised regime of systematic oppression and domination by one racial... Other forms Nepotism · Cronyism · Colorism Linguicism · Ethnocentrism · Triumphalism Adultcentrism · Gynocentrism Androcentrism · Economic Look up nepotism in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Manifestations Slavery Racial profiling Lynching Hate speech Hate crime Genocide (examples) Ethnocide Ethnic cleansing Pogrom Race war Religious persecution Gay bashing Blood libel Paternalism Police brutality Movements Policies Discriminatory Race / Religion / Sex segregation Apartheid Redlining Internment Anti-discriminatory Emancipation Civil rights Desegregation Integration Equal opportunity Counter-discriminatory Affirmative action Racial... Colorism is a form of discrimination that is an international phenomenon, where human beings are accorded differing social and/or economic status and treatment based on skin color. ... Linguicism is a form of prejudice, an -ism along the lines of racism, ageism or sexism. ... Christopher Columbus 1492 voyage is seen by many Europeans as the discovery of the Americas, despite the fact that humans first reached it some 12,000 years prior. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Supremacism. ... Manifestations Slavery · Racial profiling · Lynching Hate speech · Hate crime · Hate groups Genocide · Holocaust · Pogrom Ethnocide · Ethnic cleansing · Race war Religious persecution · Gay bashing Pedophobia · Ephebiphobia Movements Discriminatory Aryanism · Neo-Nazism · Supremacism Kahanism Anti-discriminatory Abolitionism · Civil rights · Gay rights Womens/Universal suffrage · Mens rights Childrens rights · Youth... Gynocentrism (Greek γυνο, gyno-, woman, χεντρον, kentron, center) is the practice, often consciously adopted, of placing female human beings or the female point of view at the center of ones view of the world and its culture and history. ... Androcentrism (Greek ανδρο, andro-, man, male, χεντρον, kentron, center) is the practice, conscious or otherwise, of placing male human beings or the masculine point of view at the center of ones view of the world and its culture and history. ... Economic discrimination is a term that describes a form of discrimination based on economic factors. ... Related topics Afrocentrism  · Bigotry · Eurocentrism · Prejudice · Supremacism Intolerance · Tolerance · Diversity Multiculturalism · Oppression Political correctness Reverse discrimination · Eugenics Racialism see African studies for the study of African culture and history in Africa. ... For people named Bigot and other meanings, see Bigot (disambiguation). ... Eurocentrism is the practice, conscious or otherwise, of placing emphasis on European (and, generally, Western) concerns, culture and values at the expense of those of other cultures. ... Manifestations Slavery Racial profiling Lynching Hate speech Hate crime Genocide (examples) Ethnocide Ethnic cleansing Pogrom Race war Religious persecution Gay bashing Blood libel Paternalism Police brutality Movements Policies Discriminatory Race / Religion / Sex segregation Apartheid Redlining Internment Anti-discriminatory Emancipation Civil rights Desegregation Integration Equal opportunity Counter-discriminatory Affirmative action Racial... Not to be confused with suprematism. ... Intolerance is the lack of ability or willingness to tolerate something. ... It has been suggested that toleration be merged into this article or section. ... Recently diversity has been used in a political context to justify recruiting international students or employees. ... The term multiculturalism generally refers to a state of both cultural and ethnic diversity within the demographics of a particular social space. ... For other uses, see Oppression (disambiguation). ... Political correctness is the alteration of language to redress real or alleged injustices and discrimination or to avoid offense. ... Reverse discrimination is a term that is used to describe policies or acts that are seen to benefit a historically socio-politically non-dominant group (typically minorities or women), at the expense of a historically socio-politically dominant group (typically men and majority races). ... Eugenics is the self-direction of human evolution: Logo from the Second International Eugenics Conference [7], 1921, depicting it as a tree which unites a variety of different fields. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... Discrimination Portal Image File history File links Portal. ... This box: view • talk • edit

Lynching in the United States is the practice in the 19th and 20th centuries of the humiliation and killing of people by mobs acting outside the law. These murders, most of them unpunished, often took the form of hanging and burning. To demonstrate a ritual of power, mobs sometimes tortured the victim. Hanging is the suspension of a person by a ligature, usually a cord wrapped around the neck, causing death. ...

Lynching became highly associated with Southern efforts to retain and enforce white supremacy after their defeat in the American Civil War. In their defeat, Southern whites resisted allowing full legal and civil rights to African Americans. The aftermath of war increased social and economic volatility. The formal end of the war meant that groups shifted to insurgent means to try to resist Federal occupation and changes to the law. Manifestations Slavery Racial profiling Lynching Hate speech Hate crime Genocide (examples) Ethnocide Ethnic cleansing Pogrom Race war Religious persecution Gay bashing Blood libel Paternalism Police brutality Movements Policies Discriminatory Race / Religion / Sex segregation Apartheid Redlining Internment Anti-discriminatory Emancipation Civil rights Desegregation Integration Equal opportunity Counter-discriminatory Affirmative action Racial... Historic Southern United States. ... White supremacy is a racist ideology which holds the belief that white people are superior to other races. ... Combatants United States of America (Union) Confederate States of America (Confederacy) Commanders Abraham Lincoln, Ulysses S. Grant Jefferson Davis, Robert E. Lee Strength 2,200,000 1,064,000 Casualties 110,000 killed in action, 360,000 total dead, 275,200 wounded 93,000 killed in action, 258,000 total... An African American (also Afro-American, Black American, or simply black) is a member of an ethnic group in the United States whose ancestors, usually in predominant part, were indigenous to Africa. ...

The changes in civil rights of freedmen in the short Reconstruction that immediately followed the Civil War, and then again later in the mid-20th century, aroused anxieties among white citizens about African-American political power. African-American citizens and white allies were lynched during both these periods. Lynchings of civil rights workers during the 1960s in Mississippi galvanized public support for the Civil Rights Movement and legislation. Civil rights or positive rights are those legal rights retained by citizens and protected by the government. ... For other uses, see Reconstruction (disambiguation). ... This article is about the U.S. state. ... Historically, the civil rights movement was a concentrated period of time around the world of approximately one generation (1960-1980) wherein there was much worldwide civil unrest and popular rebellion. ...

In the 1870s, Democrats regained power through affiliated militia terrorism of black and white Republicans, assassination of community leaders and political activists, and intimidation and restriction of voters at the polls. Even after the Democrats regained power throughout the South, between 1880 and 1951 the Tuskegee Institute recorded lynchings of 3,437 African-American victims, as well as 1,293 white victims. Southern states created new constitutions from 1890-1908 with provisions that effectively disfranchised most blacks and many poor whites. People who did not vote could not serve on juries, so both groups were further shut out of the political process. White Democrats secured one-party rule in the South, comprising such a powerful voting block in Congress that they consistently defeated or blocked Federal bills against lynching. Federal courts Supreme Court Circuit Courts of Appeal District Courts Elections Presidential elections Midterm elections Political Parties Democratic Republican Third parties State & Local government Governors Legislatures (List) State Courts Local Government Other countries Atlas  Politics Portal      Further information: Politics of the United States#Organization of American political parties The Democratic... GOP redirects here. ... Tuskegee University is a private university located in Tuskegee, Alabama and is a member school of the Thurgood Marshall Scholarship Fund. ...

African Americans mounted resistance to lynchings in numerous ways: writers, journalists and playwrights mounted public education, protests and lobbying in the late 19th and early 20th century. Through the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), they were joined by white activists. African-American women's club networks raised funds to support the work of public campaigns, including anti-lynching plays. In 1930 white Southern women formed the Association of Southern Women for the Prevention of Lynching to join the struggle. Their petition drives, letter campaigns, meetings and demonstrations helped to highlight the issues. Together the groups' efforts led to a reduction in lynching.^[1] The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP, generally pronounced as EN Double AY SEE PEE) is one of the oldest and most influential civil rights organizations in the United States. ... The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), is one of the oldest and most influential hate organizations in the United States. ... Year 1930 (MCMXXX) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display 1930 calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ...

Name origin

The term "Lynch's Law" (and subsequently "lynch law" and "lynching") apparently originated during the American Revolution when Charles Lynch, a Virginia justice of the peace, ordered extralegal punishment for Tories (American colonists who remained loyal to the British crown). In the South, members of the abolitionist movement or other people opposing slavery were often targets of lynch mob violence before the American Civil War.^[2] John Trumbulls Declaration of Independence, showing the five-man committee in charge of drafting the Declaration in 1776 as it presents its work to the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia The American Revolution refers to the period during the last half of the 18th century in which the Thirteen... Britannia offers solace and a promise of compensation for her exiled American born Loyalists. ... George III redirects here. ... This English poster depicting the horrific conditions on slave ships was influential in mobilizing public opinion against slavery. ... Slave redirects here. ...

Social characteristics

1774 British print depicting the tarring and feathering of Boston Commissioner of Customs John Malcolm four weeks after the Boston Tea Party.

There were often three motives for lynchings in the United States. The first was the social aspect: punishing some social wrong or perceived social wrong (such as a violation of Jim Crow) to restore social order. Image File history File links 1774_lynching. ... Image File history File links 1774_lynching. ... Tarring and feathering is a physical punishment, at least as old as the Crusades, used to enforce formal justice in feudal Europe and informal justice in Europe and its colonies in the early modern period, as well as the early American frontier, mostly as a type of mob vengeance (compare... Nickname: City on the Hill, Beantown, The Hub (of the Universe)1, Athens of America, The Cradle of Revolution, Puritan City, Americas Walking City Location in Massachusetts, USA Counties Suffolk County Mayor Thomas M. Menino(D) Area    - City 232. ... Commissioner is a designation that may be used for a variety of official positions, especially referring to a high-ranking public (administrative or police) official, or an analogous official in the private sector (e. ... Customs is an authority or agency in a country responsible for collecting customs duties and for controlling the flow of animals and goods (including personal effects and hazardous items) in and out of a country. ... John Malcolm was a Bostonian who worked for the British customs service at the time of the American Revolution who was the victim of one of the most publicized tarring and feathering incidents during the unrest leading up to the Revolutionary War. ... This article is about a 1773 American protest. ... Manifestations Slavery Racial profiling Lynching Hate speech Hate crime Genocide (examples) Ethnocide Ethnic cleansing Pogrom Race war Religious persecution Gay bashing Blood libel Paternalism Police brutality Movements Policies Discriminatory Race / Religion / Sex segregation Apartheid Redlining Internment Anti-discriminatory Emancipation Civil rights Desegregation Integration Equal opportunity Counter-discriminatory Affirmative action Racial...

Another motive was the economic aspect. For example, upon successful lynching of an African American farmer or immigrant merchant, the land would be available and the market opened for white Americans. In much of the Deep South lynchings peaked in the late 19th century, as whites turned to terrorism to dissuade blacks from voting and to enforce Jim Crow laws. In the Mississippi Delta lynchings of blacks increased in the early 20th century as white planters tried to enforce control of labor when more blacks became sharecroppers and laborers. The states in dark red comprise the Deep South. ... Alternative meaning: Nineteenth Century (periodical) (18th century — 19th century — 20th century — more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 19th century was that century which lasted from 1801-1900 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar. ... The shared flood plain of the Yazoo and Mississippi Rivers The Mississippi Delta is the distinct northwest section of the state of Mississippi that lies between the Mississippi and Yazoo Rivers. ... (19th century - 20th century - 21st century - more centuries) Decades: 1900s 1910s 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s As a means of recording the passage of time, the 20th century was that century which lasted from 1901–2000 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar (1900–1999 in the...

Lynchings occurred in frontier areas where legal recourse was distant. In the West cattle barons took the law into their own hands by hanging those they perceived as cattle thieves.

Journalist and anti-lynching crusader Ida B. Wells wrote in the 1890s that black lynching victims were accused of rape or attempted rape only about one-third of the time. The most prevalent accusation was murder or attempted murder, followed by a list of infractions that included verbal and physical aggression, spirited business competition and independence of mind. White lynch mobs formed to restore the perceived social order.^[3]

Murder became the common end of lynch mob "policing." Law-enforcement authorities sometimes participated directly or held victims in jail until a mob formed to carry out the murder.

In the view of social historian Michael J. Pfeifer, the United States had two legal systems running in parallel, a legal one in the courts and an illegal one. Both were racially polarized, and both operated to enforce white social dominance.^[4]

Frontier

There is much debate over the violent history of lynchings on the frontier, obscured by the mythology of the American Old West. Compared to the myths, real lynchings in the early years of the western United States did not focus as strongly on "rough and ready" crime prevention, and often shared many of the same racist and partisan political dimensions as lynchings in the South and Midwest. In unorganized territories or sparsely settled states, security was often provided only by a federal marshal who might, despite the appointment of deputies, be hours or even days away by horse. For other uses, see Mythology (disambiguation). ... The cowboy, the quintessential symbol of the American Old West, circa 1887. ... This article is about the Midwestern region in the United States. ... The United States Marshals Service, part of the United States Department of Justice, is the United States oldest federal law enforcement agency. ...

Lynchings in the Old West were often carried out against accused criminals in custody. Lynching did not so much substitute for an absent legal system as to provide an alternative system that favored a particular social class or racial group. One historian writes, "Contrary to the popular understanding, early territorial lynching did not flow from an absence or distance of law enforcement but rather from the social instability of early communities and their contest for property, status, and the definition of social order."^[5]

Charles Cora and James Casey are lynched by the Committee of Vigilance, San Francisco, 1856.

The San Francisco Vigilance Movement, for example, has traditionally been portrayed as a positive response to government corruption and rampant crime. Revisionists have argued that it created more lawlessness than it eliminated. It also had a strongly nativist tinge, initially focused against the Irish and later evolving into mob violence against Chinese and Mexican immigrants.^{[citation needed]} Image File history File links lynching of Charles Cora and James Casey, San Francisco, 1856 File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Image File history File links lynching of Charles Cora and James Casey, San Francisco, 1856 File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Charles Cora and James Casey are lynched by the Committee of Vigilance, San Francisco, 1856. ... The term Nativism is used in both politics and psychology in two fundamentally different ways. ... Mexican may have several meanings. ...

During the California Gold Rush, at least 25,000 Mexicans had been longtime residents of California. The Treaty of 1848 expanded American territory by one-third. To settle the war, Mexico ceded all or parts of Arizona, California, Colorado, Kansas, New Mexico, Nevada, Oklahoma, Texas, Utah and Wyoming to the United States. In 1849, California became a state within the United States. The California Gold Rush (1848–1855) began shortly after January 24, 1848 (when gold was discovered at Sutters Mill in Coloma). ... This article is about the U.S. state. ... Official language(s) English Spoken language(s) English 74. ... Official language(s) English Demonym Coloradan Capital Denver Largest city Denver Largest metro area Denver-Aurora Metro Area Area  Ranked 8th in the US  - Total 104,185 sq mi (269,837 km²)  - Width 280 miles (451 km)  - Length 380 miles (612 km)  - % water 0. ... This article is about the U.S. state. ... Official language(s) None Spoken language(s) English 68. ... This article is about the U.S. State of Nevada. ... For other uses, see Oklahoma (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Texas (disambiguation). ... This article is about the U.S. state. ... Official language(s) English Capital Cheyenne Largest city Cheyenne Area  Ranked 10th  - Total 97,818 sq mi (253,348 km²)  - Width 280 miles (450 km)  - Length 360 miles (580 km)  - % water 0. ...

Many of the Mexicans who were native to what would become a state within the United States were experienced miners and had had great success mining gold in California. Their success aroused animosity by white prospectors who intimidated Mexican miners with the threat of violence and committed violence against some. Between 1848 and 1860, at least 163 Mexicans were lynched in California alone.^[6]One particularly infamous lynching occurred on July 5, 1851 when a Mexican woman named Josefa Segovia was lynched by a mob in Downieville, California. She was accused of killing a white man who had attempted to assault her after breaking into her home.^[7] The El Chino Mine located near Silver City, New Mexico is an open-pit copper mine This article is about mineral extraction. ... is the 186th day of the year (187th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1851 (MDCCCLI) was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Friday of the 12-day-slower Julian calendar). ... This article is about the U.S. state. ...

Another well-documented episode in the history of the American West is the Johnson County War, a dispute over land use in Wyoming in the 1890s. Large-scale ranchers, with the complicity of local and federal Republican politicians, hired mercenary soldiers and assassins to lynch the small ranchers (mostly Democrats) who were their economic competitors and whom they portrayed as "cattle rustlers." The Invaders of The Johnson County Cattle War. ... Official language(s) English Capital Cheyenne Largest city Cheyenne Area  Ranked 10th  - Total 97,818 sq mi (253,348 km²)  - Width 280 miles (450 km)  - Length 360 miles (580 km)  - % water 0. ... GOP redirects here. ... Federal courts Supreme Court Circuit Courts of Appeal District Courts Elections Presidential elections Midterm elections Political Parties Democratic Republican Third parties State & Local government Governors Legislatures (List) State Courts Local Government Other countries Atlas  Politics Portal      Further information: Politics of the United States#Organization of American political parties The Democratic...

Reconstruction (1865-1877)

A cartoon threatening that the KKK would lynch carpetbaggers. Tuscaloosa, Alabama, Independent Monitor, 1868.

After the Civil War, lynching became particularly associated with the South and with the first Ku Klux Klan, which was founded in 1866. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (808x556, 70 KB)kkk cartoon File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (808x556, 70 KB)kkk cartoon File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Members of the second Ku Klux Klan at a rally during the 1920s. ... In United States history, carpetbaggers were Northerners who moved to the South during Reconstruction between 1865 and 1877. ... Combatants United States of America (Union) Confederate States of America (Confederacy) Commanders Abraham Lincoln, Ulysses S. Grant Jefferson Davis, Robert E. Lee Strength 2,200,000 1,064,000 Casualties 110,000 killed in action, 360,000 total dead, 275,200 wounded 93,000 killed in action, 258,000 total... Members of the second Ku Klux Klan at a rally during the 1920s. ...

The first heavy period of lynching in the South was between 1868 and 1871. White Democrats attacked black and white Republicans.^{[citation needed]} To prevent ratification of new constitutions, the opposition tried to harass and prevent people from voting. Failed terrorist attacks led to a massacre during the 1868 elections, with the systematic murder of about 1,300 voters across various southern states ranging from South Carolina to Arkansas. This article is becoming very long. ... Official language(s) English Capital Columbia Largest city Columbia Largest metro area Columbia Area  Ranked 40th  - Total 34,726 sq mi (82,965 km²)  - Width 200 miles (320 km)  - Length 260 miles (420 km)  - % water 6  - Latitude 32° 2′ N to 35° 13′ N  - Longitude 78° 32′ W to 83... This article is about the U.S. State. ...

After this partisan political violence had ended, lynchings in the South focused more on race than on partisan politics. They could be seen as a latter-day expression of the slave patrols, the bands of poor whites who policed the slaves and pursued escapees. The lynchers sometimes murdered their victims but sometimes whipped them to remind them of their former status as slaves.^[8] White vigilantes often made nighttime raids of African American homes in order to confiscate firearms. Lynchings to prevent freedmen and their allies from voting and bearing arms can be seen as extralegal ways of enforcing the Black Codes and the previous system of social dominance. The 14th and 15th Amendments in 1868 and 1870 had invalidated the Black Codes. Slave patrols (called patrollers or pattyrollers by the slaves) were gangs of poor white people who enforced discipline upon black slaves in groups of 3 to 6 men during the antebellum U.S. southern states. ... The Black Codes were laws passed on the state and local level in the United States to restrict the civil rights and civil liberties of Black People, particularly former slaves. ... Amendment XIV in the National Archives The Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution (Amendment XIV) is one of the post-Civil War amendments (known as the Reconstruction Amendments), first intended to secure rights for former slaves. ... Amendment XV in the National Archives 1870 celebration of the 15th amendment as a guarantee of African American rights 1867 drawing depicting the first vote by African Americans Amendment XV (the Fifteenth Amendment) of the United States Constitution provides that governments in the United States may not prevent a citizen...

Three Ku Klux Klan members arrested in Tishomingo County, Mississippi, September 1871, for the attempted murder of an entire family

After years of terror, President Ulysses S. Grant and Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1871. This permitted authorities to use martial law in some counties in South Carolina, where the Klan was the strongest. At about this time, the Klan dissipated. Vigorous federal action and the disappearance of the Klan had a strong effect in reducing lynching. Original caption reads: This appeared in Harpers Weekly January 27, 1872. ... Original caption reads: This appeared in Harpers Weekly January 27, 1872. ... Tishomingo County is a county located in the state of Mississippi. ... Ulysses S. Grant,[2] born Hiram Ulysses Grant (April 27, 1822 – July 23, 1885), was an American general and the eighteenth President of the United States (1869–1877). ... Type Bicameral Houses Senate House of Representatives President of the Senate President pro tempore Dick Cheney, (R) since January 20, 2001 Robert C. Byrd, (D) since January 4, 2007 Speaker of the House Nancy Pelosi, (D) since January 4, 2007 Members 535 plus 4 Delegates and 1 Resident Commissioner Political... The Civil Rights Act of 1871, now codified and known as , is one of the most important federal statutes in force in the United States. ... For other uses, see Martial law (disambiguation). ...

In Mississippi, Louisiana and Florida especially, the 1870s were extremely violent years, as Democrats used "White Line" groups such as the White Camellia to terrorize, intimidate and assassinate African American and white Republicans in a drive to regain power. Insurgents targeted politically active African Americans and also loosed violence in general community intimidation. Grant's desire to keep Ohio in the Republican aisle and his attorney general's maneuvering led to a failure to support the Mississippi governor with Federal troops. The Democrats' campaign of terror worked. In Yazoo County, for instance, with a Negro population of 12,000, only seven votes were cast for Republicans. In 1875 Democrats swept into power in the state legislature. ^[9]

Once Democrats regained power in Mississippi, Democrats in other states adopted the "Mississippi Plan" to control the election of 1876, using informal armed militias to assassinate political leaders, hunt down community members, intimidate and turn away voters, effectively suppressing African American suffrage and civil rights. In state after state, Democrats swept back to power. The South had won the war.^[10] From 1868 to 1876, most years had 50-100 lynchings.

After the Democrats took over the Southern states, lynching deaths declined from 1877 to 1888, when the toll ranged from 1 to 17 victims per year.^{[citation needed]} White Democrats passed laws making voter registration more complicated, to strip black voters from the rolls.

Disfranchisement, 1877 to World War I

John Heith was lynched in Arizona in 1884, after he was found guilty of murder charges. The mob placed a placard at the base of the telegraph pole, suggesting they did it "to advance Arizona."^[11]

George Meadows, Lynching victim, 1889

Rioters breaking in to parish prison. Anti-Italian lynching in New Orleans, 1891

Following white Democrats' regaining political power in the late 1870s, legislators gradually increased restrictions on voting, chiefly through statute. From 1890 to 1908, most of the Southern states, starting with Mississippi, created new constitutions with further provisions: poll taxes, literacy and understanding tests, and increased residency requirements, that effectively disfranchised most blacks and many poor whites. Forcing them off voter registration lists also prevented them from serving on juries, whose members were limited to voters. Although challenges to such constitutions made their way to the Supreme Court in Williams v. Mississippi (1898) and Giles v. Harris (1903), the states' provisions were upheld. Lynching victim, southern USA, 1889 Source: wikipedia commons. ... Lynching victim, southern USA, 1889 Source: wikipedia commons. ... Year 1890 (MDCCCXC) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Monday of the Julian calendar). ... Year 1908 (MCMVIII) was a leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a leap year starting on Tuesday of the 13-day-slower Julian calendar). ... The Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution, adopted in 1870 in response to the American Civil War, prevented any state from denying the right to vote to any citizen on account of his race. ... Williams v. ... Holding --- Court membership Case opinions Laws applied --- Giles v. ...

Most lynchings during the late 1800s and early 20th century were of African Americans in the South. Of the 468 victims in Texas between 1885 and 1942, 339 were black, 77 white, 53 Hispanic, and 1 Indian.^[12] They reflected the tensions of labor and social changes, and the results of whites' organizing militias to regain power lost after the Civil War. They also were a result of long economic stress due to falling cotton prices through much of the 19th century, as well as financial depression in the 1890s. For other uses, see Texas (disambiguation). ...

The late 19th and early 20th century history of the Mississippi Delta showed both frontier influence and actions directed at repressing African Americans. After the Civil War, 90% of the Delta was still undeveloped. Both whites and tens of thousands of African Americans migrated there for a chance to buy land in the backcountry. It was frontier wilderness, heavily forested and without roads for years. Before the turn of the century, lynchings often took the form of frontier justice directed at transient workers as well as residents. Thousands of workers were brought in to do lumbering and work on levees. Whites were lynched at a rate 35.5% higher than their proportion in the population, most often accused of crimes against property (chiefly theft). During the Delta's frontier era, blacks were lynched at a rate lower than their proportion in the population, unlike in the rest of the South. They were most often accused of murder or attempted murder in half the cases, and rape in 15%.^[13]

There was a clear seasonal pattern to the lynchings, with the colder months being the deadliest. As noted, cotton prices fell during the 1880s and 1890s, increasing economic pressures. "From September through December, the cotton was picked, debts were revealed, and profits (or losses) realized... Whether concluding old contracts or discussing new arrangements, [landlords and tenants] frequently came into conflict in these months and sometimes fell to blows."^[14] During the winter, murder was most cited as a cause for lynching. After 1901, as economics shifted and more blacks became renters and sharecroppers in the Delta, only African Americans were lynched. The frequency increased from 1901 to 1908, after African Americans were disfranchised. "In the twentieth century Delta vigilantism finally became predictably joined to white supremacy."^[15]

After increased immigration to the US in the late 19th century, Italian-Americans also became lynching targets, chiefly in the South. On March 14, 1891, eleven Italian-Americans were lynched in New Orleans after a jury acquitted them in the murder of a New Orleans police chief ^[16] David Hennessy. The eleven were falsely accused of being associated with the Mafia. This incident was the largest mass lynching in U.S. history.^[17] A total of twenty Italians were lynched in the 1890s. Although most lynchings of Italian-Americans occurred in the South, Italians did not immigrate there in great numbers. Isolated lynchings of Italians also occurred in New York, Pennsylvania, and Colorado. An Italian-American is an American of Italian descent. ... is the 73rd day of the year (74th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1891 (MDCCCXCI) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Saturday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... New Orleans is the largest city in the state of Louisiana, United States of America. ... A photo of David Hennessy, courtesy of the Tulane Universitys Louisiana Collection. ... This article is about the criminal society. ... This article is about the U.S. State. ... Official language(s) English Demonym Coloradan Capital Denver Largest city Denver Largest metro area Denver-Aurora Metro Area Area  Ranked 8th in the US  - Total 104,185 sq mi (269,837 km²)  - Width 280 miles (451 km)  - Length 380 miles (612 km)  - % water 0. ...

Particularly in the West, Chinese immigrants, East Indians, Native Americans and Mexicans were also lynching victims. The lynching of Mexicans and Mexican Americans in the Southwest was long overlooked in American history. Attention became focused on the South. The Tuskegee Institute, which kept the most complete records, noted the victims as simply black or white. Mexican, Chinese, and Native American lynching victims were recorded as white.^[18] This article is about the people indigenous to the United States. ... Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this exact name. ... There is also the Tuskegee Airmen, a corps of African-American military pilots trained there during World War II Tuskegee University is an American institution of higher learning located in Tuskegee, Alabama. ...

Researchers estimate 597 Mexicans were lynched between 1848 and 1928. Mexicans were lynched at a rate of 27.4 per 100,000 of population between 1880 and 1930. This statistic was second only to that of the African American community, which endured an average of 37.1 per 100,000 of population during that period. Between 1848 and 1879, Mexicans were lynched at an unprecedented rate of 473 per 100,000 of population.^[19]

Henry Smith, a troubled ex-slave, was one of the most famous lynched African Americans. He was lynched at Paris, Texas, in 1893 for allegedly killing Myrtle Vance, the three-year-old daughter of a Texas policeman, after the policeman had assaulted Smith.^[20] Smith was not tried in a court of law. A large crowd followed the lynching, as was common then, in the style of public executions. Henry Smith was fastened to a wooden platform, tortured for fifty minutes by red-hot iron brands, then finally burned alive while over 10,000 spectators cheered.^[21] Alternate meaning: Paris, Texas (movie). ...

Enforcing Jim Crow

After 1876, the frequency of lynching decreased somewhat as white Democrats regained political power throughout the South, but 1892 was a peak year. The threat of lynching was used to terrorize freedmen and whites alike to maintain re-asserted dominance by whites.^{[citation needed]}. Southern Republicans in Congress had sought to protect black voting rights by using Federal troops for enforcement. A congressional deal to elect Rutherford B. Hayes as President in 1876 included a pledge to end Reconstruction in the South. The Redeemers, white Democrats who often included members of paramilitary groups such as White Cappers, White Camellia, and Ku Klux Klan, used terrorist violence and targeted assassinations to reduce the political power that black and white Republicans had gained during Reconstruction. Lynchings both supported the power reversal and were public demonstrations of white power. Rutherford Birchard Hayes (October 4, 1822 – January 17, 1893) was an American politician, lawyer, military leader and the nineteenth President of the United States (1877–1881). ... We dont have an article called Redeemers Start this article Search for Redeemers in. ...

Racial tensions had an economic base. In attempting to reconstruct the plantation economy, planters were anxious to control labor. They did not know how to work as managers rather than masters. In addition, agricultural depression was widespread and the price of cotton kept falling after the Civil War into the 1890s. There was a labor shortage in many parts of the Deep South, especially in the developing Mississippi Delta. Southern attempts to encourage immigrant labor didn't work as immigrants would leave field labor. Lynchings erupted when farmers tried to terrorize the laborers, especially when times came to settle and they couldn't pay wages, but tried to keep laborers from leaving.

The creation of the Jim Crow laws beginning in the 1890s completed the revival of white supremacy in the South. Terror and lynching were used to enforce both these formal laws and a variety of unwritten rules of conduct meant to assert white domination. In most years from 1889 to 1923, there were 50-100 lynchings annually across the South. Manifestations Slavery Racial profiling Lynching Hate speech Hate crime Genocide (examples) Ethnocide Ethnic cleansing Pogrom Race war Religious persecution Gay bashing Blood libel Paternalism Police brutality Movements Policies Discriminatory Race / Religion / Sex segregation Apartheid Redlining Internment Anti-discriminatory Emancipation Civil rights Desegregation Integration Equal opportunity Counter-discriminatory Affirmative action Racial... A depiction of T.D. Rices Jim Crow In the United States, the so-called Jim Crow laws were made to enforce racial segregation, and included laws that would prevent African Americans from doing things that a white person could do. ...

A postcard showing the burned body of Jesse Washington, Waco, Texas, 1916.

The circus-style lynching of Will James, Cairo, Illinois, 1909.

Often victims were lynched by a small group of white vigilantes late at night. Sometimes, however, lynchings became mass spectacles with a circus-like atmosphere because they were intended to emphasize a majority power. Children often attended these public lynchings. A large lynching might be announced beforehand in the newspaper. There were cases in which a lynching was timed so that a newspaper reporter could make his deadline. Photographers sold photos for postcards to make extra money. The event was publicized so that the intended audience, African Americans and whites who might fear the Klan, was warned to stay in their places. A postcard showing the burned body of Jesse Washington, Waco, Texas, 1916. ... A postcard showing the burned body of Jesse Washington, Waco, Texas, 1916. ... Jesse Washington was an African American farmhand from Waco, Texas. ... For the Branch Davidian siege in Waco, Texas, see Waco Siege. ... The lynching of Will James, 1909, Cairo, Illinois File links The following pages link to this file: Lynching Categories: Public domain images ... The lynching of Will James, 1909, Cairo, Illinois File links The following pages link to this file: Lynching Categories: Public domain images ... Cairo is a city in Alexander County, Illinois in the United States. ...

Fewer than 1 percent of lynch mob participants were ever convicted by local courts. By the late 19th century, trial juries in most of the southern United States were all white because African Americans had been disfranchised, and only registered voters could serve as jurors. Often juries never let the matter go past the inquest.

In an example in 1892, a police officer in Port Jervis, New York, tried to stop the lynching of a black man who had been wrongfully accused of assaulting a white woman. The mob responded by putting the noose around the officer's neck as a way of scaring him. Although at the inquest the officer identified eight people who had participated in the lynching, including the former chief of police, the jury determined that the murder had been carried out "by person or persons unknown."^[22] The NY-NJ-PA Tri-State marker located in Port Jervis. ...

More than 85 percent of the estimated 5,000 lynchings in the post-Civil War period occurred in the Southern states. 1892 was a peak year when 161 African Americans were lynched.

Postcard of the Duluth lynchings.

Not all lynchings in the United States took place in the South. In Duluth, Minnesota, on June 15, 1920, three young African American travelers were lynched after having been jailed and accused of having raped a white woman. The alleged "motive" and action by a mob were consistent with the "community policing" model. A book titled The Lynchings in Duluth documented the events. A postcard of a lynching in Duluth, Minnesota, June 15, 1920 File links The following pages link to this file: Lynching Categories: Public domain images ... A postcard of a lynching in Duluth, Minnesota, June 15, 1920 File links The following pages link to this file: Lynching Categories: Public domain images ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Location in St. ... is the 166th day of the year (167th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1920 (MCMXX) was a leap year starting on Thursday (link will display 1920) of the Gregorian calendar. ...

Although the rhetoric surrounding lynchings included justifications about protecting white women, the actions basically erupted out attempts to maintain domination in a rapidly changing society and fears of social change.^{[citation needed]} Victims were the scapegoats for people's attempts to control agriculture, disasters like the boll weevil, labor and education.

According to an article, April 2, 2002, in Time:

"There were lynchings in the Midwestern and Western states, mostly of Asians, Mexicans, Native Americans and even whites. But it was in the South that lynching evolved into a semiofficial institution of racial terror against blacks. All across the former Confederacy, blacks who were suspected of crimes against whites--or even "offenses" no greater than failing to step aside for a white man's car or protesting a lynching--were tortured, hanged and burned to death by the thousands. In a prefatory essay in Without Sanctuary, historian Leon F. Litwack writes that between 1882 and 1968, at least 4,742 African Americans were murdered that way.

At the turn of the 20th century in the United States, lynching was photographic sport, and picture postcards of brutalized dead bodies swinging from trees and burned at the stake were mailed as commonly as email is sent today. The practice was so base, a writer for Time noted that even the Nazis "did not stoop to selling souvenirs of Auschwitz, but lynching scenes became a burgeoning subdepartment of the postcard industry. By 1908, the trade had grown so large, and the practice of sending postcards featuring the victims of mob murderers was so repugnant, that theU.S. Postmaster General banned the cards from the mails."^[23] Confederacy may refer to: Confederation, an association of sovereign states or communities Confederate States of America, eleven southern states of the United States of America between 1861 and 1865. ... Leon F. Litwack is an American historian and professor of history at the University of California at Berkeley. ... An African American (also Afro-American, Black American, or simply black) is a member of an ethnic group in the United States whose ancestors, usually in predominant part, were indigenous to Africa. ... For the computer diagnostic tool, see Postcard (computing). ... Nazism in history Nazi ideology Nazism and race Outside Germany Related subjects Lists Politics Portal         Nazism or National Socialism (German: Nationalsozialismus), refers primarily to the ideology and practices of the Nazi Party (National Socialist German Workers Party, German: Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei or NSDAP) under Adolf Hitler. ... Auschwitz, in English, commonly refers to the Auschwitz concentration camp complex built near the town of Oświęcim, by Nazi Germany during World War II. Rarely, it may refer to the Polish town of Oświęcim (called by the Germans Auschwitz) itself. ... The United States Postmaster General is the executive head of the United States Postal Service. ...

In Without Sanctuary, a book of lynching postcards collected by James Allen, Pullitzer Prize-winning historian Leon F. Litwack wrote: James Allen is the name of: James Allen (football player), American football linebacker James Allen (United States) (1912–1978), U.S. Senator from Alabama James Allen (New Zealand) (1855–1942), Cabinet Minister James Allen (Formula One commentator) (born 1966) James Allen (author) (1864–1912) James Allen (nurseryman), nurseryman of Shepton... Leon F. Litwack is an American historian and professor of history at the University of California at Berkeley. ...

"The photographs stretch our credulity, even numb our minds and senses to the full extent of the horror, but they must be examined if we are to understand how normal men and women could live with, participate in, and defend such atrocities, even reinterpret them so they would not see themselves or be perceived as less than civilized. The men and women who tortured, dismembered, and murdered in this fashion understood perfectly well what they were doing and thought of themselves as perfectly normal human beings. Few had any ethical qualms about their actions. This was not the outburst of crazed men or uncontrolled barbarians but the triumph of a belief system that defined one people as less human than another. For the men and women who comprised these mobs, as for those who remained silent and indifferent or who provided scholarly or scientific explanations, this was the highest idealism in the service of their race. One has only to view the self-satisfied expressions on their faces as they posed beneath black people hanging from a rope or next to the charred remains of a Negro who had been burned to death. What is most disturbing about these scenes is the discovery that the perpetrators of the crimes were ordinary people, not so different from ourselves - merchants, farmers, laborers, machine operators, teachers, doctors, lawyers, policemen, students; they were family men and women, good churchgoing folk who came to believe that keeping black people in their place was nothing less than pest control, a way of combating an epidemic or virus that if not checked would be detrimental to the health and security of the community."

Resistance

Ida B. Wells-Barnett led a crusade against lynching.

By the late 19th century, African Americans had the political experience and stature to begin to push back against lynchings and the disfranchisement and decrease in civil rights. In 1888, the Tuskegee Institute began to assiduously document lynchings, a practice it continued until 1968. ^[24] (From user talk:MyRedDice), Yes, all my images are in public domain. ... (From user talk:MyRedDice), Yes, all my images are in public domain. ... There is also the Tuskegee Airmen, a corps of African-American military pilots trained there during World War II Tuskegee University is an American institution of higher learning located in Tuskegee, Alabama. ...

In 1892 journalist Ida B. Wells-Barnett was shocked when three friends in Memphis, Tennessee were lynched because their grocery store competed successfully with a white-owned store. Outraged, Wells-Barnett began a global anti-lynching campaign that raised awareness of the social injustice. As a result of her efforts, Black women in the US became active in the anti-lynching crusade, often in the form of clubs which raised money to publicize the abuses. When the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) was formed in 1909, Wells became part of its multi-racial leadership and continued to be active against lynching. Ida B. Wells, also known as Ida B. Wells-Barnett (July 16, 1862 – March 25, 1931), was an African American civil rights advocate and an early womens rights advocate active in the Woman Suffrage Movement. ... For other uses, see Memphis (disambiguation). ... Supermarket produce section A supermarket is a store that sells a wide variety of goods including food and alcohol, medicine, clothes, and other household products that are consumed regularly. ... The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP, generally pronounced as EN Double AY SEE PEE) is one of the oldest and most influential civil rights organizations in the United States. ... Year 1909 (MCMIX) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Thursday of the 13-day-slower Julian calendar). ...

In 1903 leading writer Charles Waddell Chesnutt published his article "The Disfranchisement of the Negro", detailing civil rights abuses and need for change in the South. Numerous writers appealed to the literate public. ^[25] Charles Waddell Chesnutt (June 20, 1858 – November 15, 1932) was an African American author. ...

In 1904 Mary Church Terrell, the first president of the National Association of Colored Women, published an article in the influential magazine North American Review to respond to Southerner Thomas Nelson Page. She took apart and refuted his attempted justification of lynching as a response to assaults on white women. Terrell showed how apologists like Page had tried to rationalize what were violent mob actions. ^[26] Mary Church Terrell Mary Church Terrell Mary Church Terrell (born September 23, 1863 in Memphis, Tennessee - July 24, 1954 in Annapolis, Maryland) was a writer and civil rights activist. ... National Association of Colored Womens Clubs Emblem The National Association of Colored Women (NACW) was established in Washington as the product of the merger in 1896 of the National Federation of Afro-American Women and the National League of Colored Women, organizations that had arisen out of the African... Thomas Nelson Page (b. ...

Federal action limited by Solid South

President Theodore Roosevelt made public statements against lynching in 1903, following George White's death in Delaware, and in his sixth annual State of the Union message on December 4, 1906. When Roosevelt suggested that lynching was taking place in the Philippines, southern senators (all white Democrats) demonstrated power by a filibuster in 1902 during review of the "Philippines Bill". In 1903 Roosevelt refrained from commenting on lynching during his Southern political campaigns. For other persons named Theodore Roosevelt, see Theodore Roosevelt (disambiguation). ... This article is about the U.S. State of Delaware. ... Alternative meanings in State of the Union (disambiguation) The State of the Union Address is an annual event in which the President of the United States reports on the status of the country, normally to a joint session of the U.S. Congress (the House of Representatives and the Senate). ... is the 338th day of the year (339th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1906 (MCMVI) was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar). ... As a form of obstructionism in a legislature or other decision making body, a filibuster is an attempt to extend debate upon a proposal in order to delay or completely prevent a vote on its passage. ...

Despite concerns expressed by some northern Congressmen, Congress had not moved quickly enough to strip the South of seats as the states disfranchised black voters. The result was a "Solid South" with the number of representatives (apportionment) based on its total population, but with only whites represented in Congress, essentially doubling the power of white southern Democrats. The phrase Solid South describes the electoral support of the Southern United States for Democratic Party candidates for almost a century after the Reconstruction era, 1876-1964. ... The membership of the United States House of Representatives changes each decade following the decennial United States Census. ...

Roosevelt did make public a letter he wrote to Governor Winfield T. Durbin of Indiana, in which he said: Winfield Taylor Durbin (1847 - 1928) was governor of the U.S. state of Indiana from 1901 to 1905. ... For other uses, see Indiana (disambiguation). ...

Theodore Roosevelt Jr. was against the lynchings.

Durbin had successfully used the National Guard to disperse the lynchers. Further, Durbin publicly declared that the accused murderer—an African American man—was entitled to a fair trial. Theodore Roosevelt's efforts cost him political support among white people, especially in the South. In addition, threats against him increased so that the Secret Service increased the size of his detail.^[27] Image File history File links TR_LtCol_1898. ... Image File history File links TR_LtCol_1898. ... The United States National Guard is a reserve forces component of the United States Army (the Army National Guard) and the United States Air Force (the Air National Guard). ... USSS redirects here. ...

WWI to WWII

Resistance

African-American writers used their talents in numerous ways to publicize and protest against lynching. In 1914, Angelina Weld Grimké had already written her play Rachel to address racial violence. It was produced in 1916. In 1915, W.E.B. Du Bois, noted scholar and head of the recently formed NAACP, called for more black-authored plays. Drama was a powerful form for creating a call for change. This article or section needs additional references or sources to facilitate its verification. ...

African-American women playwrights were strong in responding. They wrote ten of the fourteen anti-lynching plays produced between 1916 and 1935. The NAACP set up a Drama Committee to encourage such work. In addition, Howard University, the leading historically black college, established a theater department in 1920 to encourage African-American dramatists. Starting in 1924, the NAACP's major publications Crisis and Opportunity sponsored contests to encourage black literary production.^[28] Howard University is a university located in Washington, D.C., USA. A historically black university, Howard was established in 1867 by congressional order and named for Oliver O. Howard. ...

New Klan

(Main article Ku Klux Klan) Members of the second Ku Klux Klan at a rally during the 1920s. ...

In 1915, three events highlighted racial and social tensions: the trial and lynching of Leo Frank, the release of the film The Birth of a Nation, and the revival of the Ku Klux Klan. For other persons named Leo Frank, see Leo Frank (disambiguation). ... For the 1982 film of the same name, see Birth of a Nation (1982 film). ... Members of the second Ku Klux Klan at a rally during the 1920s. ...

A scene from The Birth of a Nation

The Klan revived and grew because of people's anxieties and fear about the rapid pace of change. Both white and black rural migrants were moving into rapidly industrializing cities of the South. Many Southern white and African-American migrants also moved North in the Great Migration, adding to greatly increased immigration from southern and eastern Europe in major industrial cities of the Midwest and West. The Klan grew rapidly and became most successful and strongest in those cities that had a rapid pace of growth from 1910-1930, such as Atlanta, Birmingham, Dallas, Detroit, Indianapolis, Chicago, Portland, Oregon; and Denver, Colorado. It reached a peak of membership and influence about 1925. In some cities, leaders' actions to publish names of Klan members provided enough publicity to sharply reduce membership. ^[29] Image File history File links scene from The Birth of a Nation, 1915 File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Image File history File links scene from The Birth of a Nation, 1915 File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... For the 1982 film of the same name, see Birth of a Nation (1982 film). ... was when erikson martinez was rich ... This article is about the state capital of Georgia. ... This article is about the British city. ... Dallas redirects here. ... Motto: Speramus Meliora; Resurget Cineribus (We Hope For Better Things; It Shall Rise From the Ashes - this motto was adopted after the disastrous 1805 fire that devastated the city) Nickname: The Motor City and Motown Location in Wayne County, Michigan Founded Incorporated July 24, 1701 1815  County Wayne County Mayor... The Indianapolis skyline Indianapolis is the capital of the U.S. state of Indiana. ... For other uses, see Chicago (disambiguation). ... Nickname: Location of Portland in Multnomah County and the state of Oregon Coordinates: , Country State Counties Multnomah, Washington, Clackamas Incorporated February 8, 1851 Government  - Type Commission  - Mayor Tom Potter[1]  - Commissioners Sam Adams Randy Leonard Dan Saltzman Erik Sten  - Auditor Gary Blackmer Area  - City 376. ... Nickname: Location of Denver in the State of Colorado Location of Colorado in the United States Coordinates: , Country United States State State of Colorado City and County Denver[1] Founded 1858-11-22, as Denver City, K.T.[2] Incorporated 1861-11-07, as Denver City, C.T.[3] Consolidated...

The 1915 murder near Atlanta, Georgia of factory manager Leo Frank, an American Jew, was one of the more notorious lynchings of a white man. Sensational newspaper accounts stirred up anger about Frank, charged in the murder of Mary Phagan, a girl employed by his factory. He was convicted of murder after a flawed trial in Georgia. His appeals failed. Supreme Court justice Oliver Wendell Holmes' dissent condemned the intimidation of the jury as failing to provide due process of law. After the governor commuted Frank's sentence to life imprisonment, a mob calling itself the Knights of Mary Phagan kidnapped Frank from the prison farm, and lynched him. Atlanta redirects here. ... Mary Phagan, age 13 Mary Phagan (June 1, 1900 - April 26, 1913), born in Marietta, Georgia was an employee of the National Pencil Factory in Atlanta, on the premises of which she was raped and strangled on April 26, 1913. ... The Supreme Court of the United States (sometimes colloquially referred to by the acronym SCOTUS[1]) is the highest judicial body in the United States and leads the federal judiciary. ... Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. ...

Cover of the Atlanta Constitution with Leo Frank

Georgia politician and publisher Tom Watson used sensational coverage of the Frank trial to create power for himself. By playing on people's anxieties, he also built support for revival of the Ku Klux Klan. The new Klan was inaugurated in 1915 at a mountaintop meeting near Atlanta, and was comprised mostly of members of the Knights of Mary Phagan. D. W. Griffith's 1915 film The Birth of a Nation glorified the original Klan and garnered much publicity. Leo Frank on cover of Atlanta Consitution, 1915, fair use This work is copyrighted. ... Leo Frank on cover of Atlanta Consitution, 1915, fair use This work is copyrighted. ... Thomas Edward Watson (5 September 1856–26 September 1922), generally known as Tom Watson, was a United States politician from Georgia. ... This article is about Stone Mountain in Georgia, USA. For other uses, see Stone Mountain (disambiguation). ... David Llewelyn Wark D.W. Griffith (January 22, 1875 – July 23, 1948) was an American film director. ...

Continuing Resistance

(Main article Tulsa Race Riot) Buildings burning during the Tulsa race riot of 1921. ...

The NAACP mounted a strong nationwide campaign of protests and public education against the movie The Birth of a Nation. As a result, some city governments prohibited release of the film.

In addition, the NAACP publicized production and helped create audiences for the 1919 releases The Birth of the Race and Within Our Gates, African-American directed films that presented more positive images of blacks.

African-American resistance against lynching carried substantial risks. In 1921 in Tulsa, Oklahoma, a group of African American citizens attempted to stop a lynch mob from taking 19-year-old assault suspect Dick Rowland out of jail. In a scuffle between a white man and an armed African-American veteran, the white man was killed. Whites retaliated by rioting, during which they burned 1,256 homes and as many as 200 businesses in the segregated Greenwood district. Confirmed dead were 39 people: 26 African Americans and 13 whites. Recent investigations suggest the number of African American deaths may have been much higher. Dick Rowland was saved, however, and was later exonerated. Nickname: Location in the state of Oklahoma Coordinates: , Country State Counties Tulsa, Osage, Rogers Government  - Mayor Kathy Taylor (D) Area  - City 186. ... Dick Rowland was an African-American shoeshiner whose arrest in May 1921 was the impetus for the Tulsa Race Riot. ... Buildings burning during the Tulsa race riot of 1921. ... Greenwood is a black neighborhood that first flourished in Tulsa, Oklahoma during the oil boom of the early 1900s. ...

The growing networks of African-American women's club groups were instrumental in raising funds to support the NAACP public education and lobbying campaigns. They also built community organizations. In 1922 Mary Talbert headed the Anti-Lynching Crusade, to create an integrated women's movement against lynching.^[30] It was affiliated with the NAACP, which mounted a multi-faceted campaign. For years the NAACP used petition drives, letters to newspapers, articles, posters, lobbying Congress, and marches to protest the abuses in the South and keep the issue before the public. Mary B. Talbert Mary Burnett Talbert (September 17, 1866 – October 15, 1923) was an American orator, activist, suffragist and reformer. ...

While the second KKK grew rapidly in cities undergoing major change and achieved some political power, many state and city leaders, including white religious leaders such as Reinhold Niebuhr in Detroit, acted strongly and spoke out publicly against the organization. Some anti-Klan groups published members' names and quickly reduced the energy in their efforts. As a result, in most areas, after 1925 KKK membership and organizations declined steeply and rapidly. Cities passed laws against wearing of masks, and otherwise acted against the KKK.^[31] KKK may refer to: // Ku Klux Klan, white supremacy group(s) Katipunan (Society), a revolutionary group from Philippine history; full name Kataastaasang Kagalanggalangang Katipunan Anak ng Bayan (roughly translated: Supreme and Venerable Society of the Sons of the Nation) Kokusai Kogyo Kabushikigaisha, a Japanese bus and taxi company AG K... Karl Paul Reinhold Niebuhr (June 21, 1892 – June 1, 1971) was a Protestant theologian best known for his study of the task of relating the Christian faith to the reality of modern politics and diplomacy. ... Motto: Speramus Meliora; Resurget Cineribus (We Hope For Better Things; It Shall Rise From the Ashes - this motto was adopted after the disastrous 1805 fire that devastated the city) Nickname: The Motor City and Motown Location in Wayne County, Michigan Founded Incorporated July 24, 1701 1815  County Wayne County Mayor...

In 1930 Southern white women responded in large numbers to the leadership of Jessie Daniel Ames in forming the Association of Southern Women for the Prevention of Lynching. She and her co-founders obtained the signatures of 40,000 women to their pledge against lynching and for a change in the South. The pledge included the statement:

"In light of the facts we dare no longer to ...allow those bent upon personal revenge and savagery to commit acts of violence and lawlessness in the name of women."

Despite physical threats and hostile opposition, the women leaders persisted with petition drives, letter campaigns, meetings and demonstrations to highlight the issues.^[32] By the 1930s the number of lynchings had dropped to about ten per year in Southern states.

In the 1930s, communist organizations, including a legal defense organization called the International Labor Defense (ILD), organized support to stop lynching. (see The Communist Party and African-Americans). The ILD defended the Scottsboro Boys, as well as three black men accused of rape in Tuscaloosa in 1933. In the Tuscaloosa case, two defendants were lynched under circumstances that suggested police complicity. The ILD lawyers themselves narrowly escaped lynching. The ILD lawyers aroused passionate hatred among many Southerners because they were considered to be interfering with local affairs. In a remark to an investigator, a white Tuscaloosan was quoted, "For New York Jews to butt in and spread communistic ideas is too much."^[8] This article is about the form of society and political movement. ... The International Labor Defense (ILD) was a legal defense organization in the United States, headed by William L. Patterson. ... The Communist Party USA played a significant role in defending the rights of African-Americans during its heyday in the 1930s and 1940s. ... The case of the Scottsboro Boys arose in Scottsboro, Alabama during the 1930s, when nine black youths, ranging in age from twelve[1] to nineteen, were falsely accused of raping two white women, Victoria Price and Ruby Bates. ... Tuscaloosa is the name of two places in the United States of America: Tuscaloosa, Alabama Tuscaloosa County, Alabama There is also: USS Tuscaloosa (CA-37), US Navy ship This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ...

Federal Action and southern resistance

Anti-lynching advocates such as Mary McLeod Bethune and Walter Francis White campaigned for Franklin D. Roosevelt as President in 1932. They hoped he would lend public support to their efforts against lynching. Senators Robert F. Wagner and Edward P. Costigan drafted the Costigan-Wagner bill to require local authorities to protect prisoners from lynch mobs. It proposed to make lynching a Federal crime and thus take it out of state administration. This article does not cite any references or sources. ... For the football player of the same name see Walter White (football player). ... FDR redirects here. ... Portrait of Robert F. Wagner in the U.S. Senate Reception Room Robert Ferdinand Wagner (8 June 1877–4 May 1953) was a Democratic United States Senator from New York from 1927 until 1949. ... Edward P. Costigan was born July 1, 1874. ...

Southern Senators continued to hold a deadlock on Congress. Due to the Southern Democrats' disfranchisement of African Americans in Southern states at the turn of the century, Southern whites for decades had nearly double the representation in Congress than they could have earned by their own population. Southern states had Congressional representation based on total population, but essentially only whites could vote and only their issues were supported. African Americans had not one person who represented them.

Due to seniority achieved through one-party rule in their region, Southern Democrats controlled many important committees. Southern Democrats consistently opposed any legislation related to reducing lynching or putting it under Federal oversight. As a result, Southern white Democrats were a formidable power in Congress until the 1960s.

In the 1930s, virtually all Southern senators blocked the proposed Wagner-Costigan bill. Southern senators used a filibuster to prevent a vote on the bill. As a form of obstructionism in a legislature or other decision making body, a filibuster is an attempt to extend debate upon a proposal in order to delay or completely prevent a vote on its passage. ...

A lynching in Miami, Florida, changed the political climate in Washington. On July 19, 1935, Rubin Stacy, a homeless African-American tenant farmer, knocked on doors begging for food. After resident complaints, Dade County deputies took Stacy into custody. While he was in custody, a lynch mob took Stacy out of the jail and murdered him. Although the faces of his murderers could be seen in a photo taken at the lynching site, the state did not prosecute the murder of Rubin Stacy. [1] Miami redirects here. ... is the 200th day of the year (201st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1935 (MCMXXXV) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar). ... Dade County can refer to the following places: Dade County, Florida, the states southeastern-most, now renamed Miami-Dade County Dade County, Georgia, the states northwestern-most, bordering Alabama and Tennessee Dade County, Missouri, in the southwestern part of the state This is a disambiguation page — a navigational...

Stacy's murder galvanized anti-lynching activists, but President Franklin Roosevelt did not support the federal anti-lynching bill. He feared that support would cost him Southern votes in the 1936 election. He believed that he could accomplish more for more people by getting re-elected. Presidential electoral votes by state. ...

In 1939 Roosevelt created the Civil Rights Section of the Justice Department. It started prosecutions to combat lynching but failed to win any convictions until 1946.^[33] Robert F. Kennedy Department of Justice Building, Washington, D.C. For animal rights group, see Justice Department (JD) The United States Department of Justice (DOJ) is a Cabinet department in the United States government designed to enforce the law and defend the interests of the United States according to the...

World War II to present

FBI poster asking for information in the 1946 lynching at Moore's Ford Bridge, Georgia.

Download high resolution version (810x1074, 148 KB)FBI poster asking for information in the 1946 lynching at Moores Ford Bridge, Georgia File links The following pages link to this file: Lynching in the United States Categories: FBI images ... Download high resolution version (810x1074, 148 KB)FBI poster asking for information in the 1946 lynching at Moores Ford Bridge, Georgia File links The following pages link to this file: Lynching in the United States Categories: FBI images ...

Federal action

After World War II, the federal government began to take its first productive actions against lynching. Combatants Allied powers: China France Great Britain Soviet Union United States and others Axis powers: Germany Italy Japan and others Commanders Chiang Kai-shek Charles de Gaulle Winston Churchill Joseph Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Adolf Hitler Benito Mussolini Hideki Tōjō Casualties Military dead: 17,000,000 Civilian dead: 33,000...

In 1946, the Civil Rights Section of the Justice Department gained its first successful prosecution against a lyncher. Florida constable Tom Crews was sentenced to a $1,000 fine and one year in prison for civil rights violations in the killing of an African-American farm worker.

In 1946, a mob of white men shot and killed two young African American men and two young African American women near Moore's Ford Bridge in Walton County, Georgia. This lynching shocked the nation and was a key factor in President Harry Truman's making civil rights a priority.^[33] In 1947, the Truman Administration published a report titled "To Secure These Rights," which advocated making lynching a federal crime, among other civil rights reforms. Southern senators and congressmen continued to reject such changes. Walton County is a county located in the state of Georgia. ... For the victim of Mt. ...

Although in 1924 Truman had paid a $10 membership fee to join the Ku Klux Klan (when it promoted itself as a fraternal organization), when a Klan officer demanded that Truman pledge not to hire any Catholics if he was reelected as county judge, Truman refused. Truman had commanded many men who were Catholic in World War I and personally knew their worth. His membership fee was returned and he never joined.^[34] In the 1940's the Klan openly criticized Truman for his efforts in promoting civil rights. The Roman Catholic Church is the largest religious denomination of Christianity with over one billion members. ...

In April 2006, the FBI confirmed that it had an investigation in progress relating to the 1946 Moore's Ford case.^[35] F.B.I. and FBI redirect here. ...

Lynching and the Cold War

With the beginning of the Cold War after WWII, the Soviet Union criticized the United States for the frequency of lynchings of black people. In a meeting with President Harry Truman in 1946, Paul Robeson urged him to take action against lynching. Soon afterward the mainstream white press attacked Robeson for his sympathies toward the Soviet Union. For other uses, see Cold War (disambiguation). ... For the victim of Mt. ... Paul LeRoy Bustill Robeson (April 9, 1898 – January 23, 1976) was a multi-lingual American actor, athlete, bass-baritone concert singer, writer, civil rights activist, fellow traveler, Spingarn Medal winner, and Stalin Peace Prize laureate. ...

In 1951, the Civil Rights Congress (CRC) spoke to the United Nations in a presentation entitled "We Charge Genocide", in which they argued that because the US government failed to act against lynching, it was guilty of genocide under Article II of the UN Genocide Convention. The Civil Rights Congress was a civil rights organization formed in 1946 by a merger of the International Labor Defense and the National Federation for Constitutional Liberties. ... UN and U.N. redirect here. ... For other uses, see Genocide (disambiguation). ... The Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide was adopted by the UN General Assembly in December 1948 and came into effect in January 1951. ...

Anthony and Viola Liuzzo, 1949.

In the postwar years, some U.S. politicians and appointed officials appeared more worried about possible communist connections among anti-lynching groups than about lynching crimes. The FBI branded Albert Einstein a communist sympathizer for joining Paul Robeson's American Crusade Against Lynching.^[36] Anthony and Viola Liuzzo, 1949 I believe this photo is in the public domain. ... Anthony and Viola Liuzzo, 1949 I believe this photo is in the public domain. ... Viola Liuzzo with her husband Anthony, 1949. ... The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) is a federal criminal investigative, intelligence agency, and the primary investigative arm of the United States Department of Justice (DOJ). ... “Einstein” redirects here. ... Paul LeRoy Bustill Robeson (April 9, 1898 – January 23, 1976) was a multi-lingual American actor, athlete, bass-baritone concert singer, writer, civil rights activist, fellow traveler, Spingarn Medal winner, and Stalin Peace Prize laureate. ... The American Crusade Against Lynching was an organization, created in 1946 and headed by Paul Robeson, dedicated to eliminating lynching in the United States. ...

Civil Rights Movement

By the 1950s, the Civil Rights Movement was gaining momentum. A 1955 case that sparked public outrage about injustice was that of Emmett Till, a fourteen-year-old boy from Chicago. Spending the summer with relatives in Money, Mississippi, Till was attacked and killed for having crossed a social boundary (one he wouldn't know since he didn't live there) when he allegedly whistled at a white woman. Two defendants were tried, but acquitted. People in other parts of the country were horrified that a boy could have been killed for such an event. Martin Luther King is perhaps most famous for his I Have a Dream speech, given in front of the Lincoln Memorial during the 1963 March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom This article is about the civil rights movement following the Brown v. ... Emmett Louis Bobo Till (July 25, 1941 – August 28, 1955) was a fourteen year old African-American from Chicago, Illinois who was brutally murdered [1] in Money, Mississippi, a small town in the states Delta region. ... Money is a community in Leflore County, Mississippi, near Greenwood. ...

The Civil Rights Movement attracted students to the South in the 1960s from all over the country to work on voter registration and other issues. The intervention of people from outside the communities and threat of social change aroused fear and resentment among many whites. In June 1964, three civil rights workers disappeared in Neshoba County, Mississippi. They had been investigating the arson of a black church being used as a "Freedom School." Six weeks later their bodies were found in a partially constructed dam near Philadelphia, Mississippi. Michael Schwerner and Andrew Goodman of New York, and James Chaney of Meridian, Mississippi had been members of the Congress of Racial Equality. They had been dedicated to non-violent direct action against racial discrimination. The Mississippi Civil Rights Workers Murders involved the 1964 slayings of three political activists during the American Civil Rights Movement. ... Neshoba County is a county located in the state of Mississippi. ... The Freedom School was located in Colorado, United States, offering a series of lectures by libertarian theorist Robert LeFevre in the 1950s and 1960s. ... Philadelphia is a city located in Neshoba County, Mississippi. ... Michael Schwerner Michael Schwerner (November 6, 1939 – June 21, 1964), called Mickey by friends and colleagues, was a CORE field worker killed in Philadelphia, Mississippi, by the Ku Klux Klan in response to the civil-rights work he coordinated, which included promoting registration to vote among Mississippi African Americans. ... Andrew Goodman Andrew Goodman (November 23, 1943 – June 21, 1964) was an American civil rights activist who was murdered by gunshot in 1964 by members of the Ku Klux Klan. ... This article is about the state. ... James Chaney James Earl Chaney (May 30, 1943 – June 21, 1964) was a civil rights worker who was murdered (along with Michael Schwerner and Andrew Goodman) by members of the Ku Klux Klan. ... Meridian is a city located in, and the county seat of, Lauderdale County in Mississippi, a state of the United States of America. ... “CORE” redirects here. ... Nonviolence (or non-violence) is a set of assumptions about morality, power and conflict that leads its proponents to reject the use of violence in efforts to attain social or political goals. ... An African-American drinks out of a water fountain marked for colored in 1939 at a street car terminal in Oklahoma City. ...

The US prosecuted 18 men with a Ku Klux Klan conspiracy to deprive the victims of their civil rights under 19th c. Federal law, in order to conduct the trial in Federal court. Seven men were convicted but received light sentences. Two men were released because of a deadlocked jury. The remainder were acquitted. In 2005, 80-year-old Edgar Ray Killen, one of the men who earlier went free, was convicted in a new trial of manslaughter for the killings and sentenced to 60 years in prison. This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ...

Because of J. Edgar Hoover's and others' hostility to the movement, during the Civil Rights Movement, the U.S. FBI resorted to outright lying to smear civil rights workers and other opponents of lynching. For example, the FBI spread false information in the press about lynching victim Viola Liuzzo, who was murdered in 1965 in Alabama. The FBI said Liuzzo had been a member of the Communist Party, had abandoned her five children, and was involved in sexual relationships with African Americans in the movement.^[37] Historically, the civil rights movement was a concentrated period of time around the world of approximately one generation (1960-1980) wherein there was much worldwide civil unrest and popular rebellion. ... F.B.I. and FBI redirect here. ... Civil rights or positive rights are those legal rights retained by citizens and protected by the government. ... Viola Liuzzo with her husband Anthony, 1949. ... In modern usage, the term communist party is generally used to identify any political party which has adopted communist ideology. ...

After the Civil Rights Movement

An inflammatory KKK cartoon from The Fiery Cross that was used as evidence in the civil trial resulting from Michael Donald's murder.

Although lynchings became rare following the civil rights movement and changing social mores, they have occurred. In 1981, two KKK members in Alabama randomly picked out a 19-year-old black man, Michael Donald, and murdered him. This was to retaliate for a jury's acquittal of a black man accused of murdering a police officer. The Klansmen were caught, prosecuted, and convicted. A $7 million judgment in a subsequent civil suit against the Klan bankrupted the local subgroup, the United Klans of America.^[38] Image File history File links KKK cartoon used in the trial of the lynchers of Michael Donald. ... Image File history File links KKK cartoon used in the trial of the lynchers of Michael Donald. ... This article is about the U.S. State. ... The lynching of Michael Donald, 1981. ... United Klans of America was a Ku Klux Klan organization led by Robert Shelton, which peaked popularity in the late 1960s. ...

In 1998, Shawn Allen Berry, Lawrence Russel Brewer, and ex-convict John William King murdered James Byrd, Jr. in Jasper, Texas. Byrd was a 49-year-old father of three, who had accepted an early-morning ride home with the three men. They arbitrarily attacked him and dragged him to his death behind their truck.^[39] The three men dumped their victim's mutilated remains in the town's segregated African-American cemetery and then went to a barbecue.^[40] Local authorities immediately treated the murder as a hate crime and requested FBI assistance. The murderers (who turned out to be members of a white supremacist prison gang) were caught and stood trial. Brewer and King were sentenced to death. Berry received life in prison. Shawn Allen Berry was the third man, along with John William King and Lawrence Russel Brewer convicted of the 1998 murder of James Byrd, Jr. ... Lawrence Russell Brewer is one of the men convicted of the 1998 hate crime murder of James Byrd, Jr. ... John William King is a white supremacist who was convicted of murdering James Byrd, Jr. ... James Byrd, Jr. ... Jasper is a city in Jasper County, Texas, on U.S. highways 96 and 190, State Highway 63, and Sandy Creek in north central Jasper County. ... For other uses, see Texas (disambiguation). ... A Jewish cemetery in France after being defaced by Neo-Nazis. ...

On June 13, 2005, the United States Senate formally apologized for its failure in previous decades to enact a Federal anti-lynching law. Earlier attempts to pass such legislation had been defeated by filibusters by powerful Southern senators. Prior to the vote, Louisiana Senator Mary Landrieu noted, "There may be no other injustice in American history for which the Senate so uniquely bears responsibility."^[41] The resolution was passed on a voice vote with 80 senators cosponsoring. The resolution expressed "the deepest sympathies and most solemn regrets of the Senate to the descendants of victims of lynching, the ancestors of whom were deprived of life, human dignity and the constitutional protections accorded all citizens of the United States." is the 164th day of the year (165th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Type Upper House President of the Senate Richard B. Cheney, R since January 20, 2001 President pro tempore Robert C. Byrd, D since January 4, 2007 Members 100 Political groups Democratic Party Republican Party Last elections November 7, 2006 Meeting place Senate Chamber United States Capitol Washington, DC United States... Mary Loretta Landrieu (born November 23, 1955) is the Senior Democratic United States senator from the state of Louisiana, as well as the first, and as of 2008, only woman from that state to be elected to the Senate. ...

Statistics

Tuskegee Institute, which is today known as Tuskegee University, is the institution that has been recognized as the official expert charged with documenting lynching since 1882, and has defined conditions that constitute a recognized lynching:

"There must be legal evidence that a person was killed. That person must have met death illegally. A group of three or more persons must have participated in the killing. The group must have acted under the pretext of service to Justice, Race, or Tradition."

Tuskegee remains the single complete source of statistics and records on this crime since 1882, and is the source for all other compiled statistics. As of 1959, which was the last time that their annual Lynch Report was published, a total of 4,733 persons had died as a result of lynching since 1882. To quote the report,

"Except for 1955, when three lynchings were reported in Mississippi, none has been recorded at Tuskegee since 1951. In 1945, 1947, and 1951, only one case per year was reported. The most recent case reported by the institute as a lynching was that of Emmett Till, 14, a Negro who was beaten, shot to death, and thrown into a river at Greenwood, Mississippi on August 28, 1955... For a period of 65 years ending in 1947, at least one lynching was reported each year. The most for any year was 231 in 1892. From 1882 to 1901, lynchings averaged more than 150 a year. Since 1924, lynchings have been in a marked decline, never more than 30 cases, which occurred in 1926...."^[42]

The following graph gives the number of lynchings and racially motivated murders in each decade from 1865 to 1965. Data for 1865-1869 and 1960-1965 are partial decades. ^[43] Greenwood is situated in Leflore County, Mississippi at the eastern edge of the Mississippi Delta, approximately 96 miles north of Jackson, Mississippi, and 130 miles south of Memphis, Tennessee. ... is the 240th day of the year (241st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1955 (MCMLV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link displays the 1955 Gregorian calendar). ...

Lynchings and racially-motivated murders in each decade from 1865 to 1965

The same source gives the following statistics for the period from 1882 to 1951. Eighty-eight percent of victims were black and 10% were white. Fifty-nine percent of the lynchings occurred in the Southern states of Kentucky (neutral in the Civil War), North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, and Florida. Lynching was not uncommon in the West and Midwest but was virtually nonexistent in the northeast, except for isolated instances. Image File history File links Graph of lynchings in the United States over time Graph by B. Crowell, 2005, dual-licensed under GFDL and cc-by-sa. ... Official language(s) English[1] Capital Frankfort Largest city Louisville Area  Ranked 37th  - Total 40,444 sq mi (104,749 km²)  - Width 140 miles (225 km)  - Length 379 miles (610 km)  - % water 1. ... Official language(s) English Capital Raleigh Largest city Charlotte Largest metro area Charlotte metro area Area  Ranked 28th  - Total 53,865 sq mi (139,509 km²)  - Width 150 miles (240 km)  - Length 560[1] miles (900 km)  - % water 9. ... Official language(s) English Capital Columbia Largest city Columbia Largest metro area Columbia Area  Ranked 40th  - Total 34,726 sq mi (82,965 km²)  - Width 200 miles (320 km)  - Length 260 miles (420 km)  - % water 6  - Latitude 32° 2′ N to 35° 13′ N  - Longitude 78° 32′ W to 83... This article is about the U.S. state of Tennessee. ... This article is about the U.S. State. ... This article is about the U.S. State. ... This article is about the U.S. state. ... This article is about the U.S. State. ... This article is about the U.S. State of Florida. ...

The most common reasons given by mobs for the lynchings were murder and rape. As documented by Ida B. Wells, such charges were often pretexts for lynching blacks who violated Jim Crow etiquette or engaged in economic competition with whites. Other common reasons given included arson, theft, assault, and robbery; sexual transgressions (miscegenation, adultery, cohabitation); "race prejudice," "race hatred," "racial disturbance;" informing on others; "threats against whites;" and violations of the color line ("attending white girl," "proposals to white woman"). Manifestations Slavery Racial profiling Lynching Hate speech Hate crime Genocide (examples) Ethnocide Ethnic cleansing Pogrom Race war Religious persecution Gay bashing Blood libel Paternalism Police brutality Movements Policies Discriminatory Race / Religion / Sex segregation Apartheid Redlining Internment Anti-discriminatory Emancipation Civil rights Desegregation Integration Equal opportunity Counter-discriminatory Affirmative action Racial... Frederick Douglass with his second wife Helen Pitts Douglass (sitting) who was white, a famous 19th century American example of miscegenation. ...

Tuskegee's method of categorizing most lynching victims as either black or white in publications and data summaries meant that the mistreatment of some minority and immigrant groups was obscured. In the West, for instance, Mexican, Native Americans, and Chinese were more frequent targets of lynchings than African Americans, but their deaths were included among those of whites. Similarly, although Italian immigrants were the focus of violence in Louisiana when they started arriving in greater numbers, their deaths were not identified separately. In earlier years whites who were subject to lynching were often targeted because of suspected political activities or support of freedmen, but they were generally considered members of the community in a way new immigrants were not. ^[44]

Popular culture

Famous fictional treatments

In Owen Wister's The Virginian, a 1902 seminal novel that helped create the genre of Western novels in the U.S., dealt with a fictional treatment of the Johnson County War and frontier lynchings in the West. Owen Wister, author of the Western novel, The Virginian and friend of Theodore Roosevelt Owen Wister (July 14, 1860 – July 21, 1938) was an American writer of western novels. ... The Virginian was a pioneering Wild West (see also Frontier and Western movie) novel by the American author Owen Wister, published in 1902. ... The cowboy, the quintessential symbol of the American Old West, circa 1887. ... For other uses, see Novel (disambiguation). ... The Invaders of The Johnson County Cattle War. ...

Angelina Weld Grimké's Rachel was the first play about the toll of racial violence in African-American families, written in 1914 and produced in 1916.

Following the commercial and critical success of Birth of a Nation, African-American director and writer Oscar Micheaux responded in 1919 with the film Within Our Gates. The climax of the film is the lynching of a black family after one member of the family is wrongly accused of murder. While the film was a commercial failure at the time and was technically crude, it is considered historically significant and was selected for preservation in the National Film Registry. The Birth of a Nation is a controversial silent film directed by D.W. Griffith, based on the play The Clansmen and the book The Leopards Spots, both by Thomas Dixon. ... Oscar Micheaux (1893-1951) Oscar Micheaux (January 2, 1893 – March 25, 1951) was a pioneering African American author and is widely recognized as being the first African-American filmmaker (although he was predated by the shortlived Lincoln Motion Picture Company[1]). He is without a doubt the most famous producer... Within Our Gates is a 1920 silent race film that dramatically depicts the racial situation in America during the violent years of Jim Crow, the Klan, the Great Migration, and the emergence of the New Negro. ... The National Film Registry is the registry of films selected by the United States National Film Preservation Board for preservation in the Library of Congress. ...

Also in 1919 Emmett J. Scott produced the film The Birth of the Race, another African-American response to The Birth of a Nation. It had considerable success in the African-American community.

In Fury, German expatriate Fritz Lang depicts a lynch mob hanging innocent men, apparently modeled on a 1933 lynching in San Jose, California, that was captured on newsreel footage and in which Governor of California James Rolph refused to intervene. 2005 DVD cover Fury is a 1936 film noir film which tells the story of a decent man who descends into ruthlessness when the woman he loves moves to the other side of the country to make enough money for them to be married. ... Friedrich Christian Anton Fritz Lang (December 5, 1890 – August 2, 1976) was an Austrian-German-American film director, screenwriter and occasional film producer, one of the best known émigrés from Germanys school of Expressionism. ... Brooke Hart (June 11, 1911 – November 9, 1933) was the oldest son of Alexander Hart, the owner of L. Hart and Son Department Store in San Jose, California. ... For other uses, see San José. Nickname: Location of San Jose within Santa Clara County, California. ... A newsreel is a documentary film that is regularly released in a public presentation place containing filmed news stories. ... Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger (left) and Governor Gray Davis (right) with President George W. Bush in 2003 The Governor of California is the highest executive authority in the state government, whose responsibilities include making yearly State of the State addresses to the California State Legislature, submitting the budget, and ensuring that... James Rolph Jr. ...

In Walter Van Tilburg Clark's 1940 The Ox-Bow Incident, two drifters are drawn into a posse formed to find the murderer of a local man. After suspicion centered on three innocent cattle rustlers, they were lynched, an event that deeply affected the drifters. The novel was filmed in 1943 as a wartime defense of American values versus the characterization of Nazi Germany as mob rule. The Ox-Bow Incident is a 1940 western novel by Walter Van Tilburg Clark, in which two drifters are drawn into a posse formed to find the murderer of a local man. ... A rustler is an individual who steals livestock, particularly cattle. ... Nazi Germany, or the Third Reich, commonly refers to Germany in the years 1933–1945, when it was under the firm control of the totalitarian and fascist ideology of the Nazi Party, with the Führer Adolf Hitler as dictator. ...

Regina M. Anderson's Climbing Jacob's Ladder was a play about a lynching performed by the Krigwa Players (later called the Negro Experimental Theater), a Harlem theater company. Regina M. Anderson (May 21, 1901–February 5, 1993) was an African American playwright, librarian, and key member of the Harlem Renaissance. ...

Lynd Ward's 1932 book Wild Pilgrimage (printed in woodblock prints, with no text) includes three prints of the lynching of several black men. Lynd Kendall Ward (26 June 1905 – 28 June 1985) was an American artist and storyteller, and son of Methodist minister and prominent political organizer Harry F. Ward. ...

In Irving Berlin's 1933 musical As Thousands Cheer, a ballad about lynching, "Supper Time" was introduced by Ethel Waters. Waters wrote in her 1951 autobiography, His Eye Was on the Sparrow, "if one song could tell the story of an entire race, that was it." Irving Berlin (May 11, 1888 – September 22, 1989) was an American composer and lyricist, one of the most prodigious and famous American songwriters in history. ... As Thousands Cheer is a Broadway revue that opened September 30, 1933, with music and lyrics by Irving Berlin and book by Moss Hart. ... Supper Time is a popular song written by Irving Berlin for the 1933 musical As Thousands Cheer, where it was introduced by Ethel Waters. ... Ethel Waters (October 31, 1896–September 1, 1977) was an Oscar-nominated American blues vocalist and actress. ...

The 1988 film Mississippi Burning includes a very brutal, heartbreaking, but mostly accurate depiction of a man being lynched. Mississippi Burning is a 1988 film based on the investigation into the real-life murders of three civil rights workers in Mississippi in 1964. ...

In Harper Lee's 1960 novel To Kill a Mockingbird, Tom Robinson, a black man wrongfully accused of rape, narrowly escapes lynching because of his lawyer's bravery and the disarmingly innocent behavior of the lawyer's daughter. The lawyer tells his daughter that he is not angry at the mob, because once the feeling of mob violence gets into people, they do not act normally. Robinson is later killed while attempting to escape from prison, after having been wrongfully convicted. A movie was made in 1962. Nelle Harper Lee (born April 28, 1926) is an American novelist known for her Pulitzer Prize – winning 1960 novel To Kill a Mockingbird, her only major work to date. ... To Kill a Mockingbird is a Southern Gothic bildungsroman novel by Harper Lee. ...

Peter Matthiessen depicted several lynchings in his Killing Mr. Watson trilogy (first volume published in 1990).^[45] Peter Matthiessen (born May 22, 1927 in New York City) is an American naturalist and author of historical fiction and non-fiction. ...

"Strange Fruit"

Among artistic works that grappled with lynching was the song "Strange Fruit", recorded by Billie Holiday and written by Abel Meeropol in 1939 (lyrics protected by copyright). For other uses, see Strange Fruit (disambiguation). ... Billie Holiday (born Eleanora Fagan; April 7, 1915 – July 17, 1959) was an American jazz singer and songwriter. ... The American writer Abel Meeropol (1903 - 1986) is best known under his pseudonym Lewis Allan, under which he wrote the anti-lynching song Strange Fruit, famously performed by Billie Holiday. ...

Although Holiday's regular label of Columbia declined, Holiday recorded it with Commodore. The song became identified with her and was one of her most popular ones. The song became an anthem for the anti-lynching movement. It also contributed to activism of the American civil rights movement. A documentary about lynching, entitled Strange Fruit and produced by Public Broadcasting Service, aired on U.S. television. The civil rights movement in the United States has been a long, primarily nonviolent struggle to bring full civil rights and equality under the law to all citizens of United States. ...

Laws

For most of the history of the United States, lynching was rarely prosecuted, as the same people who would have had to prosecute were generally on the side of the action. When it was prosecuted, it was under state murder statutes. In one example in 1907-09, the U.S. Supreme Court tried its only criminal case in history, 203 U.S. 563 (U.S. v. Sheriff Shipp). Shipp was found guilty of criminal contempt for lynching Ed Johnson in Chattanooga, Tennessee. United States v. ... Chattanooga redirects here. ...

Starting in 1909, legislators introduced more than 200 bills to make lynching a Federal crime, but they failed to pass, chiefly because of Southern legislators' opposition. Because Southern states had effectively disfranchised African Americans at the turn of the century, the Southern states controlled nearly double the Congressional representation that white citizens alone would have been entitled to. They comprised a powerful voting block for decades.

Under the Franklin D. Roosevelt Administration, the Civil Rights Section of the Justice Department tried, but failed, to prosecute lynchers under Reconstruction-era civil rights laws. The first successful Federal prosecution of a lyncher for a civil rights violation was in 1946. By that time, the era of lynchings as a common occurrence had ended.

Many states now have specific anti-lynching statutes. California, for example, defines lynching, punishable by 2-4 years in prison, as "the taking by means of a riot of any person from the lawful custody of any peace officer," with the crime of "riot" defined as two or more people using violence or the threat of violence. A lyncher could thus be prosecuted for several crimes arising from the same action, e.g., riot, lynching, and murder. Although lynching in the historic sense is virtually nonexistent today, the lynching statutes are sometimes used in cases where several people try to wrest a suspect from the hands of police in order to help him escape, as alleged in a July 9, 2005, violent attack on a police officer in San Francisco.^[46] is the 190th day of the year (191st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ...

South Carolina law defines second-degree lynching as "[a]ny act of violence inflicted by a mob upon the body of another person and from which death does not result shall constitute the crime of lynching in the second degree and shall be a felony. Any person found guilty of lynching in the second degree shall be confined at hard labor in the State Penitentiary for a term not exceeding twenty years nor less than three years, at the discretion of the presiding judge."^[47] In 2006, five white teenagers were given various sentences for the second-degree lynching of a young black man in South Carolina. ^[48]

See also

• Lynching
• Disfranchisement after the Civil War
• Hanging judges such as Isaac Parker
• Mass racial violence in the United States
• Domestic terrorism
• Tarring and feathering
• New York Draft Riots of 1863.
• Lynching of Sherriff Henry Plummer in 1864.
• Lynching of the Reno Brothers Gang of Indiana in 1868.
• Lynching of William L. Brooks in 1874.
• Lynching of Joe Coe in 1891.
• Lynching of Leo Frank in 1913.
• Lynchings of I.W.W. members Frank Little in 1917 and Wesley Everest in 1919.
• East St. Louis Riot of 1917.
• Omaha Race Riot of 1919
• Tulsa Race Riot of 1921.
• Rosewood, Florida race riot of 1923.
• Lynching of Abram Smith & Thomas Shipp in 1930.
• "Lynching" by gunshot in Massie Case of 1932.
• Michael Donald
• And you are lynching Negroes? Stereotypical Soviet Union response to United States allegations of human-rights violations in the Soviet Union.

Manifestations Slavery Racial profiling Lynching Hate speech Hate crime Genocide (examples) Ethnocide Ethnic cleansing Pogrom Race war Religious persecution Gay bashing Blood libel Paternalism Police brutality Movements Policies Discriminatory Race / Religion / Sex segregation Apartheid Redlining Internment Anti-discriminatory Emancipation Civil rights Desegregation Integration Equal opportunity Counter-discriminatory Affirmative action Racial... The Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution, adopted in 1870 in response to the American Civil War, prevented any state from denying the right to vote to any citizen on account of his race. ... Hanging Judge is an unofficial term for a judge who has gained renown for his or her eagerness to hand out harsh sentences, especially death by hanging. ... Painting of Judge Isaac Parker, circa 1896. ... Mass racial violence in the United States, often described using the term race riots, includes such disparate events as: attacks on Irish Catholics and other early immigrants in the 19th century massacres of black people in the period after Reconstruction. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Tarring and feathering is a physical punishment, at least as old as the Crusades, used to enforce formal justice in feudal Europe and informal justice in Europe and its colonies in the early modern period, as well as the early American frontier, mostly as a type of mob vengeance (compare... Combatants Anti-Union rioters United States of America Commanders Unknown John E. Wool Casualties 100 civilians The New York Draft Riots (July 13 to July 16, 1863; known at the time as Draft Week[1]) were a series of violent disturbances in New York City that were the culmination of... Henry Plummer (1832 – 1864) served as sheriff of Bannack, Montana, from May 24, 1863 until January 10, 1864, when he was hanged without trial by the controversial Montana Vigilantes. ... William L. Buffalo Bill Brooks (c. ... Joe Coe, also known as George Smith, was an African American laborer who was the victim of an 1891 lynching in Omaha, Nebraska. ... For other persons named Leo Frank, see Leo Frank (disambiguation). ... The IWW Label The Industrial Workers of the World (IWW or the Wobblies) is an international union headquartered in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. ... Frank Little (1879-1917) joined the radical union the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) in 1906. ... Wesley Everest (1890—November 11, 1919) was a member of the Industrial Workers of the World and a World War I veteran. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Buildings burning during the Tulsa race riot of 1921. ... Rosewood was a small community of 25 to 30, mostly black families in Levy County, central Florida, USA [1]. It was a whistle stop on the Seaboard Airline Railway. ... The introduction of this article does not provide enough context for readers unfamiliar with the subject. ... Thomas was lynched on August 7, 1930 in Marion, Indiana. ... The Massie Affair was a famous murder trial that took place in Honolulu, Hawaii in 1932. ... The lynching of Michael Donald, 1981. ... And you are lynching Negroes (Russian: А у вас негров линчуют, Serbian (Cyrillic alphabet): А што ви бијете црнце?, Serbian (Latin alphabet), Croatian: A što vi bijete crnce?, Polish: A u was biją Murzynów, Czech: A u vás zase lynčují černochy, Hungarian: Amerikában pedig verik a négereket (Literally, And in America, they are beating up...

Notes

is the 51st day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... The University of Illinois Press is a major American university press. ... New York University Press (or NYU Press), founded in 1916, is a university press that is part of New York University. ... Oxford University Press (OUP) is a highly-respected publishing house and a department of the University of Oxford in England. ... Several noted people have had the last name Hearst: William Randolph Hearst Patty Hearst William Hearst George Randolph Hearst Jr. ...

Books and references

• This article incorporates text from the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, a publication now in the public domain.
• Allen, James, Hilton Als, John Lewis, and Leon F. Litwack, Without Sanctuary: Lynching Photography in America (Twin Palms Publishers: 2000) ISBN-13: 978-0944092699
• Brundage, William Fitzhugh, Lynching in the New South: Georgia and Virginia, 1880-1930. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1993.
• Curriden, Mark and Leroy Phillips, Contempt of Court: The Turn-of-the-Century Lynching That Launched a Hundred Years of Federalism, ISBN 978-0385720823
• Ginzburg, Ralph. 100 Years Of Lynching, Baltimore: Black Classic Press, 1962, 1988.
• Markovitz, Jonathan, Legacies of Lynching: Racial Violence and Memory, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2004.
• Newton, Michael and Judy Ann Newton, Racial and Religious Violence in America: A Chronology. N.Y.: Garland Publishing, Inc., 1991
• Thirty Years of Lynching in the United States, 1889-1918 New York City: Arno Press, 1969.
• Thompson, E.P. Customs in Common: Studies in Traditional Popular Culture. New York: The New Press, 1993.
• Tolnay, Stewart E., and Beck, E.M. A Festival of Violence: An Analysis of Southern Lynchings, 1882-1930, Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1992.
• Truman, Margaret. Harry S. Truman. New York: William Morrow and Co., 1973.
• Wade, Wyn Craig. The Fiery Cross: The Ku Klux Klan in America. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1987.
• Wright, George C. Racial Violence in Kentucky 1865-1940 by George C. Wright. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1990.
• Wyatt-Brown, Bertram. Southern Honor: Ethics & Behavior in the Old South. New York: Oxoford University Press, 1982.
• Zinn, Howard. Voices of a People's History of the United States. New York: Seven Stories Press, 2004.

Encyclopædia Britannica, the eleventh edition The Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1910–1911) is perhaps the most famous edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica. ... The public domain comprises the body of all creative works and other knowledge—writing, artwork, music, science, inventions, and others—in which no person or organization has any proprietary interest. ...

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to:

Lynchings

• Without Sanctuary: Lynching Photography in America website
• A review of Without Sanctuary: Lynching Photography in America, James Allen et al.
• Lynching in the United States (photos)
• Houghton Mifflin: The Reader's Companion to American History - Lynching
• Origin of the word Lynch
• Lynchings in the state of Georgia
• Lynchings in the state of Iowa
• Lynchings in the State of Kansas {Copyrigthed-reference only}
• Lynchings in the State of Missouri
• The 1856 Committee of Vigilance - A treatment of the San Francisco vigilante movement, sympathetic to the vigilantes.
• The San Francisco Committee of Vigilance of 1851, and the San Francisco Committee of Vigilance of 1856 - an opposing perspective
• American Lynching - web site for a documentary; links, bibliographical information, images
• Lynching calendar 1865-1965
• 1868 Lynching of Steve Long and Moyer brothers Laramie City, Wyoming
• Lynching of John Heath in 1884
• Art in response to lynching of Mary Turner in 1919.
• Lynching of Will Brown in Omaha Race Riot of 1919. (Graphic)
• Commission on Interracial Cooperation
• "Lynch Law"—An American Community Enigma, Henry A. Rhodes
• "The lynching of persons of Mexican origin or descent in the United States, 1848 to 1928, William D. Carrigan
• A Texas lynching report between 1848 and 1850.