NationMaster - Encyclopedia: Lysergic acid diethylamide

Lysergic acid diethylamide, LSD, LSD-25, or acid, is a semisynthetic psychedelic drug of the ergoline family. Probably the best known psychedelic, it has been used mainly as a recreational drug, an entheogen, and a tool to supplement various practices for transcendence, including in meditation, psychonautics, art projects, and illicit (though at one time legal) psychedelic psychotherapy, whether self-administered or not. It is synthesized from lysergic acid derived from ergot, a grain fungus that typically grows on rye and was first synthesized by Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann. The short form LSD comes from its early codename LSD-25, which is an abbreviation for the German "Lysergsäure-diethylamid" followed by a sequential number.^[1]^[2] In pharmacology and toxicology, a route of administration is the path by which a drug, fluid, poison or other substance is brought into contact with the body. ... A semisynthetic or partial chemical synthesis uses compounds isolated from natural sources (e. ... A fractal pattern similar to the spiral patterns that may be seen as the result of some psychedelic drug experiences. ... Chemical structure of ergoline Ergoline is a chemical compound whose structure serves as the skeleton for a diverse range of alkaloids and synthetic drugs. ... Recreational drug use is the use of psychoactive drugs for recreational rather than medical or spiritual purposes, although the distinction is not always clear. ... This entry covers entheogens in the strict sense of the word (i. ... For other uses, see Tool (disambiguation). ... In philosophy, transcendental/transcendence, has three different but related primary meanings, all of them derived from the words literal meaning (from Latin), of climbing or going beyond: one that originated in Ancient philosophy, one in Medieval philosophy and one in modern philosophy. ... For other senses of this word, see Meditation (disambiguation). ... For the trance band Psychonaut, see Psychonaut (band). ... This article is about the philosophical concept of Art. ... Psychedelic psychotherapy refers to psychotherapeutic practices involving the use of psychedelic drugs. ... Synthesis (from the ancient Greek ÏƒÏÎ½ (with) and Î¸ÎµÏƒÎ¹Ï‚ (placing), is commonly understood to be an integration of two or more pre-existing elements which results in a new creation. ... Lysergic acid, also known as D-lysergic acid and (+)-lysergic acid, is a precursor for a wide range of ergoline alkaloids that are produced by the ergot fungus and some plants. ... Species About 50, including: Claviceps africanum Claviceps fusiformis Claviceps paspali Claviceps purpurea Ergot is the common name of a fungus in the genus Claviceps that is parasitic on certain grains and grasses. ... The word grain has several meanings, most being descriptive of a small piece or particle. ... For the fictional character, see Fungus the Bogeyman. ... Binomial name Secale cereale M.Bieb. ... A chemist pours from a round-bottom flask. ... Dr. Dr. Albert Hofmann (born January 11, 1906) is a prominent Swiss scientist best known as the father of LSD. He was born in Baden, Switzerland, and studied chemistry at the University of ZÃ¼rich. ...

LSD is sensitive to oxygen, ultraviolet light, and chlorine, especially in solution, though its potency may last for years if it is stored away from light and moisture at low temperature. In pure form it is colorless, odorless and mildly bitter.^[2] LSD is typically delivered orally, usually on a substrate such as absorbent blotter paper, a sugar cube, or gelatin. In its liquid form, it can be administered by intramuscular or intravenous injection. The threshold dosage level needed to cause a psychoactive effect on humans is of the order of 20 to 30 µg (micrograms). This article is about the chemical element and its most stable form, or dioxygen. ... For other uses, see Ultraviolet (disambiguation). ... General Name, symbol, number chlorine, Cl, 17 Chemical series halogens Group, period, block 17, 3, p Appearance yellowish green Standard atomic weight 35. ... Making a saline water solution by dissolving table salt (NaCl) in water This article is about chemical solutions. ... Look up blotting paper in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... This article is about sugar as food and as an important and widely-traded commodity. ... For the art collective, see Gelitin. ... Kg redirects here. ...

Introduced by Sandoz Laboratories as a drug with various psychiatric uses, LSD quickly became a therapeutic agent that appeared to show great promise. However, the extra-medicinal use of the drug in Western society during the mid-twentieth century led to a political firestorm that resulted in the banning of the substance.^[3] A number of organizations—including the Beckley Foundation, MAPS, Heffter Research Institute and the Albert Hofmann Foundation—exist to fund, encourage and coordinate research into its medicinal uses.^[4] Sandoz Laboratories was a Swiss pharmaceutical company, best known for inventing LSD in 1938 and later marketing it as a psychiatric drug under the trade name Delysid. ... Psychiatry is a branch of medicine that studies and treats mental and emotional disorders (see mental illness). ... Psychedelic psychotherapy refers to psychotherapeutic practices involving the use of psychedelic drugs. ... Occident redirects here. ... Hallucinogenic drugs or hallucinogens are drugs that can alter sensory perceptions, elicit alternate states of consciousness, or cause hallucinations. ... The Beckley Foundation is a charitable trust that promotes the investigation of consciousness and its modulation from a multidisciplinary perspective. ... The Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies (MAPS) is a non-profit organization that aims to assist scientists to design, fund, obtain approval for and report on studies into the risks and benefits of MDMA, psychedelic drugs and marijuana. ... The Heffter Research Institute was founded in 1993 to support and promote investigation into the medical uses of psychedelic hallucinogens. ... Dr. Dr. Albert Hofmann (born January 11, 1906) is a prominent Swiss scientist best known as the father of LSD. He was born in Baden, Switzerland, and studied chemistry at the University of ZÃ¼rich. ...

Synthesis

LSD was first synthesized on November 16, 1938 by a Swiss chemist named Dr. Albert Hofmann at the Sandoz Laboratories in Basel, Switzerland, as part of a large research program searching for medically useful ergot alkaloid derivatives.^[5] Ergot is a fungus that, by infecting cereal grains used for making rye breads, causes ergotism. After Dr. Hofmann succeeded in synthesizing ergobasine (which became the preeminent uterotonic), he began working on other amide derivatives of lysergic acid. LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide) is one of the major drugs making up the hallucinogen class of drugs[4]; Lysergic acid diethylamide, the 25th lysergic acid derivative he synthesised (hence the name LSD-25) was developed initially as a probable analeptic, a circulatory and respiratory stimulant, based on its structural similarity to another known analeptic, nikethamide (nicotinic acid diethylamide). However, no extraordinary benefits of the compound were identified during animal tests (though laboratory notes briefly mention that the animals became "restless" under its effects), and its study was discontinued.^[6] Its psychedelic properties were unknown until 5 years later, when Hofmann, acting on what he has called a "peculiar presentiment," returned to work on the chemical.^[6] While re-synthesizing LSD-25 for further study on April 16, 1943, Hofmann became dizzy and was forced to stop work. In his journal, Hofmann wrote that after becoming dizzy he proceeded home and was affected by a "remarkable restlessness, combined with a slight dizziness". Hofmann stated that as he lay in his bed he sank into a not unpleasant "intoxicated like condition" which was characterized by an extremely stimulated imagination. He stated that he was in a dreamlike state, and with his eyes closed he could see uninterrupted streams of "fantastic pictures, extraordinary shapes with intense, kaleidoscopic play of colors." The condition lasted about two hours after which it faded away.^[7] Hofmann had attributed the psychoactive effects he experienced to accidentally absorbing a tiny amount of LSD-25 into his skin. Three days later he would take a much larger dose in order to test its effects further; this day would later be referred to as the "Bicycle Day".^[1] is the 320th day of the year (321st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1938 (MCMXXXVIII) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Dr. Dr. Albert Hofmann (born January 11, 1906) is a prominent Swiss scientist best known as the father of LSD. He was born in Baden, Switzerland, and studied chemistry at the University of ZÃ¼rich. ... Sandoz Laboratories was a Swiss pharmaceutical company, best known for inventing LSD in 1938 and later marketing it as a psychiatric drug under the trade name Delysid. ... For other uses, see Basel (disambiguation). ... Chemical structure of ergoline Ergoline is a chemical compound whose structure serves as the skeleton for a diverse range of alkaloids and synthetic drugs. ... Species About 50, including: Claviceps africanum Claviceps fusiformis Claviceps paspali Claviceps purpurea Ergot is the common name of a fungus in the genus Claviceps that is parasitic on certain grains and grasses. ... Ergotism is the effect of long-term ergot poisoning, classically due to the ingestion of the alkaloids produced by the Claviceps purpurea fungus which infects rye and other cereals, and more recently by the action of a number of ergoline-based drugs. ... Ergonovine, also known as ergometrine, d-lysergic acid beta-propanolamide, is one of primary ergot alkaloids and an alkaloid of many species of morning glory, too. ... Amide functional group Amides possess a conjugated system spread over the O, C and N atoms, consisting of molecular orbitals occupied by delocalized electrons. ... Lysergic acid, also known as D-lysergic acid and (+)-lysergic acid, is a precursor for a wide range of ergoline alkaloids that are produced by the ergot fungus and some plants. ... An analeptic, in medicine, is a restorative, or remedies proper to restore the body, when wasted or emaciated by disease or hunger. ... For transport in plants, see Vascular tissue. ... Among quadrupeds, the respiratory system generally includes tubes, such as the bronchi, used to carry air to the lungs, where gas exchange takes place. ... Nikethamide is a stimulant which mainly affects the respiratory cycle. ... For psychedelics, see psychedelic drug. ... is the 106th day of the year (107th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1943 (MCMXLIII) was a common year starting on Friday (the link will display full 1943 calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... A toy kaleidoscope tube Pattern as seen through a kaleidoscope tube Pattern as seen through a kaleidoscope tube Pattern as seen through a kaleidoscope tube The kaleidoscope is a tube of mirrors containing, loose coloured beads or pebbles, or other small coloured objects. ...

Bicycle day

On April 19, 1943 Dr. Albert Hofmann intentionally ingested 250 µg of LSD, which he hypothesized would be at most a threshold level dose, based on his research on other ergot alkaloids. Surprisingly, the substance showed a potency orders of magnitude above almost any other substance known at the time, amounting to a much heavier dose than typically given in modern therapeutic use. After ingesting the substance Hofmann found himself struggling to speak intelligibly and asked his laboratory assistant, who knew of the self-experiment, to escort him home on his bicycle, since wartime restrictions made automobiles unavailable. On the bicycle ride home, Hofmann's condition became more severe and in his journal he stated that everything in his field of vision wavered and was distorted, as if seen in a curved mirror. Hofmann also stated that while riding on the bicycle, he had the sensation of being stationary, unable to move from where he was, despite the fact that he was moving very rapidly. Once Hofmann arrived home, he summoned a doctor and asked his neighbor for milk, believing it might help relieve the symptoms. Hofmann wrote that despite his delirious and bewildered condition, he was able to choose milk as a nonspecific antidote for poisoning.^[8] Upon arriving the attending doctor could find no abnormal physical symptoms other than extremely dilated pupils. After spending several hours terrified that his body had been possessed by a demon, that his next door neighbor was a witch, and that his furniture was threatening him, Dr. Hofmann feared he had become completely insane. In his journal Hofmann said that the doctor saw no reason to prescribe medication and instead sent him to his bed. At this time Hofmann said that the feelings of fear had started to give way to feelings of good fortune and gratitude, and that he was now enjoying the colors and plays of shapes that persisted behind his closed eyes. Hofmann mentions seeing "fantastic images" surging past him, alternating and opening and closing themselves into circles and spirals and finally exploding into colored fountains and then rearranging themselves in a constant flux. Hofmann mentions that during the condition every acoustic perception, such as the sound of a passing automobile, was transformed into optical perceptions. Eventually Hofmann slept and upon awakening the next morning felt refreshed and clearheaded, though somewhat physically tired. He also stated that he had a sensation of well being and renewed life and that his breakfast tasted unusually delicious. Upon walking in his garden he remarked that all of his senses were "vibrating in a condition of highest sensitivity, which then persisted for the entire day".^[8] is the 109th day of the year (110th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1943 (MCMXLIII) was a common year starting on Friday (the link will display full 1943 calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Dr. Dr. Albert Hofmann (born January 11, 1906) is a prominent Swiss scientist best known as the father of LSD. He was born in Baden, Switzerland, and studied chemistry at the University of ZÃ¼rich. ... The U.S. National Prototype Kilogram, which currently serves as the primary standard for measuring mass in the U.S. It was assigned to the United States in 1889 and is periodically recertified and traceable to the primary international standard, The Kilogram, held at the Bureau International des Poids et... â€œFiendâ€ redirects here. ... Psychoacoustics is the study of subjective human perception of sounds. ... See also list of optical topics. ...

Early research

Early research on LSD and by rome saw its potency and noticed that even in extremely small quantities it could significantly alter the mental functioning of healthy volunteers. Due to the fact that LSD could produce changes in perceptions and emotions, early researchers hypothesized that the cause of some mental illnesses, particularly schizophrenia, were due to the human body releasing small quantities of substances identical to LSD.^[9] Much of the research during the late 1940's dealt with this hypothesis and many LSD sessions conducted for scientific study were often termed "experimental psychoses", and this is where the terms "psychoactive" , "psychotomimetic" and "hallucinogenic" were coined to refer to such drugs. Generally these studies revolved around the attempt to block the effects of LSD with premedication, which was thought to be able to lead to medical treatments for schizophrenia. The studies showed that there was no such connection (the effects of LSD and those of schizophrenia are drastically different and have different causes and functions). Some early researchers also started to suggest that LSD could have positive effects and could be used as a treatment for patients with psychiatric illnesses. Some reports suggested that even small doses of LSD could have dramatic effects on the personalities and attitudes and even lifestyles of test subjects. Early LSD research also found evidence of the drug's ability to facilitate relief of various emotional episodes related to traumatic memories from childhood of patients.^[9]

Government research

During the Cold War intelligence agencies were keenly interested in the possibilities of using LSD for interrogation and mind control, as well as for large-scale social engineering. The CIA research on LSD, most of which was done under Project MKULTRA, the code name for a CIA mind-control research program, began in the 1950s and continued until the late 1960s.^[10] Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... For other uses, see Cold War (disambiguation). ... The examples and perspective in this article or section may not represent a worldwide view. ... Mind control (or thought control) has the premise that an outside source can control an individuals thinking, behavior or consciousness (either directly or more subtly). ... Social engineering is a concept in political science that refers to efforts to systematically manage popular attitudes and social behavior on a large scale, whether by governments or private groups. ... The CIA Seal The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) is an American intelligence agency, responsible for obtaining and analyzing information about foreign governments, corporations, and individuals, and reporting such information to the various branches of the U.S. Government. ... â€œMKULTRAâ€ redirects here. ...

Tests were also conducted by the U.S. Army Biomedical Laboratory (now known as the U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Chemical Defense) located in the Edgewood Arsenal at Aberdeen Proving Grounds. The government would administer LSD to subjects (without consent) and then perform a battery of tests to investigate the effects of the drug on soldiers. Based on remaining publicly available records, the projects seem to have concluded that LSD was of little practical use as a mind control drug and moved on to other drugs.^[11] Aberdeen Proving Ground is a United States Army proving ground located in Harford County, Maryland. ... Aberdeen Proving Ground is a United States Army proving ground located in Harford County, Maryland. ... This article is about a military rank. ...

Both the CIA and the Army experiments became highly controversial when they became public knowledge in the 1970s, as the test subjects were not normally informed of the nature of the experiments, or even that they were subjects in experiments at all.^[10] At least one person, an Army scientist named Frank Olson is thought by some to have committed suicide by leaping from a tall building as a result of his being unknowingly given LSD.^[10] Frank Olson's son, Eric Olson, believes that his father was murdered by government officials and a 1994 exhumation and examination by forensic pathologists at George Washington University of the body suggested that Olson had suffered blunt trauma to the back of his head prior to falling from the building.^[12] Most of the MKULTRA records were deliberately destroyed in 1973. The controversy contributed to President Ford's creation of the Rockefeller Commission and new regulations on informed consent.^[10]The British government also engaged in LSD testing; in 1953 and 1954, scientists working for MI6 dosed servicemen in an effort to find a "truth drug". The test subjects were not informed that they were being given LSD, and had in fact been told that they were participating in a medical project to find a cure for the common cold. One subject, aged 19 at the time, reported seeing "walls melting, cracks appearing in people's faces … eyes would run down cheeks, Salvador Dalí-type faces … a flower would turn into a slug". After keeping the trials secret for many years, MI6 agreed in 2006 to pay the former test subjects financial compensation. Like the CIA, MI6 decided that LSD was not a practical drug for mind control purposes.^[13] Frank Olson (born 1910, died November 28, 1953) was a U.S. Army scientist at the top secret Special Operations Division at Fort Detrick in Frederick, Maryland, who died under mysterious circumstances in New York City. ... For other persons named Gerald Ford, see Gerald Ford (disambiguation). ... The U.S. Presidents Commission on CIA activities within the United States was set up under President Gerald Ford in 1975 to investigate the activities of the CIA and other intelligence agencies within the United States. ... Informed consent is a legal condition whereby a person can be said to have given consent based upon an appreciation and understanding of the facts and implications of an action. ... The Secret Intelligence Service (SIS), more commonly known as MI6 (originally Military Intelligence Section 6), or the Secret Service, is the United Kingdom external security agency. ... // Acute viral nasopharyngitis, or acute coryza, usually known as the common cold, is a highly contagious, viral infectious disease of the upper respiratory system, primarily caused by picornaviruses or coronaviruses. ... Salvador Domingo Felipe Jacinto DalÃ i DomÃ¨nech, 1st Marquis of PÃºbol (May 11, 1904 â€“ January 23, 1989), was a Spanish surrealist painter of Catalan descent born in Figueres, Catalonia (Spain). ...

Recreational use

Several mental health professionals involved in LSD research, most notably Harvard psychology professors Dr. Timothy Leary^[14] and Dr. Richard Alpert, ^[15] became convinced of LSD's potential as a tool for spiritual growth. By the spring of 1961 Dr. Timothy Leary claimed to have given psychedelic drugs to over 200 subjects, saying that eighty-five percent of his subjects reported that the experience was the most educational of their lives.^[16] Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (2705x1845, 3158 KB) Timbres ou buvard imprÃ©gnÃ©s de LSD color saturation increased, cropped a bit (by en:User:Cacycle) Source: www. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (2705x1845, 3158 KB) Timbres ou buvard imprÃ©gnÃ©s de LSD color saturation increased, cropped a bit (by en:User:Cacycle) Source: www. ... Harvard University is a private university in Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA, and a member of the Ivy League. ... For the American baseball player, see Tim Leary (baseball player). ... Richard Alpert redirects here. ... Spirituality, in a narrow sense, concerns itself with matters of the spirit. ...

Their research became more esoteric and controversial, as Leary and Alpert alleged links between the LSD experience and the state of enlightenment sought after in many mystical traditions. They were dismissed from the traditional academic psychology community, and as such cut off from legal scientific acquisition of the drug. Drs. Leary and Alpert acquired a quantity of LSD and relocated to a private mansion, where they continued their research. The experiments lost their scientific character as the pair evolved into countercultural spiritual gurus associated with the hippie movement, encouraging people to question authority and challenge the status quo, a concept summarized in Leary's catchphrase, "Turn on, tune in, drop out".^[17] Etymology Esoteric is an adjective originating during Hellenic Greece under the domain of the Roman Empire; it comes from the Greek esÃ´terikos, from esÃ´tero, the comparative form of esÃ´: within. It is a word meaning anything that is inner and occult, a latinate word meaning hidden (from which... Look up enlightenment, Enlightenment in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... In sociology, counterculture is a term used to describe a cultural group whose values and norms are at odds with those of the social mainstream. ... Spirituality, in a narrow sense, concerns itself with matters of the spirit. ... For other uses, see Guru (disambiguation). ... For the British TV show, see Hippies (TV series). ... Turn On, Tune In, Drop Out (Original Movie Soundtrack) Turn on, tune in, drop out is a counterculture phrase coined by Timothy Leary in the 1960s. ...

The drug was banned in the United States in 1966, with scientific therapeutic research as well as individual research also becoming prohibitively difficult. Many other countries, under pressure from the U.S., quickly followed suit. Since 1967, underground recreational and therapeutic LSD use has continued in many countries, supported by a black market and popular demand for the drug. Legal, academic research experiments on the effects and mechanisms of LSD are also conducted on occasion, but rarely involve human subjects. Despite its proscription, the hippie counterculture continued to promote the regular use of LSD, led by figures such as Leary and psychedelic rock bands such as The Doors and The Grateful Dead. "Acidhead" has been used as a (sometimes derogatory) name for people who frequently use LSD. According to Leigh Henderson and William Glass, two researchers associated with the NIDA who performed a 1994 review of the literature, LSD use is relatively uncommon when compared to the abuse of alcohol, cocaine, and prescription drugs. Over the previous fifteen years, long-term usage trends stayed fairly stable, with roughly 5% of the population using the drug and most users being in the 16 to 23 age range.^[18] Henderson and Glass found that LSD users typically partook of the substance on an infrequent, episodic basis, then "maturing out" after two to four years. Overall, LSD appeared to have comparatively few adverse health consequences, of which "bad trips" were the most commonly reported (and, the researchers found, one of the chief reasons youths stop using the drug).^[19] For the British TV show, see Hippies (TV series). ... Psychedelic rock is a style of rock music that attempts to replicate the mind-altering experiences of hallucinogenic drugs. ... The Doors were an American rock band formed in 1965 in Los Angeles by vocalist Jim Morrison, keyboardist Ray Manzarek, drummer John Densmore, and guitarist Robby Krieger. ... Jerry Garcia later in life The Grateful Dead was an American rock band, which was formed in 1965 in San Francisco from the remnants of another band, Mother McCrees Uptown Jug Champions. ... Cover of a NIDA educational booklet. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Cocaine is a crystalline tropane alkaloid that is obtained from the leaves of the coca plant. ... A prescription drug is a medication that is regulated by legislation to require a prescription before it can be obtained. ... A bad trip is a frightening experience associated with use of a hallucinogenic drug such as LSD, salvinorin A, mescaline, or psilocybin. ...

Dosage

Dosages of LSD are measured in micrograms (µg), or millionths of a gram. By comparison, dosages of almost all other drugs, both recreational and medicinal, are measured in milligrams (mg), or thousandths of a gram. Hofmann determined that an active dose of mescaline, roughly 0.2 to 0.5g, has effects comparable to 100µg or less of LSD; put another way, LSD is between five to ten thousand times more active than mescaline.^[1] Kg redirects here. ... BIC pen cap, about 1 gram. ... The milligram (symbol mg) is an SI unit of mass. ... Dr. Dr. Albert Hofmann (born January 11, 1906) is a prominent Swiss scientist best known as the father of LSD. He was born in Baden, Switzerland, and studied chemistry at the University of ZÃ¼rich. ... Mescaline (3,4,5-trimethoxyphenethylamine) is a psychedelic alkaloid of the phenethylamine class. ...

While a single dose of LSD may be between 100 and 500 micrograms — an amount roughly equal to one-tenth the mass of a grain of sand — threshold effects can be felt with as little as 25 micrograms.^[20]

Generally, the dosage that will produce a threshold psychotropic effect in humans is considered to be 20 to 30µg.^[21]^[20] According to Glass and Henderson's review, black-market LSD is largely iterated though sometimes contaminated by manufacturing by-products. Typical doses in the 1960s ranged from 200 to 1000µg while street samples of the 1970s contained 30 to 300µg. By the 1980s, the amount had reduced to between 100 to 125 µg, lowering more in the 1990s to the 20–80 µg range. (Lower doses, Glass and Henderson found, generally produce fewer bad trips.)^[19] A bad trip is a frightening experience associated with use of a hallucinogenic drug such as LSD, salvinorin A, mescaline, or psilocybin. ...

Estimates for the lethal dosage (LD₅₀) of LSD range from between 200 µg/kg to more than 1 mg/kg of human body mass, though most sources report that there are no known human cases of such an overdose. Other sources note one report of a suspected fatal overdose of LSD occurring in November 1975 in Kentucky in which there were indications that ~1/3 of a gram (320 mg or 320,000 µg) had been injected intravenously, i.e., over 3,000 more typical oral doses of ~100 µg had been injected.^[22]^[23] An LD50 test being administered In toxicology, the LD50 or colloquially semilethal dose of a particular substance is a measure of how much constitutes a lethal dose. ... Official language(s) English[1] Capital Frankfort Largest city Louisville Area Ranked 37th - Total 40,444 sq mi (104,749 kmÂ²) - Width 140 miles (225 km) - Length 379 miles (610 km) - % water 1. ...

Tusko the elephant died shortly after being injected with 300 mg in 1962, but whether the LSD was the cause of his death is controversial. Tusko formerly Ned, was a giant circus elephant captured at age 6 in Siam (now Thailand). ...

LSD is not considered addictive, in that its users do not exhibit the medical community's commonly accepted definitions of addiction and physical dependence. Rapid tolerance build-up prevents regular use, and there is cross-tolerance shown between LSD, mescaline^[24] and psilocybin.^[25] This tolerance diminishes after a few days without use and is probably caused by downregulation of 5-HT_2A receptors in the brain. Heroin bottle An addiction is a recurring compulsion by an individual to engage in some specific activity, despite harmful consequences to the individuals health, mental state or social life. ... Mescaline (3,4,5-trimethoxyphenethylamine) is a psychedelic alkaloid of the phenethylamine class. ... Psilocybin (also known as psilocybine) is a psychedelic alkaloid of the tryptamine family, found in psilocybin mushrooms. ... The introduction to this article provides insufficient context for those unfamiliar with the subject matter. ...

Adverse effects of psychotropics are often treated with fast acting benzodiazepines like diazepam or triazolam that have calming and antianxiety effects but do not directly affect the specific actions of psychotropics. Many rumors about home remedies to counteract psychedelic effects are circulated, including sugar, calcium, orange juice, milk, or niacin, but none of them have been shown to be effective and they make no sense from a pharmacological standpoint. Theoretically, specific 5-HT_2A receptor antagonists, such as Seroquel, would be direct antidotes, although reports on Erowid would state otherwise.^[26] Also, some people have reported that taking a SSRI such as Prozac or Trazadone will counteract the effects of LSD and aid in sleeping. Alprazolam 2 mg tablets The benzodiazepines (pronounced , or benzos for short) are a class of psychoactive drugs considered minor tranquilizers with varying hypnotic, sedative, anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, muscle relaxant and amnesic properties, which are mediated by slowing down the central nervous system. ... Diazepam (IPA: ), first marketed as Valium by Hoffmann-La Roche) is a benzodiazepine derivative drug. ... Triazolam (Halcion®, Novodorm®, Songar®) belongs to benzodiazepine group of drugs. ... Look up rumour in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... A home remedy is a treatment or cure for a disease or other ailment that employs certain foods or other common household items. ... This article is about sugar as food and as an important and widely-traded commodity. ... For other uses, see Calcium (disambiguation). ... A glass of cows milk. ... Niacin, also known as nicotinic acid or vitamin B3, is a water-soluble vitamin whose derivatives such as NADH, NAD, NAD+, and NADP play essential roles in energy metabolism in the living cell and DNA repair. ... Pharmacology (in Greek: pharmakon (Ï†Î¬ÏÎ¼Î±ÎºÎ¿Î½) meaning drug, and lego (Î»ÎÎ³Ï‰) to tell (about)) is the study of how drugs interact with living organisms to produce a change in function. ... The introduction to this article provides insufficient context for those unfamiliar with the subject matter. ... For other uses, see Antagonist (disambiguation). ... Quetiapine (kwe-TYE-a-peen), marketed by AstraZeneca with the brand name Seroquel, is one of the atypical antipsychotics. ... An antidote is a substance which can counteract a form of poisoning. ... Erowid. ...

Effects

Pharmacokinetics

LSD's effects normally last from 6-12 hours depending on dosage, tolerance, body weight and age^[2] - Sandoz's prospectus for "Delysid" warned: "intermittent disturbances of effect may occasionally persist for several days."^[1] Contrary to early reports and common belief, LSD effects do not last longer than significant levels of the drug in the blood. Aghajanian and Bing found LSD had an elimination half-life of 175 minutes,^[27] while, more recently, Papac and Foltz reported that 1 µg/kg oral LSD given to a single male volunteer had an apparent plasma half-life of 5.1 hours, with a peak plasma concentration of 5 ng/mL at 3 hours post-dose.^[28] Notably, Aghajanian and Bing found that blood concentrations of LSD matched the time course of volunteers' difficulties with simple arithmetic problems. Image File history File links Lsd. ... Image File history File links Lsd. ...

Pharmacodynamics

LSD affects a large number of the G protein coupled receptors, including all dopamine receptor subtypes, all adrenoreceptor subtypes as well as many others. LSD binds to most serotonin receptor subtypes except for 5-HT₃ and 5-HT₄. However, most of these receptors are affected at too low affinity to be activated by the brain concentration of approximate 10–20 nM.^[29] Recreational doses of LSD can affect 5-HT_1A, 5-HT_2A, 5-HT_2C, 5-HT_5A, 5-HT_5B, and 5-HT₆ receptors. The psychotropic effects of LSD are attributed to its strong partial agonist effects at 5-HT_2A receptors as specific 5-HT_2A agonist drugs are psychotropics and largely 5-HT_2A specific antagonists block the psychotropic activity of LSD.^[29] Exactly how this produces the drug's effects is unknown, but it is thought that it works by increasing glutamate release and hence excitation in the cortex, specifically in layers IV and V.^[30] In the later stages, LSD might act through DARPP-32 - related pathways that are likely the same for multiple drugs including cocaine, methamphetamine, nicotine, caffeine, PCP, ethanol and morphine.^[31] In cell biology, G-protein-coupled receptors, also known as GPCR, seven transmembrane receptors, heptahelical receptors, or 7TM receptors, are a class of transmembrane receptors. ... In biochemistry, a receptor is a protein on the cell membrane or within the cytoplasm or cell nucleus that binds to a specific molecule (a ligand), such as a neurotransmitter, hormone, or other substance, and initiates the cellular response to the ligand. ... The dopamine receptors are a class of metabotropic G-protein-coupled receptors with the neurotransmitter dopamine as their endogenous ligand. ... Epinephrine Norepinephrine The adrenergic receptors (or adrenoceptors) are a class of G protein-coupled receptors that are targets of the catecholamines. ... In the field of neurochemistry, 5-HT receptors are receptors for the neurotransmitter and peripheral signal mediator serotonin, also known as 5-hydroxytryptamine or 5-HT. 5-HT receptors are located on the cell membrane of nerve cells and other cell types in animals and mediate the effects of serotonin... The introduction to this article provides insufficient context for those unfamiliar with the subject matter. ... Agonists An agonist is a substance that binds to a receptor and triggers a response in the cell. ... For other uses, see Antagonist (disambiguation). ... Glutamate is the anion of glutamic acid. ... For other uses, see Cortex. ... DARPP-32 stands for dopamine- and cyclic AMP-regulated phosphoprotein with molecular weight 32 kDa. ...

A particularly compelling look at the actions of LSD was performed by Barry Jacobs recording from electrodes implanted into cat Raphe nuclei.^[32] Behaviorally relevant doses of LSD result in a complete blockade of action potential activity in the dorsal raphe, effectively shutting off the principal endogenous source of serotonin to the telencephalon. The raphe nuclei (Latin for the bit in a fold or seam) is a moderately sized cluster of nuclei found in the brain stem, and releases serotonin to the rest of the brain. ...

Some reports indicate that although administration of chlorpromazine (Thorazine) or similar typical antipsychotic tranquilizers will not end an LSD trip, it will either lessen the intensity or immobilize and numb the patient, a side effect of the medication.^[33] While it also may not end an LSD trip, the best chemical treatment for a "bad trip" is an anxiolytic agent such as diazepam (Valium) or another benzodiazepine. Some have suggested that administration of niacin (nicotinic acid, vitamin B3) could be useful to end the LSD user's experience of a "bad trip".^[34] The nicotinic acid in niacin as opposed to nicotinamide, will produce a full body heat rash, due to widening of peripheral blood vessels. The effect is somewhat akin to a poison ivy rash. Although it is not clear to what extent the effects of LSD are reduced by this intervention, the physical effect of an itchy skin rash may itself tend to distract the user from feelings of anxiety. Indeed, nicotinic acid was experienced as a stressor by all tested persons. The rash itself is temporary and disappears within a few hours. It is questionable if this method could be effective for people having serious adverse psychological reactions. Niacin is used in Orthomolecular psychiatry to treat schizophrenia successfully; however, this kind of treatment is considered Alternative Medicine as it is not accepted by the American Psychiatric Association. Image File history File links LSDaffinities. ... Image File history File links LSDaffinities. ... The Ki Database (or Ki DB) is a public domain database of published binding affinities (Ki) of drugs and chemical compounds for receptors, neurotransmitter transporters, ion channels, and enzymes. ... Chlorpromazine was the first antipsychotic drug, used during the 1950s and 1960s. ... Typical antipsychotics (sometimes referred to as conventional antipsychotics or conventional neuroleptics) are a class of antipsychotic drugs first developed in the 1950s and used to treat psychosis (in particular, schizophrenia), and are generally being replaced by atypical antipsychotic drugs. ... An anxiolytic is a drug prescribed for the treatment of symptoms of anxiety. ... Diazepam (IPA: ), first marketed as Valium by Hoffmann-La Roche) is a benzodiazepine derivative drug. ... Alprazolam 2 mg tablets The benzodiazepines (pronounced , or benzos for short) are a class of psychoactive drugs considered minor tranquilizers with varying hypnotic, sedative, anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, muscle relaxant and amnesic properties, which are mediated by slowing down the central nervous system. ... Niacin, also known as nicotinic acid or vitamin B3, is a water-soluble vitamin whose derivatives such as NADH, NAD, NAD+, and NADP play essential roles in energy metabolism in the living cell and DNA repair. ... Niacin, also known as nicotinic acid or vitamin B3, is a water-soluble vitamin whose derivatives such as NADH play essential roles in energy metabolism in the living cell. ... Niacin, also known as nicotinic acid or vitamin B3, is a water-soluble vitamin whose derivatives such as NADH, NAD, NAD+, and NADP play essential roles in energy metabolism in the living cell and DNA repair. ... Nicotinamide, also known as niacinamide, is the amide of niacin (vitamin B3) which has the chemical formula C6H6N2O. Niacinamide is a derivative of vitamin B-3 can be used for the treatment of arthritis by aiding the body in its production of cartilage. ... Binomial name Toxicodendron radicans (L.) Kuntze Poison-ivy (Toxicodendron radicans or Rhus toxicodendron), in the family Anacardiaceae, is a woody vine that is well-known for its ability to produce urushiol, a skin irritant which for most people will cause an agonizing, itching rash. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Alternative medicine has been described as any of various systems of healing or treating disease (as chiropractic, homeopathy, or faith healing) not included in the traditional medical curricula taught in the United States and Britain.[1] Alternative medicine practices are often based in belief systems not derived from modern science. ... Due to the epidemic of medical errors, readers are cautioned to be aware that the American Psychiatric Association isnt immune to this. ...

Physical

Physical reactions to LSD are highly variable and may include the following: uterine contractions, hypothermia, fever, elevated levels of blood sugar, goose bumps, increase of heart rate, jaw clenching, perspiration, pupil-dilation, saliva production, mucus production, sleeplessness, paresthesia, euphoria, hyperreflexia, tremors and synesthesia. LSD users report numbness, weakness, trembling, and nausea.^[35] LSD was studied in the 1960s by Eric Kast as an analgesic for serious and chronic pain caused by cancer or other major trauma.^[36] Even at low (sub-psychedelic) dosages, it was found to be at least as effective as traditional opiates while being much longer lasting (pain reduction lasting as long as a week after peak effects had subsided). Kast attributed this effect to a decrease in anxiety. This reported effect is being tested (though not using LSD) in an ongoing (as of 2006) study of the effects of the psychedelic tryptamine psilocybin on anxiety in terminal cancer patients. This article is about female reproductive anatomy. ... Hypothermia is a condition in which an organisms temperature drops below that Required fOr normal metabolism and Bodily functionS. In warm-blooded animals, core [[body Temperature]] is maintained nEar a constant leVel through biologic [[homEostasis]]. But wheN the body iS exposed to cold Its internal mechanismS may be unable... In medicine, blood sugar is a term used to refer to levels of glucose in the blood. ... Goose bumps on a human Goose bumps, also called goose pimples, goose flesh, chill bumps, chicken skin, or the medical term cutis anserina, are the bumps on a persons skin at the base of body hairs which involuntarily develop when a person is cold or experiences strong emotions such... Mydriasis is an excessive dilation of the pupil due to disease or drugs. ... For the band, see Saliva (band). ... Mucus cells. ... For other uses, see Sleep (disambiguation). ... Paresthesia or paraesthesia (in British English) is a sensation of tingling, pricking, or numbness of a persons skin with no apparent long-term physical effect, more generally known as the feeling of pins and needles or of a limb being asleep (but not directly related to the phenomenon of... Euphoria (Greek ) is a medically recognized emotional state related to happiness. ... Hyperreflexia is defined as overactive or overresponsive reflexes. ... For the film see Tremors (film). ... For other uses, see Synesthesia (disambiguation). ... An analgesic (colloquially known as a painkiller) is any member of the diverse group of drugs used to relieve pain (achieve analgesia). ... Pain redirects here. ... Cancer is a class of diseases or disorders characterized by uncontrolled division of cells and the ability of these to spread, either by direct growth into adjacent tissue through invasion, or by implantation into distant sites by metastasis (where cancer cells are transported through the bloodstream or lymphatic system). ... For other uses see Opiate (disambiguation), or for the class of drugs see Opioid. ... A fractal pattern similar to the spiral patterns that may be seen as the result of some psychedelic drug experiences. ... Tryptamine (3-(2-aminoethyl)indole) is a monoamine compound that is widespread in nature. ... Psilocybin (also known as psilocybine) is a psychedelic alkaloid of the tryptamine family, found in psilocybin mushrooms. ... Anxiety is a physiological state characterized by cognitive, somatic, emotional, and behavioral components (Seligman, Walker & Rosenhan, 2001). ...

Furthermore, LSD has been illicitly used as a treatment for cluster headaches, an uncommon but extremely painful disorder. Researcher Peter Goadsby describes the headaches as "worse than natural childbirth or even amputation without anesthetic."^[37] Although the phenomenon has not been formally investigated, case reports indicate that LSD and psilocybin can reduce cluster pain and also interrupt the cluster-headache cycle, preventing future headaches from occurring. Currently existing treatments include various ergolines, among other chemicals, so LSD's efficacy may not be surprising. A dose-response study, testing the effectiveness of both LSD and psilocybin was planned at McLean Hospital, although the current status of this project is unclear. A 2006 study by McLean researchers interviewed 53 cluster-headache sufferers who treated themselves with either LSD or psilocybin, finding that a majority of the users of either drug reported beneficial effects.^[38] Unlike attempts to use LSD or MDMA in psychotherapy, this research involves non-psychological effects and often sub-psychedelic dosages; therefore, it is plausible that a respected medical use of LSD will arise.^[39] Cluster headaches are rare, extremely painful and debilitating headaches that occur in groups or clusters. ... Psilocybin (also known as psilocybine) is a psychedelic alkaloid of the tryptamine family, found in psilocybin mushrooms. ... Chemical structure of ergoline Ergoline is a chemical compound whose structure serves as the skeleton for a diverse range of alkaloids and synthetic drugs. ... McLean Hospital (pronounced Mc-Lane) is a psychiatric hospital in Belmont, Massachusetts, USA. It is noted for its clinical staff expertise and ground-breaking neuroscience research. ... ecstasy and religious ecstasy MDMA, most commonly known today by the street name ecstasy, is a synthetic entactogen of the phenethylamine family whose primary effect is to stimulate the brain to rapidly secrete large amounts of serotonin, causing a general sense of openness, empathy, energy, euphoria, and well-being. ... Psychotherapy is an interpersonal, relational intervention used by trained psychotherapists to aid clients in problems of living. ...

Psychological

LSD's psychological effects (colloquially called a "trip") vary greatly from person to person, depending on factors such as previous experiences, state of mind and environment, as well as dose strength. They also vary from one trip to another, and even as time passes during a single trip. An LSD trip can have long term psychoemotional effects; some users cite the LSD experience as causing significant changes in their personality and life perspective. Widely different effects emerge based on what has been called set and setting; the "set" being the general mindset of the user, and the "setting" being the physical and social environment in which the drug's effects are experienced. For the Bardo Pond album, see Set and Setting (Album). ...

Timothy Leary and Richard Alpert considered the chemical to be of potentially beneficial application in psychotherapy. If the user is in a hostile or otherwise unsettling environment, or is not mentally prepared for the powerful distortions in perception and thought that the drug causes, effects are more likely to be unpleasant than if he or she is in a comfortable environment and has a relaxed, balanced and open mindset. For the American baseball player, see Tim Leary (baseball player). ... Ram Dass at the Hanuman Temple in Taos, New Mexico, September 2004 Dr. Richard Alpert (born 1933), later known as Baba Ram Dass, was a professor of psychology at Harvard University who became well known for his controversial research program which studied the effects of LSD. Alpert worked closely with...

Some psychological effects may include an experience of radiant colors, objects and surfaces appearing to ripple or "breathe," colored patterns behind the eyes, a sense of time distorting (time seems to be stretching, repeating itself, changing speed or stopping), crawling geometric patterns overlaying walls and other objects, morphing objects, a sense that one's thoughts are spiraling into themselves, loss of a sense of identity or the ego (known as "ego death"), and powerful, and sometimes brutal, psycho-physical reactions interpreted by some users as reliving their own birth.^[9]^[40] Ego death is an experience sometimes undergone by psychonauts. ...

Many users experience a dissolution between themselves and the "outside world".^[41] This unitive quality may play a role in the spiritual and religious aspects of LSD. The drug sometimes leads to disintegration or restructuring of the user's historical personality and creates a mental state that some users report allows them to have more choice regarding the nature of their own personality.

Some experts hypothesize that drugs such as LSD may be useful in psychotherapy, especially when the patient is unable to "unblock" repressed subconscious material through other psychotherapeutic methods,^[42] and also for treating alcoholism. One study concluded, "The root of the therapeutic value of the LSD experience is its potential for producing self-acceptance and self-surrender,"^[43] presumably by forcing the user to face issues and problems in that individual's psyche. Many believe that, in contrast, other drugs (such as alcohol, heroin, and cocaine) which are used to escape from reality, LSD is seen as more of an introspective experience. Studies in the 1950s that used LSD to treat alcoholism professed a 50% success rate,^[44] five times higher than estimates near 10% for Alcoholics Anonymous.^[45] This article does not cite any references or sources. ... For other uses, see Heroin (disambiguation). ... Cocaine is a crystalline tropane alkaloid that is obtained from the leaves of the coca plant. ... Escapism is mental diversion by means of entertainment or recreation, as an escape from the perceived unpleasant aspects of daily stress. ... AA meeting sign // Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) is an informal meeting society for recovering alcoholics whose primary purpose is to stay sober and help other alcoholics achieve sobriety. ...

Some LSD studies were criticized for methodological flaws, and different groups had inconsistent results. Mangini's 1998 paper reviewed this history. He concluded that the efficacy of LSD in treating alcoholism remains an open question.^[46] Dr Abram Hoffer referred to Mangini's paper as "a good review of the literature" but said that, in common with many other scientists, the author has failed to grasp the important point that psychedelic therapy is a therapeutic experience.

Many notable individuals have commented publicly on their experiences with LSD. Some of these comments date from the era when it was legally available in the US and Europe for non-medical uses, and others pertain to psychiatric treatment in the 1950s and 60s. Still others describe experiences with illegal LSD, obtained for philosophic, artistic, therapeutic, spiritual, or recreational purposes. Psychiatry is a branch of medicine that studies and treats mental and emotional disorders (see mental illness). ...

Sensory / perception

LSD causes expansion and altered experience of senses, emotions, memories, time, and awareness for 6 to 14 hours, depending on dosage and tolerance. LSD does typically not produce real hallucinations as the deliriants do.^{[citation needed]} Generally beginning within thirty to ninety minutes after ingestion, the user may experience anything from subtle changes in perception to overwhelming cognitive shifts. Changes in auditory and visual perception are typical.^[41]^[47] Visual effects include the illusion of movement of static surfaces ("walls breathing"), after image-like trails of moving objects ("tracers"), the appearance of moving colored geometric patterns (especially with closed eyes), an intensification of colors and brightness ("sparkling"), new textures on objects, blurred vision, and shape suggestibility. Users commonly report that the inanimate world appears to animate in an unexplained way; for instance, objects that are static in three dimensions can seem to be moving relative to one or more additional spatial dimensions.^[48] Many of the basic visual effects resemble the phosphenes seen after applying pressure to the eye and have also been studied under the name "form constants". The auditory effects of LSD include echo-like distortions of sounds, a mixing of all sounds which makes it harder to discern distinct sounds, the feeling that what you're hearing is your thought, a general intensification of the experience of music, and an increased discrimination of instruments and sounds. Higher doses often cause intense and fundamental distortions of sensory perception such as synaesthesia, the experience of additional spatial or temporal dimensions, and temporary dissociation. This article is about the senses of living organisms (vision, taste, etc. ... Look up Emotion in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... For other uses, see Memory (disambiguation). ... This article is about the concept of time. ... In biological psychology, awareness describes a human or animals perception and cognitive reaction to a condition or event. ... A hallucination is a perception in the absence of a stimulus that the person may or may not believe is real. ... Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this exact name. ... A cognitive shift (not to be confused with cognitive-shifting, a general therapy/meditation term) is a psychological phenomenon most often experienced by individuals using psychedelic drugs, or suffering from mental disorders such as schizophrenia or bipolar disorder (also known as manic-depressive syndrome). ... The motion aftereffect (MAE) -is a visual illusion perceived after watching a moving visual stimulus for about a minute and then looking at stationary stimulus. ... An afterimage is an optical illusion that occurs after looking away from a direct gaze at an image. ... A phosphene is an entoptic phenomenon characterized by the sensation of seeing light. ... A representation of a form constant. ... In audio signal processing and acoustics, an echo (plural echoes) is a reflection of sound, arriving at the listener some time after the direct sound. ... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ...

Spiritual

LSD is considered an entheogen because it can catalyze intense spiritual experiences where users feel they have come into contact with a greater spiritual or cosmic order. Some users report insights into the way the mind works, and some experience long-lasting changes in their life perspective. Some users consider LSD a religious sacrament, or a powerful tool for access to the divine. Dr. Stanislav Grof has written that religious and mystical experiences observed during LSD sessions appear to be phenomenologically indistinguishable from similar descriptions in the sacred scriptures of the great religions of the world and the secret mystical texts of ancient civilizations.^[49] This entry covers entheogens in the strict sense of the word (i. ... Stanislav Grof (born 1931 in Prague, Czechoslovakia) is one of the founders of the field of transpersonal psychology and a pioneering researcher into the use of altered states of consciousness for purposes of healing, growth, and insight. ...

Such experiences under the influence of LSD have been observed and documented by researchers such as Alan Watts, Timothy Leary and Stanislav Grof. For example, Walter Pahnke conducted the Good Friday Marsh Chapel Experiment in 1962 under Leary's supervision, performing a double blind experiment on the administration of psilocybin to volunteers who were students in religious graduate programs, e.g., divinity or theology.^[50] That study provided evidence that psychotropics may induce mystical religious states.^[51] From The Essential Alan Watts Alan Wilson Watts (January 6, 1915 â€“ November 16, 1973) was a philosopher, writer, speaker, and expert in comparative religion. ... For the American baseball player, see Tim Leary (baseball player). ... The Marsh Chapel Experiment was run by a graduate student at Harvard Divinity School, under the supervision of Timothy Leary. ... The Double blind method is an important part of the scientific method, used to prevent research outcomes from being influenced by the placebo effect or observer bias. ...

Potential risks of LSD use

Although LSD is generally considered nontoxic, it may temporarily impair the ability to make sensible judgments and understand common dangers, thus making the user more susceptible to accidents and personal injury.

There is also some indication that LSD may trigger a dissociative fugue state in individuals who are taking certain classes of antidepressants such as lithium salts and tricyclics. In such a state, the user has an impulse to wander, and may not be aware of his or her actions, which can lead to physical injury.^[52] SSRIs are believed to interact more benignly, with a tendency to noticeably reduce LSD's subjective effects.^[53] Similar and perhaps greater reductions have also been reported with MAOIs.^[52] For the New York City-based publisher, see Fugue State Press. ... An antidepressant is a medication used primarily in the treatment of clinical depression. ... Lithium salts are chemical salts of lithium used primarily in the treatment of bipolar disorder as mood stabilizing drugs. ... Chemical structure of the tricyclic antidepressant amitriptyline. ... SSRI redirects here; for other uses, see SSRI (disambiguation). ... Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) are a class of antidepressant drugs prescribed for the treatment of depression. ...

As Albert Hofmann reports in LSD – My Problem Child, the early pharmacological testing Sandoz performed on the compound (before he ever discovered its psychoactive properties) indicated that LSD has a pronounced effect upon the mammalian uterus. Sandoz's testing showed that LSD can stimulate uterine contractions with efficacy comparable to ergobasine, the active uterotonic component of the ergot fungus (Hofmann's work on ergot derivatives also produced a modified form of ergobasine which became a widely accepted medication used in obstetrics, under the trade name Methergine). Therefore, LSD use by pregnant women could be dangerous and is contraindicated.^[1] This article is about female reproductive anatomy. ... Chemical structure of ergoline Ergoline is a chemical compound whose structure serves as the skeleton for a diverse range of alkaloids and synthetic drugs. ... Species About 50, including: Claviceps africanum Claviceps fusiformis Claviceps paspali Claviceps purpurea Ergot is the common name of a fungus in the genus Claviceps that is parasitic on certain grains and grasses. ... Obstetrics (from the Latin obstare, to stand by) is the surgical specialty dealing with the care of a woman and her offspring during pregnancy, childbirth and the puerperium (the period shortly after birth). ... Chemical structure of ergoline Ergoline is a chemical compound whose structure serves as the skeleton for a diverse range of alkaloids and synthetic drugs. ... In medicine, a contraindication is a condition or factor that increases the risk involved in using a particular drug, carrying out a medical procedure or engaging in a particular activity. ...

Initial studies in the 1960s and 70s raised concerns that LSD might produce genetic damage or developmental abnormalities in fetuses. However, these initial reports were based on in vitro studies or were poorly controlled and have not been substantiated. In studies of chromosomal changes in human users and in monkeys, the balance of evidence suggests no significant increase in chromosomal damage. For example, studies were conducted with people who had been given LSD in a clinical setting.^[54] White blood cells from these people were examined for visible chromosomal abnormalities. Overall, there appeared to be no lasting changes. Several studies have been conducted using illicit LSD users and provide a less clear picture. Interpretation of these data is generally complicated by factors such as the unknown chemical composition of street LSD, concurrent use of other psychoactive drugs, and diseases such as hepatitis in the sampled populations. It seems possible that the small number of genetic abnormalities reported in users of street LSD is either coincidental or related to factors other than a toxic effect of pure LSD.^[54] A scheme of a condensed (metaphase) chromosome. ... White Blood Cells redirects here. ... An assortment of psychoactive drugs A psychoactive drug or psychotropic substance is a chemical substance that acts primarily upon the central nervous system where it alters brain function, resulting in temporary changes in perception, mood, consciousness and behavior. ... Hepatitis (plural hepatitides) implies injury to liver characterised by presence of inflammatory cells in the liver tissue. ...

Flashbacks and HPPD

There is a reported possibility of "flashbacks", a psychological phenomenon in which an individual experiences an episode of some of LSD's subjective effects long after the drug has worn off — sometimes weeks, months, or even years afterward. Flashbacks can incorporate both positive and negative aspects of LSD trips. Colloquial usage of the term flashback refers to any experience reminiscent of LSD effects, with the typical connotation that the episodes are of short duration. However, psychiatry recognizes a disorder in which LSD-like effects are persistent and cause clinically significant impairment or distress. This syndrome is called Hallucinogen Persisting Perception Disorder (HPPD), though not truly hallucinogenic, a DSM-IV diagnosis. Several scientific journal articles have described the disorder.^[55] A flashback is a psychological phenomenon in which an individual has a sudden, usually vivid, recollection of a past experience. ... Hallucinogen persisting perception disorder (HPPD) is a long-term condition caused by taking hallucinogens. ... The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual published by the American Psychiatric Association The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) is a handbook for mental health professionals that lists different categories of mental disorder and the criteria for diagnosing them, according to the publishing organization the American Psychiatric Association. ...

The issues of HPPD and flashbacks are complicated and subtle, with no definitive explanations currently available. Any attempt at explanation must reflect several observations: first, over 70 percent of LSD users claim never to have "flashed back"; second, the phenomenon does appear linked with LSD use, though a causal connection has not been established; and third, a higher proportion of psychiatric patients report flashbacks than "normal" users.^[56] Several studies have tried to determine how likely a "normal" user (that is, a user not suffering from known psychiatric conditions) of LSD is to experience flashbacks. The larger studies include Blumenfeld's in 1971^[57] and Naditch and Fenwick's in 1977,^[58] which arrived at figures of 20% and 28%, respectively. A recent review suggests that HPPD (according to the DSM-IV definition) caused by LSD appears to be rare and affects a distinctly vulnerable subpopulation of users.^[59] Differences in the estimated prevalence of flashbacks may partly depend on the multiple meanings of the term and the fact that Hallucinogen Persisting Perception Disorder can only be diagnosed in a person who admits to their health care practitioner that they have used psychotropics.

Debate continues over the nature and causes of chronic flashbacks. Explanations in terms of LSD physically remaining in the body for months or years after consumption have been discounted by experimental evidence.^[56] Some say HPPD is a manifestation of post-traumatic stress disorder, not related to the direct action of LSD on brain chemistry, and varies according to the susceptibility of the individual to the disorder. Many emotionally intense experiences can lead to flashbacks when a person is reminded acutely of the original experience. However, not all published case reports of chronic flashbacks appear to describe an anxious hyper-vigilant state reminiscent of post-traumatic stress disorder.^[56] Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a term for certain severe psychological consequences of exposure to, or confrontation with, stressful events that the person experiences as highly traumatic. ...

Psychosis

There are some cases of LSD inducing a psychosis in people who appeared to be healthy prior to taking LSD. This issue was reviewed extensively in a 1984 publication by Rick Strassman.^[60] In most cases, the psychosis-like reaction is of short duration, but in other cases it may be chronic. It is difficult to determine if LSD itself induces these reactions or if it triggers latent conditions that would have manifested themselves otherwise. The similarities of time course and outcomes between putatively LSD-precipitated and other psychoses suggests that the two types of syndromes are not different and that LSD may have been a nonspecific trigger. Several studies have tried to estimate the prevalence of LSD-induced prolonged psychosis arriving at numbers of around 4 in 1,000 individuals (0.8 in 1,000 volunteers and 1.8 in 1,000 psychotherapy patients in Cohen 1960;^[61] 9 per 1,000 psychotherapy patients in Melleson 1971).^[62] For other uses, see Psychosis (disambiguation). ... Rick Strassman (born 1952 in Los Angeles, California, United States [1]) began the first new human research with psychedelic, or hallucinogenic, drugs in the United States in over 20 years. ...

Chemistry

LSD is an ergoline derivative. It is commonly produced from reacting diethylamine with an activated form of lysergic acid. Activating reagents include phosphoryl chloride^[63] and peptide coupling reagents.^[64] Lysergic acid is made by alkaline hydrolysis of lysergamides like ergotamine, a substance derived from the ergot fungus on rye, or, theoretically, from ergine (lysergic acid amide, LSA), a compound that is found in morning glory (Ipomoea tricolor) and hawaiian baby woodrose (Argyreia nervosa) seeds. LSD is a chiral compound with two stereocenters at the carbon atoms C-5 and C-8, so that theoretically four different optical isomers of LSD could exist. LSD, also called (+)-D-LSD, has the absolute configuration (5R,8R). The C-5 isomers of lysergamides do not exist in nature and are not formed during the synthesis from D-lysergic acid. However, LSD and iso-LSD, the two C-8 isomers, rapidly interconvert in the presence of base. Non-psychoactive iso-LSD which has formed during the synthesis can be removed by chromatography and can be isomerized to LSD. A totally pure salt of LSD will emit small flashes of white light when shaken in the dark.^[65] LSD is strongly fluorescent and will glow bluish-white under UV light. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1487x2004, 16 KB) Description: chemical isomers of LSD Author: Cacycle Date of creation: 19 March 2006 (UTC) Source: selfmade Copyright: GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) Creative Commons License (attribution, sharealike, 2. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1487x2004, 16 KB) Description: chemical isomers of LSD Author: Cacycle Date of creation: 19 March 2006 (UTC) Source: selfmade Copyright: GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) Creative Commons License (attribution, sharealike, 2. ... Chemical structure of ergoline Ergoline is a chemical compound whose structure serves as the skeleton for a diverse range of alkaloids and synthetic drugs. ... Diethylamine is a secondary amine with the molecular structure CH3CH2NHCH2CH3. ... Lysergic acid, also known as D-lysergic acid and (+)-lysergic acid, is a precursor for a wide range of ergoline alkaloids that are produced by the ergot fungus and some plants. ... Phosphoryl chloride (commonly called phosphorus chloride), is a clear colourless liquid of boiling point 105. ... In organic chemistry, peptide synthesis is the creation of peptides, which are organic compounds in which multiple amino acids bind via peptide bonds which are also known as amide bonds. ... Hydrolysis is a chemical reaction or process in which a chemical compound is broken down by reaction with water. ... Ergotamine is a vasoconstrictor used for migraine prevention and is sometimes mixed with caffeine. ... Species About 50, including: Claviceps africanum Claviceps fusiformis Claviceps paspali Claviceps purpurea Ergot is the common name of a fungus in the genus Claviceps that is parasitic on certain grains and grasses. ... For the fictional character, see Fungus the Bogeyman. ... Binomial name Secale cereale M.Bieb. ... LSA, also known as d-lysergic acid amide, d-lysergamide, ergine, and LA-111, is an alkaloid of the ergoline family that occurs in various species of vines of the Convolvulaceae and some species of fungi. ... This article is about the plant. ... Binomial name (Burm. ... The term chiral (pronounced ) is used to describe an object which is non-superimposable on its mirror image. ... A stereocenter in organic chemistry generally refers to a carbon atom in a chemical compound that has four different types of atoms or groups of atoms attached to it. ... For other uses, see Carbon (disambiguation). ... Optical isomerism is a form of isomerism (specifically stereoisomerism) where the two different isomers are the same in every way except being non-superposable mirror images of each other. ... An absolute configuration in stereochemistry is the spatial arrangement of the atoms of a chiral molecular entity (or group)and its stereochemical description e. ... In chemistry, isomers are molecules with the same chemical formula and often with the same kinds of chemical bonds between atoms, but in which the atoms are arranged differently (analogous to a chemical anagram). ... Acids and bases: Acid-base extraction Acid-base reaction Acid dissociation constant Acidity function Buffer solutions pH Proton affinity Self-ionization of water Acids: Lewis acids Mineral acids Organic acids Strong acids Superacids Weak acids Bases: Lewis bases Organic bases Strong bases Superbases Non-nucleophilic bases Weak bases edit In... For the Second Person album, see Chromatography (album). ... Fluorescence induced by exposure to ultraviolet light in vials containing various sized cadmium selenide (CdSe) quantum dots. ... Ultraviolet (UV) radiation is electromagnetic radiation of a wavelength shorter than that of the visible region, but longer than that of soft X-rays. ...

Stability

"LSD," writes the chemist Alexander Shulgin, "is an unusually fragile molecule."^[2] It is stable for indefinite amounts of time if stored, as a solid salt or dissolved in water, at low temperature and protected from air and light exposure. Two portions of its molecular structure are particularly sensitive, the carboxamide attachment at the 8-position and the double bond between the 8-position and the aromatic ring. The former is affected by high pH, and if perturbed will produce isolysergic acid diethylamide (iso-LSD), which is biologically inactive. If water or alcohol adds to the double bond (especially in the presence of light), LSD converts to "lumi-LSD", which is totally inactive in human beings, to the best of current knowledge. Furthermore, chlorine destroys LSD molecules on contact; even though chlorinated tap water typically contains only a slight amount of chlorine, because a typical LSD solution only contains a small amount of LSD, dissolving LSD in tap water is likely to completely eliminate the substance.^[2] Alexander and Ann Shulgin, in a photo from their book TiHKAL, c. ... Covalent redirects here. ... An aromatic hydrocarbon (abbreviated as AH) or arene [1] is a hydrocarbon, the molecular structure of which incorporates one or more planar sets of six carbon atoms that are connected by delocalised electrons numbering the same as if they consisted of alternating single and double covalent bonds. ... For other uses, see PH (disambiguation). ... General Name, symbol, number chlorine, Cl, 17 Chemical series halogens Group, period, block 17, 3, p Appearance yellowish green Standard atomic weight 35. ...

A controlled study was undertaken to determine the stability of LSD in pooled urine samples.^[66] The concentrations of LSD in urine samples were followed over time at various temperatures, in different types of storage containers, at various exposures to different wavelengths of light, and at varying pH values. These studies demonstrated no significant loss in LSD concentration at 25 °C for up to 4 weeks. After 4 weeks of incubation, a 30% loss in LSD concentration at 37 °C and up to a 40% at 45 °C were observed. Urine fortified with LSD and stored in amber glass or nontransparent polyethylene containers showed no change in concentration under any light conditions. Stability of LSD in transparent containers under light was dependent on the distance between the light source and the samples, the wavelength of light, exposure time, and the intensity of light. After prolonged exposure to heat in alkaline pH conditions, 10 to 15% of the parent LSD epimerized to iso-LSD. Under acidic conditions, less than 5% of the LSD was converted to iso-LSD. It was also demonstrated that trace amounts of metal ions in buffer or urine could catalyze the decomposition of LSD and that this process can be avoided by the addition of EDTA. EDTA is a widely-used acronym for the chemical compound ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid (and many other names, see table). ...

Production

Because an active dose of LSD is astonishingly minute, a large number of doses can be synthesized from a comparatively small amount of raw material. Beginning with ergotamine tartrate, for example, one can manufacture roughly one kilogram of pure, crystalline LSD from five kilograms of the ergotamine salt. Five kilograms of LSD — 25 kilograms of ergotamine tartrate — could provide 100 million doses, sufficient for supplying the entire illicit demand of the United States. Since the masses involved are so small, concealing and transporting illicit LSD is much easier than smuggling other illegal drugs like cocaine or cannabis in equal dosage quantities.^[67] public domain from http://www. ... public domain from http://www. ... Ergotamine is a vasoconstrictor used for migraine prevention and is sometimes mixed with caffeine. ... A tartrate is a salt or ester of the organic compound tartaric acid, a dicarboxylic acid. ... Cocaine is a crystalline tropane alkaloid that is obtained from the leaves of the coca plant. ... Cannabis, also known as marijuana[1] or ganja (Hindi: à¤—à¤¾à¤‚à¤œà¤¾),[2] is a psychoactive product of the plant Cannabis sativa. ...

Manufacturing LSD requires laboratory equipment and experience in the field of organic chemistry. It takes two or three days to produce 30 to 100 grams of pure compound. It is believed that LSD usually is not produced in large quantities, but rather in a series of small batches. This technique minimizes the loss of precursor chemicals in case a synthesis step does not work as expected.^[67] Organic chemistry is a specific discipline within chemistry which involves the scientific study of the structure, properties, composition, reactions, and preparation (by synthesis or by other means) of chemical compounds consisting primarily of carbon and hydrogen, which may contain any number of other elements, including nitrogen, oxygen, the halogens as...

Forms of LSD

LSD is produced in crystalline form and then mixed with excipients or redissolved for production in ingestible forms. Liquid solution is either distributed as-is in small vials or, more commonly, sprayed onto or soaked into a distribution medium. Historically, LSD solutions were first sold on sugar cubes, but practical considerations forced a change to tablet form. Early pills or tabs were flattened on both ends and identified by color: "gray flat", "blue flat", and so forth. Next came "domes", which were rounded on one end, then "double domes" rounded on both ends, and finally small tablets known as "microdots". Later still, LSD began to be distributed in thin squares of gelatin ("window panes", "gel tabs") and, most commonly, as blotter paper: sheets of paper which are soaked into an LSD solution, dried, and perforated into small squares of individual dosage units. The paper is then cut into small square pieces called "tabs" or "hits". The user can then absorb the LSD out of the paper using his/her tongue, or simply swallow it. Individual producers often print designs onto the paper serving to identify different makers, batches or strengths, and such "blotter art" often emphasizes psychedelic themes. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (800x800, 557 KB)A typical full sheet is most often made up of 900 1/4 squares. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (800x800, 557 KB)A typical full sheet is most often made up of 900 1/4 squares. ... An excipient is an inactive substance used as a vehicle for medication, or an active ingredient. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Look up blotting paper in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... For psychedelics, see psychedelic drug. ...

LSD has been sold under a wide variety of often short-lived and regionally restricted street names including Acid, Trips, Blotter, and Lucy as well as names that reflect the designs on the sheets of blotter paper.^[68]^[69] On occasion, authorities have encountered the drug in other forms — including powder or crystal, and capsule. More than 200 types of LSD tablets have been encountered since 1969 and more than 350 paper designs have been observed since 1975. Designs range from simple geometric in black and white patterns to exotic artwork in full four-color print. Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds is a song written mainly by John Lennon (credited to Lennon/McCartney) and recorded by The Beatles for their 1967 album Sgt. ...

Legal status

The United Nations Convention on Psychotropic Substances (adopted in 1971) requires its parties to prohibit LSD. Hence, it is illegal in all parties to the convention, which includes the United States, Australia, and most of Europe. However, enforcement of extant laws varies from country to country. UN and U.N. redirect here. ... Convention on Psychotropic Substances Opened for signature February 21, 1971 in Vienna Entered into force August 16, 1976 Conditions for entry into force 40 ratifications Parties 175 The Convention on Psychotropic Substances is a United Nations treaty designed to control psychoactive drugs such as amphetamines, barbiturates, and psychedelics. ... For other uses, see Europe (disambiguation). ...

United States

LSD is Schedule I in the United States.^[70] This means it is illegal to manufacture, buy, possess, process or distribute LSD without a DEA license. There can also be substantial discrepancies between the amount of chemical LSD that one possesses and the amount of possession with which one can be charged in the U.S. This is because LSD is almost always present in a medium (e.g. blotter or neutral liquid), and the amount that can be considered with respect to sentencing is the total mass of the drug and its medium. This discrepancy was the subject of 1995 United States Supreme Court case, Neal v. U.S.^[71] The Supreme Court Building, Washington, D.C. The Supreme Court Building, Washington, D.C., (large image) The Supreme Court of the United States, located in Washington, D.C., is the highest court (see supreme court) in the United States; that is, it has ultimate judicial authority within the United States...

Canada

In Canada, LSD is a controlled substance under Schedule III of the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act.^[72] Every person who seeks to obtain the substance without disclosing authorization to obtain such substances 30 days prior to obtaining another prescription from a practitioner is guilty of an indictable offense and liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding 3 years. Possession for purpose of trafficking is guilty of an indictable offense and liable to imprisonment for 10 years. The Controlled Drugs and Substances Act is Canadas federal drug control statute. ...

Hong Kong

In Hong Kong, Lysergide and derivatives are regulated under Schedule 1 of Hong Kong's Chapter 134 Dangerous Drugs Ordinance, and can be used legally only by health professionals and for university research purposes. The substance can be given by pharmacists under a prescription. Anyone who supplies the substance without prescription can be fined HK$10,000. The maximum penalty for trafficking or illegally manufacturing the substance is a HK$5,000,000 fine and life imprisonment. Possession of the substance for consumption without license from the Department of Health is illegal with a HK$1,000,000 fine and/or 7 years' imprisonment. ISO 4217 Code HKD User(s) Hong Kong Inflation 2. ...

United Kingdom

In the United Kingdom, LSD is classed as a class A drug. This means that, without a license, possession of the drug is punishable with 7 years imprisonment and/or an unlimited fine, and trafficking is punishable with life imprisonment and an unlimited fine (see main article on drug punishments Misuse of Drugs Act 1971). The Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 is an Act of Parliament, by which the United Kingdom aims to control the possession and supply of numerous drugs and drug-like substances, as listed under the Act, and to enable international co-operation against illegal drug trafficking. ...

United States: Prior to 1967

Beginning in the 1950s the Central Intelligence Agency began a research program code named Project MKULTRA. Experiments included administering LSD to CIA employees, military personnel, doctors, other government agents, prostitutes, mentally ill patients, and members of the general public in order to study their reactions, usually without the subject's knowledge. The project was revealed in the US congressional Rockefeller Commission report. â€œMKULTRAâ€ redirects here. ... CIA redirects here. ... â€œMKULTRAâ€ redirects here. ... The U.S. Presidents Commission on CIA activities within the United States was set up under President Gerald Ford in 1975 to investigate the activities of the CIA and other intelligence agencies within the United States. ...

Prior to October 6th, 1966, LSD was available legally in the United States as an experimental psychiatric drug. (LSD "apostle" Al Hubbard actively promoted the drug between the 1950s and the 1970s and introduced thousands of people to it.) The US Federal Government classified it as a Schedule I drug according to the Controlled Substances Act of 1970. As such, the Drug Enforcement Administration holds that LSD meets the following three criteria: it is deemed to have a high potential for abuse; it has no legitimate medical use in treatment; and there is a lack of accepted safety for its use under medical supervision. (LSD prohibition does not make an exception for religious use.) Lysergic acid and lysergic acid amide, LSD precursors, are both classified in Schedule III of the Controlled Substances Act. Ergotamine tartrate, a precursor to lysergic acid, is regulated under the Chemical Diversion and Trafficking Act. Psychiatry is a branch of medicine that studies and treats mental and emotional disorders (see mental illness). ... Alfred Matthew Hubbard (1901â€“August 31, 1982) became a freelance apostle for the drug LSD in the early 1950s after supposedly receiving an angelic vision telling him that something important to the future of mankind would soon be coming. ... ... This box: The Controlled Substances Act (CSA) was enacted into law by the Congress of the United States as Title II of the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970. ... This box: The Controlled Substances Act (CSA) was enacted into law by the Congress of the United States as Title II of the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970. ... The DEAs enforcement activities may take agents anywhere from distant countries to suburban U.S. homes. ... This box: The Controlled Substances Act (CSA) was enacted into law by the Congress of the United States as Title II of the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970. ... The Chemical Diversion and Trafficking Act of 1988 was an amendment to the Controlled Substances Act to regulate precursor chemicals, essential chemicals, tableting machines, and encapsulating machines by imposing record keeping and import/export reporting requirements on transactions involving these materials. ...

LSD has been manufactured illegally since the 1960s. Historically, LSD was distributed not for profit, but because those who made and distributed it truly believed that the psychedelic experience could do good for humanity, that it expanded the mind and could bring understanding and love. A limited number of chemists, probably fewer than a dozen, are believed to have manufactured nearly all of the illicit LSD available in the United States. The best known of these is undoubtedly Augustus Owsley Stanley III, usually known simply as Owsley. The former chemistry student set up a private LSD lab in the mid-Sixties in San Francisco and supplied the LSD consumed at the famous Merry Pranksters parties held by Ken Kesey and his Merry Pranksters, and other major events such as the Gathering of the tribes in San Francisco in January 1967. He also had close social connections to leading San Francisco bands the Grateful Dead, Jefferson Airplane and Big Brother and The Holding Company, regularly supplied them with his LSD and also worked as their live sound engineer and made many tapes of these groups in concert. Owsley's LSD activities — immortalized by Steely Dan in their song "Kid Charlemagne" — ended with his arrest at the end of 1967, but some other manufacturers probably operated continuously for 30 years or more. Announcing Owsley's first bust in 1966, The San Francisco Chronicle's headline "LSD Millionaire Arrested" inspired the rare Grateful Dead song "Alice D. Millionaire."^[73] This article is about the LSD chemist and Grateful Dead soundman. ... This page is a candidate for speedy deletion. ... The Acid Tests were a series of psychedelic parties held by Ken Kesey in the San Francisco Bay Area during the early 1960s, centered entirely around the use, experimentation, and advocacy of LSD, also known as acid. ... Kenneth Elton Kesey (September 17, 1935 â€“ November 10, 2001) was an American author, best known for his novel, One Flew Over the Cuckoos Nest, and as a counter-cultural figure who, some consider, was a link between the beat generation of the 1950s and the hippies of the 1960s. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Welcome home and We love you are common greetings at the Rainbow Gathering. ... This article is about the band. ... Jefferson Airplane is an American rock band from San Francisco, a pioneer of the psychedelic rock movement. ... Big Brother and the Holding Company is an American rock band that formed in San Francisco in 1965 as part of the psychedelic music scene that also produced the Grateful Dead and Jefferson Airplane. ... Steely Dan is a Grammy-Award winning American jazz rock band centered on core members Walter Becker and Donald Fagen. ... The cover of the Kid Charlemagne single features Fagen (top) and Becker (bottom) Kid Charlemagne is a song by the rock group Steely Dan, which was released as a single from their 1976 album The Royal Scam. ... Todays San Francisco Chronicle was founded in 1865 as The Daily Dramatic Chronicle by teenage brothers Charles de Young and Michael H. de Young. ...

United States: 1970 to the present

American LSD usage declined in the 1970s and 1980s, then experienced a mild resurgence in popularity in the 1990s. Although there were many distribution channels during this decade, the U.S. DEA identified continued tours by the psychedelic rock band The Grateful Dead and the then-burgeoning rave scene as primary venues for LSD trafficking and consumption. American LSD usage fell sharply circa 2000, following a single major DEA operation. Because of the huge drop in LSD availability, combined with the simultaneous increased availability of Research Chemicals, much of what has been, and is currently sold as LSD since 2000, is in fact, not LSD but other hallucinogens like DOI, DOB, or 5-MeO-AMT.^[74]^{[citation needed]} These other drugs are sold by unscrupulous dealers because they are hallucinogenic and are potent enough that a single dose can fit on one or more blotter tabs and thus achieving the same appearance as typical blotter acid would. The duration of action of DOI and especially DOB is typically longer than LSD, but all of these drugs can last 12 hours or more. Importantly, the toxicity of 5-MeO-AMT and all of the hallucinogenic amphetamines such as DOI, are either unknown, or much higher than LSD, and thus the consumption of large quantities of these other drugs, under the guise of being LSD, can be potentially dangerous.^{[citation needed]} Image File history File links Question_book-3. ... public domain from http://www. ... public domain from http://www. ... The DEAs enforcement activities may take agents anywhere from distant countries to suburban U.S. homes. ... Psychedelic rock is a style of rock music that attempts to replicate the mind-altering experiences of hallucinogenic drugs. ... This article is about the band. ... For other uses, see Rave (disambiguation). ... DOI or 2,5-dimethoxy-4-iodoamphetamine is a psychedelic hallucinogenic drug of the phenethylamine family. ... DOB (Brolamfetamine, Dr. Bob, Bob or Bromo-DMA) is a psychedelic hallucinogenic drug and a substituted amphetamine of the phenethylamine class of compounds, which can be used as an entheogen. ... 5-MeO-AMT (5-methoxy-Î±-methyltryptamine), also known as Amy is a psychedelic drug. ...

Pickard and Apperson

The decline in prevalence of LSD is correlated with the arrest of two chemists, William Leonard Pickard, a Harvard educated organic chemist, and Clyde Apperson. According to DEA reports, black market LSD availability dropped by 95% after the two were arrested in 2000. These arrests were a result of one of the largest LSD manufacturing raids in DEA history.^[75] Pickard was an alleged member of the Brotherhood of Eternal Love group that produced and sold LSD in California during the late 1960s and early 1970s. It is believed he had links to other "cooks" associated with this group — an original source of the drug back in the 1960s — and his arrest may have forced other operations to cease production, leading to the large decline in street availability. William Leonard Pickard (b. ... Clyde Apperson (born 1955) was arrested in 2000 for allegedly running the largest illicit LSD manufacturing operation in United States history with partner William Leonard Pickard. ... The Brotherhood of Eternal Love operated a psychedelics distribution network throughout the United States, most notably in California where the organisation received large shipments of hashish from Pakistan and Afghanistan, helped by Welshman Howard Marks (now a prominent figure in the cannabis culture). ...

The DEA claims that these two individuals were responsible for supplying a third of the LSD in the United States and maybe the world,^[76] however, the government quoted seizure amounts in connection with this case have been seriously questioned.^[77]

In November of 2003, Pickard was sentenced to life imprisonment without parole, and Apperson was sentenced to 30 years imprisonment without parole, after being convicted in Federal Court of running a large scale LSD manufacturing operation out of several clandestine laboratories, including a former missile silo near Wamego, Kansas.^[75] Federal courts Supreme Court Circuit Courts of Appeal District Courts Elections Presidential elections Midterm elections Political Parties Democratic Republican Third parties State & Local government Governors Legislatures (List) State Courts Local Government Other countries Atlas US Government Portal The United States federal courts are the system of courts organized under the... A missile silo is a underground vertical cylindrical container for the storage and launching of ICBMs. ... Wamego is a city in Pottawatomie County, Kansas, United States. ...

Modern distribution

LSD manufacturers and traffickers can be categorized into two groups: A few large scale producers, such as the aforementioned Pickard and Apperson, and an equally limited number of small, clandestine chemists, consisting of independent producers who, operating on a comparatively limited scale, can be found throughout the country. As a group, independent producers are of less concern to the Drug Enforcement Administration than the larger groups, as their product reaches only local markets. The DEAs enforcement activities may take agents anywhere from distant countries to suburban U.S. homes. ...

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