NationMaster - Encyclopedia: Maafa

The word Maafa (also known as the African Holocaust or Holocaust of Enslavement) is derived from a Kiswahili word meaning disaster, terrible occurrence or great tragedy. The term collectively refers to the 500 years of suffering (including present times) of people of African heritage through slavery, imperialism, colonialism, invasions, oppression, and exploitation.^[1]^[2]^[3] Maafa can be considered an area of study within African history where both the actual history and the legacy of that history are studied as a single discourse. Thus the paradigm is on the legacy of the African Holocaust on African people globally. The emphasis in the historical narrative is on African agents, as opposed to the normal Eurocentric voice; for this reason Maafa is an aspect of Pan-Africanism. Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Pan-African people are all people with African physical features. ... Pan-Africanism is a term which can have two separate, but related meanings. ... Kwanzaa (or Kwaanza) is a week-long Pan-African festival primarily honoring African-American heritage. ... Pith helmet of the Second French Empire. ... A world map showing the continent of Africa. ... A Masai man in Kenya Black people or blacks is a political, social or cultural classification of people. ... African philosophy is a disputed term, used in different ways by different philosophers. ... Black nationalism is a political and social movement arising in the 1960s and early 70s mostly among African Americans in the United States. ... FESPACO (La Festival Panafricain du Cinéma et de la Télévision de Ouagadougou) is a biennial African film festival held in Ouagadougou, the capital of Burkina Faso. ... Makonde carving c. ... Established in 1992, The Pan African Film Festival (PAFF) is a non-profit corporation dedicated to the promotion of cultural and racial tolerance and understanding through the exhibition of film, art and creative expression. ... Kwame Nkrumah with Martin Luther King, Jr. ... Marcus Garvey in 1924 Marcus Mosiah Garvey National Hero of Jamaica (August 17, 1887â€“ June 10, 1940) was a publisher, journalist, entrepreneur, Black nationalist, and founder of the Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (UNIA-ACL). ... Malcolm X, born Malcolm Little, also known as Detroit Red and Al-Hajj Malik El-Shabazz (Omaha, Nebraska, May 19, 1925 â€“ February 21, 1965 in New York City) was a Muslim Minister and National Spokesman for the Nation of Islam. ... W. E. B. Du Bois in 1904 William Edward Burghardt Du Bois (pronounced ) (February 23, 1868 â€“ August 27, 1963) was an American civil rights activist, leader, Pan-Africanist, sociologist, educator, historian, writer, editor, poet, and scholar. ... Haile Selassie Haile Selassie (Power of Trinity) (July 23, 1892 – August 27, 1975) was the last Emperor (1930–1936; 1941–1974) of Ethiopia, and is a religious symbol in the Rastafarian movement. ... Book Cover The African origins of civilization Cheikh Anta Diop (29 December 1923â€“7 February 1986) was a Senegalese historian, anthropologist, and staunch defender of the world view known as Afrocentricity, which places emphasis on the human races African origins and on the study of pre-colonial African culture... Colonel Muammar Abu Minyar al-Gaddafi1 (Arabic: â€Ž ) (born c. ... Carmichael amidst a demonstration near the United States Capitol protesting the House of Representatives action denying Rep. ... Kiswahili is an alternative name for the Swahili language, derived from the expression lugha ya Kiswahili, which is what speakers of Swahili call their language. ... Pan-Africanism is a term which can have two separate, but related meanings. ...

Beyond slavery

The Maafa (African Holocaust) when referencing the slave trade, morally distinguishes domestic slavery in Africa from the commercial ventures of the European and Arab trade in captive Africans. The Maafa also focuses on the legacy (consequences) of these foreign relationships in Africa. The term is not limited to demographic significance, in the aggregate population losses but also in the profound changes to settlement patterns, epidemiological exposure and reproductive and social development potential.^[4] Also, in dealing with legacy the Maafa includes the academic and social forces which categorized Africans into color labels and the policies of invalidating African historical contributions to humanity. Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (1558x2581, 685 KB) Description : Cicatrices de flagellation sur un esclave (2 avril 1863, Baton Rouge, Ã‰tats-Unis) Source : Archive national des Ã‰tats-Unis - National Archives and Records Administration Baton Rouge, La. ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (1558x2581, 685 KB) Description : Cicatrices de flagellation sur un esclave (2 avril 1863, Baton Rouge, Ã‰tats-Unis) Source : Archive national des Ã‰tats-Unis - National Archives and Records Administration Baton Rouge, La. ... April 2 is the 92nd day of the year (93rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 273 days remaining. ... 1863 (MDCCCLXIII) is a common year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Saturday of the Julian calendar). ...

Image File history File links AmericaAfrica. ... An African American (also Afro-American, Black American, or simply black) is a member of an ethnic group in the United States whose ancestors, usually in predominant part, were indigenous to Africa. ... African American history is the history of an ethnic group in the United States also known as Black Americans. ... Military history of African Americans is that of African Americans in the United States since the arrival of the first black slaves in 1619 to the present day. ... The Atlantic slave trade, started by the Portuguese,[1] was the sale and exploitation of African slaves by Europeans that occurred in and around the Atlantic ocean from the 15th century to the 19th century. ... See also: American Civil Rights Movement (1955-1968) The civil rights movement in the United States has been a long, primarily nonviolent struggle to bring full civil rights and equality under the law to all Americans. ... Prominent figures of the African-American Civil Rights Movement. ... The Jim Crow Laws were state and local laws enacted in the Southern and Border States of the United States and enforced between 1876 and 1965 and affected African Americans and many other races. ... Reparations for slavery is a proposal in the United States for the federal government to pay reparations, in various forms, to slave descendants for the suffering and unpaid labor of their ancestors. ... Redlining is the practice of denying or increasing the cost of services, such as banking or insurance, to residents of certain areas. ... A.U.M.P. Church AME Church National Baptist Convention, USA, Inc. ... Emperor Haile Selassie I and Empress Menen (revered by Rastas as King Alpha and Queen Omega) with their two oldest sons, ca. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... Black Hebrew Israelites (also Black Hebrews, African Hebrew Israelites, Hebrew Israelites) are groups of people of African ancestry situated mostly in the United States who claim to be descendants of the ancient Israelites. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... The Doctrine of Father Divine are the teachings of the late Father Divine (d. ... IfÃ¡ is a system of divination that originated in West Africa among the Yoruba people. ... Voodoo redirects here. ... This poster of a Samoan snake charmer inspired the common image of Mami Wata in Africa. ... An Orisha, also spelled Orisa and Orixa, is a spirit that reflects one of the manifestations of Olodumare (God) in the Yoruba spiritual or religious system. ... Palo Monte, or Regla de Palo is a religion of largely Bantu origin developed by slaves from Central Africa in Cuba. ... Akan may be: Akan people, an ethnic group from western Africa Akan States, any of several states organized in the 16th or 17th century by the Akan people Akan languages, a stock of dialects spoken by the Akan people Akan District, Hokkaido Akan, Hokkaido, a town in Akan District, Hokkaido... Lukumí or Regla de Ocha, most widely known as Santeria, is a set of related religious systems that fuse Catholic beliefs with traditional Yorùbá beliefs. ... This does not cite its references or sources. ... The introduction to this article provides insufficient context for those unfamiliar with the subject matter. ... Garveyism is that aspect of Black Nationalism which takes its source from the works, words and deeds of UNIA-ACL founder Marcus Garvey. ... Black nationalism is a political and social movement arising in the 1960s and early 70s mostly among African Americans in the United States. ... Pan-African people are all people with African physical features. ... This article needs to be wikified. ... African Americans have had a tremendous impact on left-wing politics in the United States. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Black Capitalism is a name for a movement among African Americans to build wealth through the ownership and development of businesses. ... The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP, generally pronounced as EN Double AY SEE PEE) is one of the oldest and most influential civil rights organizations in the United States. ... The Southern Christian Leadership Conference Logo. ... The Congress of Racial Equality or CORE is a U.S. civil rights organization that played a pivotal role in the Civil Rights Movement of the 20th century. ... The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (or SNCC, pronounced snick) was one of the primary institutions of the American Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s. ... The Association for the Study of African American Life and History (ASALH) is a non-profit organization founded in Chicago, Illinois, in 1915 as The Association for the Study of Negro Life and History by Carter G. Woodson and Jesse E. Moorland. ... United Negro College Fund logo The United Negro College Fund (UNCF) is a Fairfax, Virginia-based American philanthropic organization that fundraises college tuition money for black students and general scholarship funds for 39 historically black colleges and universities. ... The National Pan-Hellenic Council, Inc. ... The Links, Incorporated is an exclusive non-profit organization based upon the ideals of combining friendship and community service and was was founded in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on November 9, 1946, from a group of ladies known as the Philadelphia Club to have focuses on civic, cultural, and educational endeavors[1... Sigma Pi Phi is the the oldest surviving black fraternity and generally considered to be the first black fraternity. ... National Black Chamber of Commerce The National Black Chamber of Commerce, (NBCC), was â€œincorporated in March of 1993, in Washington D.C.â€ The organizations mission is â€œTo economically empower and sustain African American communities, through the process of entrepreneurship and capitalistic activity within the United States and via interaction with... Bud Fowler, the first professional black baseball player with one of his teams, Western of Keokuk, Iowa The Negro Leagues were American professional baseball leagues comprising predominantly African-American teams. ... logo of Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference The Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference (SIAC) is a College athletic conference consisting of historically black colleges located in the southern United States. ... The Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference (MEAC) is a collegiate athletic conference which consists of historically black colleges in the southeastern United States. ... The Southwestern Athletic Conference (SWAC) is a college athletic conference made up of historically black universities in the southern United States. ... African American culture is both part of, and distinct from American culture. ... African American studies, or Black studies, is an interdisciplinary academic field devoted to the study of the history, culture, and politics of African Americans. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... In the United States, Historically black colleges and universities (HBCU) are colleges or universities that were established before 1964 with the intention of serving the African American community. ... African American art is a broad term describing the visual arts of the American black community. ... African American dances in the vernacular tradition (academically known as African American vernacular dance) are those dances which have developed within African American communities in everyday spaces, rather than in dance studios, schools or companies. ... The Color Purple by Alice Walker African American literature is literature written by, about, and sometimes specifically for African Americans. ... African American music (also called black music, formerly known as race music) is an umbrella term given to a range of musical genres emerging from or influenced by the culture of African Americans, who have long constituted a large ethnic minority of the population of the United States. ... This reproduction of a 1900 minstrel show poster, originally published by the Strobridge Litho Co. ... Detail from cover of The Celebrated Negro Melodies, as Sung by the Virginia Minstrels, 1843 The minstrel show, or minstrelsy, was an American entertainment consisting of comic skits, variety acts, dancing, and music, performed by white people in blackface or, especially after the American Civil War, African Americans in blackface. ... African American Vernacular English (AAVE), also called African American English, Black English, Black Vernacular, Black English Vernacular (BEV), Black Vernacular English (BVE), or (usually pejoratively) Jive, is a type variety (dialect, ethnolect and sociolect) of the American English language. ... The Gullah language (Sea Island Creole English, Geechee) is a creole language spoken by the Gullah people (also called Geechees), an African American population living on the Sea Islands and the coastal region of the U.S. states of South Carolina and Georgia. ... Louisiana Creole French (Kreyol Lwiziyen) is a French-based creole spoken in Louisiana. ... Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z (See also) Hank Aaron (born 1934), Baseball Hall of Famer[1] Kareem Abdul-Jabbar (born 1947), basketball player[2] Ralph... This is a list of landmark legislation, court decisions, executive orders, and proclamations in the United States significantly affecting African Americans. ... This is an alphabetical list of African-American-related topics: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A African American African American contemporary issues African American culture...

Curse of Ham

The curse of Ham, provided one of the "moral pretext" upon which the slave trade grew and flourished. ^[5]. Early interpretations of the Bible led many Western scholars to believe that all of humanity was descended from Noah. Chapters 9 and 10 of the Book of Genesis deal with the branching off and splitting up of Noah's sons into the world. The name of Cush, Ham's eldest son, means 'black' in Hebrew, and "Caanan" means 'trader,' 'trafficker' or 'lowland.' The word "Ham" in Hebrew moreover means "hot" or "multitude", and is thus not necessarily a racial reference.^[6] See article Curse of Ham. This Gutenberg Bible is displayed by the United States Library of Congress. ... Genesis (Greek: Î“ÎÎ½ÎµÏƒÎ¹Ï‚, having the meanings of birth, creation, cause, beginning, source and origin) is the first book of the Torah (five books of Moses) and hence the first book of the Tanakh, part of the Hebrew Bible; it is also the first book of the Christian Old Testament. ... Curse of Ham (also called the curse of Canaan) refers to the curse that Noah placed upon Canaan (the son of Ham) after Ham saw Noah naked because of drunkenness in his tent. ...

Noah does not curse Ham, but Canaan, saying that he and his descendants would be a "servant of servants". Hebrew scholars have used this passage to justify the Israelite subjugation of Canaan.^{[citation needed]} In 5th Century AD Jewish Midrashim Noah says to Ham: ^{[citation needed]}"You have prevented me from doing something in the dark (cohabitation), therefore your seed will be ugly and dark-skinned." a number of early Jewish writers have interpreted the Biblical narrative of Ham in what is deemed to be a racial way. Early Jewish scholars used the Genesis passage, and the idea that the Hamitic people were to be a "servant of servants", to rationalize the Israelite subjugation of Cush's younger brother, Canaan. These scholars, working around the 6th century AD, introduced the idea that Ham was marked by dark skin. From the Babylonian Talmud, Sanhedrin 108b: "Our Rabbis taught: Three copulated in the ark, and they were all punished — the dog, the raven, and Ham. The dog was doomed to be tied, the raven expectorates [his seed into his mate's mouth]. and Ham was smitten in his skin."{Talmud Bavli, Sanhedrin 108b} Curse of Ham (also called the curse of Canaan) refers to the curse that Noah placed upon Canaan (the son of Ham) after Ham saw Noah naked because of drunkenness in his tent. ... Hebrews (or Heberites, Eberites, Hebreians; Hebrew: ×¢×‘×¨×™× or ×¢×‘×¨×™×™×, Standard , Tiberian , ; meaning descendants of biblical Patriarch Eber), were people who lived in Canaan, an area encompassing Israel, both banks of the Jordan River (The West Bank and Jordan), Sinai, Lebanon, and the coastal portions of Syria. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Judaism is the religion of the Jewish people. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ...

The 6th Century AD Babylonian Talmud states that "the descendants of Ham are cursed by being Black and are sinful with a degenerate progeny."^{[citation needed]} Slave holders, slavery defenders and racial theorists would also use these formulations to justify African slavery in the Americas.^[7]

Arab views on Curse of Ham

Islamic theocracy refuted this myth but this prejudice still filtered into the non-religious writings of some Arabs. ^[4]. Writer Muhammad ibn ‘Abdullah al-Kisa’i’s book ‘Tales of the Prophets’ (Qisas al-anbiyâ), written in the 6th century AH, expounds on the curse with Noah reputedly calling blackness on Ham for his offences. Other Muslim historians such as al-Mas'udi describe blacks as being the accursed progeny of Ham, "stricken in his semen because of his sexual relation with his wife in the Ark" and marked by "kinky hair, thin eyebrows, broad noses, thick lips, sharp teeth, malodorous skin, dark pupils, clefty hands and feet, elongated penises and excessive merriment". (see Akbar Muhammad, Slaves and Slavery in Muslim Africa, vol. I, p 68).^[8]

Early European interpretations

In the middle ages, European scholars of the Bible picked up on the Jewish Talmud idea of viewing the "sons of Ham" or Hamites as cursed, possibly "blackened" by their sins. Though early arguments to this effect were sporadic, they became increasingly common during the slave trade of the 18th and 19th Centuries. ^[9] The justification of slavery itself through the sins of Ham was well suited to the ideological interests of the elite; with the emergence of the slave trade, its racialized version justified the exploitation of a ready supply of African labour. This interpretation of Scripture was never adopted by the African Coptic Churches. This article is 150 kilobytes or more in size. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Christ - Coptic Art Coptic Orthodox Christianity is the indigenous form of Christianity that, according to tradition, the apostle Mark established in Egypt in the middle of the 1st century AD (approximately AD 60). ...

Slavery in Africa

There is evidence of many cases of African control of segments of the trade. Several African nations such as the Ashanti of Ghana and the Yoruba of Nigeria had economies depending solely on the trade. African peoples such as the Imbangala of Angola and the Nyamwezi of Tanzania would serve as intermediaries or roving bands warring with other African nations to capture Africans for Europeans. Extenuating circumstances demanding exploration are the tremendous efforts European officials in Africa used to install rulers agreeable to their interests. They would actively favor one African group over another to deliberately ignite chaos and continue their slaving activities.^[10]. For other uses, see Ashanti (disambiguation). ... The Yoruba (YorÃ¹bÃ¡ in Yoruba orthography) are a large ethno-linguistic group or ethnic nation in West Africa. ...

Slavery in Ethiopia

Ethiopian slavery was essentially domestic. Slaves thus served in the houses of their masters or mistresses, and were not employed to any significant extent for productive purposes. Slaves were thus regarded as members of their owner's family, and were fed, clothed and protected. They generally roamed around freely and conducted business as free people. They had complete freedom of religion and culture.^[11]. It was said that this practice was only abolished with the coming of Haile Selassie at the beginning of his reign in 1924. Haile Selassie Haile Selassie (Power of Trinity) (July 23, 1892 – August 27, 1975) was the last Emperor (1930–1936; 1941–1974) of Ethiopia, and is a religious symbol in the Rastafarian movement. ...

Slavery in Songhai

In most African societies, there was very little difference between the free peasants and the feudal vassal peasants. Vassals of the Songhay Muslim Empire were used primarily in agriculture; they paid tribute to their masters in crop and service but they were slightly restricted in custom and convenience. These people were more an occupational caste, as their bondage was relative. In the Kanem Bornu Empire, vassals were three classes beneath the nobles. Marriage between captor and captive was far from rare, blurring the anticipated roles.^[4]. The Songhai are an ethnic group living in western Africa. ...

European slave trade

Many Europeans saw Ham as the progenitor of the African race and subsequent translations were stirred to reflect the biases and prejudice of the era.^{[citation needed]} Islamic theocracy refuted this myth but this prejudice still filtered into the non-religious writings of some Arabs. ^[12] The most profound manifestation occurred in imagery, which constantly portrayed white as God, and black as the Devil. This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Curse of Ham (also called the curse of Canaan) refers to the curse that Noah placed upon Canaan (the son of Ham) after Ham saw Noah naked because of drunkenness in his tent. ... The Atlantic slave trade, started by the Portuguese,[1] was the sale and exploitation of African slaves by Europeans that occurred in and around the Atlantic ocean from the 15th century to the 19th century. ... Ham (×—Ö¸×, Standard Hebrew , Tiberian Hebrew , , Geez Kam), according to the Genealogies of Genesis, was a son of Noah and the father of Cush, Mizraim, Phut, and Canaan. ... Islam (Arabic: ; ( â–¶ (helpÂ· info)), the submission to God) is a monotheistic faith, one of the Abrahamic religions and the worlds second-largest religion. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ...

Legacy of European enslavement of Africans

The depiction of God, and subsequently the divine ethnic social dynamic, placed Whites as masters, Blacks as Slaves. These images single-handedly upheld a system of subjugation and oppression: Christianity became the context for the cultural prevalence of European culture, European names became Christian names and those who adopted or were forced into Christianity automatically adopted European culture in an attempt to become more "Christian."

Arab slave trade

The oriental slave trade is sometimes called Islamic slave trade, but religion was hardly the point of the slavery, states Patrick Manning, a professor of World History.^[13] Many Arabs were Christian, Jewish and also indigenous Arab faiths. Also, this term suggests comparison between Islamic slave trade and Christian slave trade. Furthermore, usage of the terms "Islamic trade" or "Islamic world" implicitly and erroneously treats Africa as it were outside of Islam, or a negligible portion of the Islamic world.^[14] Dr. Kwaku Person-Lynn points out that the Arab trade was rarely a chattel trade and some argue more "humane." ^[10]. In both African Slavery and Arab enslavement of Africans, the enslaved were allowed great social ascension. In the 8th century Africa was dominated by Arab-Berbers in the north: Islam moved southwards along the Nile and along the desert trails. The Solomonic dynasty of Ethiopia often exported Nilotic slaves from their western borderland provinces, or from newly conquered or reconquered Muslim provinces. Native Muslim Ethiopian sultanates (rulership) exported slaves as well, such as the sometimes independent sultanate (rulership) of Adal (a sixteenth century province-cum-rulership located in East Africa north of Northwestern Somalia).^[15] The Arab (African identifying as Arab) Tippu Tib extended his influence and made many people slaves. After Europeans had settled in the Gulf of Guinea, the trans-Saharan slave trade became less important. In Zanzibar, slavery was abolished late, in 1897, under Sultan Hamoud bin Mohammed.^[16] The rest of Africa had no direct contact with Muslim slave-traders. The Arab slave trade refers to the practice of slavery in West Asia and East Africa. ... Image File history File links Slaves_Zadib_Yemen_13th_century_BNF_Paris. ... Image File history File links Slaves_Zadib_Yemen_13th_century_BNF_Paris. ... Patrick Manning Patrick Augustus Mervyn Manning (born August 17, 1946) is the current Prime Minister and Minister of Finance of Trinidad and Tobago and Political Leader of the Peoples National Movement (PNM). ... Personal property is a type of property. ... A world map showing the continent of Africa. ... Languages Arabic other languages (Arab minorities) Religions Predominantly Muslim Some adherents of Druze, Judaism, Samaritan, Christianity Related ethnic groups Mizrachi Jews, Sephardi Jews[], Ashkenazi Jews, Canaanites, other Semitic-speaking groups An Arab (Arabic: â€Ž; transliteration: ) is a member of a Semitic-speaking people originally from the Arabian peninsula and surrounding territories... The Berbers (also called Imazighen, free men, singular Amazigh) are a predominantly Muslim ethnic group indigenous to the Maghreb, speaking the Berber languages of the Afroasiatic family. ... The Nile (Arabic: â€Ž, translit: , Ancient Egyptian iteru, Coptic piaro or phiaro) is a major north-flowing river in Africa, generally regarded as the longest river, though not the most voluminous, in the world. ... The Solomonid dynasty is the traditional royal house of Ethiopia, claiming descent from King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba, who is said to have given birth to the traditional first king Menelik I after her Biblically-described visit to Solomon in Jerusalem. ... Nilotic refers to a number of indigenous East African peoples originating in northeast Africa in the region of the Nile River. ... Map of Somalia including the self-proclaimed boundary of Somaliland Northern Somali sultanates In the late Nineteenth Century, two sultanates emerged and ruled Northern Somalia, an area stretching as far west to Burco from Las Khorey. ... Adal was a sixteenth century province-cum-sultanate located in East Africa north of Ethiopia, in modern Eritrea and Djibouti. ... Tippu Tip Tippu Tib or Tip (1837 - June 14, 1905), real name Hamed bin Mohammed el Marjebi, was a Swahili-Zanzibari trader, plantation owner and governor. ... The Gulf of Guinea is the part of the Atlantic southwest of Africa. ... Hamoud bin Mohammed (ruled August 27, 1896-July 18, 1902) was the British-controlled Omani sultan of the protectorate of Zanzibar, who outlawed slavery on the island. ...

The primary boom of the trade in African slaves by Arabs was during the 18th century. The Portuguese had destroyed the Swahili coast and Zanzibar emerged as the hub of wealth for the Arabian state of Muscat. By 1839, slaving became the prime Arab enterprise. The demand for slaves in Arabia, Egypt, Persia and India, but more notability by the Portuguese who occupied Mozambique created a wave of destruction on Eastern Africa. 45,000 slaves were passing through Zanzibar every year.^[17].

Legacy of Arab enslavement of Africans

Islam like Christianity became the context for the cultural prevalence of Arab culture. Arab names became Islamic names and those who adopted Islam automatically adopted Arab culture in an attempt to become "Islamic." The Afro-Arab relationship was riddled with complexities lined in a cultural nexus. Some Arabs were Arab linguistically but racially African (see definition of Arab. Thus, the Arab trade in enslaved Africans was not only conducted by Asiatic and Caucasian Arabs, but also African Arabs: Africans speaking Arabic as a first language embracing an Arab culture.^{[citation needed]} Focus on the Arab slavery has previously been low due to the fact that most descendants of enslaved people are as a result of the Transatlantic slave trade; for this reason the impact of the Arab trade on people of the Americas is negligible. Another reason is the legacy of the Arab Slave Trade is far less impacting than the European trade in enslaved Africans, as there are no ghettos or prison complexes in Arabian lands overflowing with African people. The African Diaspora in Arab lands has almost disappeared through inter-marriage. The resurgence of Islamaphobia, some argue, has brought this aspect of history to the foreground.^[18] The Arabs (Arabic: Ø¹Ø±Ø¨ ) are an ethnic group found throughout the Middle East and North Africa. ... Languages Arabic other languages (Arab minorities) Religions Predominantly Muslim Some adherents of Druze, Judaism, Samaritan, Christianity Related ethnic groups Mizrachi Jews, Sephardi Jews[], Ashkenazi Jews, Canaanites, other Semitic-speaking groups An Arab (Arabic: â€Ž; transliteration: ) is a member of a Semitic-speaking people originally from the Arabian peninsula and surrounding territories... The Atlantic slave trade was the capture and transport of black Africans into bondage and servitude in the New World. ... World map showing the Americas CIA map of the Americas The Americas are the lands of the Western hemisphere or New World consisting of the continents of North America[1] and South America with their associated islands and regions. ... Photograph of a rally against Islamophobia in Londons Trafalgar Square on February 11, 2006, in the wake of the Muhammad cartoons controversy. ...

Scale

The academic downsizing of human loss that occurred during the Transatlantic Slave Trade is another feature of the legacy of African Holocaust (Maafa). The widely accepted view of the arrival of 10 million neglects to state how many left. Estimates range from 40 million to 100 million from both the Arab Slave trade and the Transatlantic trade.^[19] It has been estimated that the population of Africa in the mid 19th century would have been 50 million instead of 25 million had slavery not taken place.^[19] But many more died in the villages fighting their enslavers; many more died in the dungeons and many died aboard the ships. Many Africans either committed suicide or were thrown over board to lighten the ship or to make insurance claims. It is estimated that the Portuguese trade was underestimated by half and the British trade by 1/3. Then there were those who died by the indirect actions of the slavers--those left to starve, and those who died of European diseases. Image File history File links BrotherSlave. ... Image File history File links BrotherSlave. ...

An often-neglected study within history is the value of population demographics as a function of time. 30 million people 500 years ago is not equivalent to 30 million people today because the percentage of the world population represented 500 years ago is far greater than what it represents today. It is estimated that by the height of the slave trade the population of Africa unlike the rest of the World had stagnated by 50% ^[19] Not only was the trade of demographic significance in the aggregate population losses but also in the profound changes to settlement patterns, epidemiological exposure, and reproductive and social development potential.^[4].

Effects

Few scholars dispute the harm done to the slaves themselves. African scholar Maulana Karenga states "[it is] important to make a distinction between collaborators among the people and the people themselves." Karenga continues by adding "Every people faced with conquest, oppression and destruction has had collaborators among them, but it is factually inaccurate and morally wrong and repulsive to indict a whole people for a holocaust which was imposed on them and was aided by collaborators."^[20] Dr. Ron Karenga Dr. Ron Karenga (Maulana Ron Karenga, Maulana Karenga, Ron Ndabezitha Everett-Karenga, Ron N. Everett) is an author and activist best known as the founder of the African-American holiday of Kwanzaa, first celebrated in California, December 26, 1966 to January 1, 1967. ...

Maulana Karenga states that the effects of slavery where "the morally monstrous destruction of human possibility involved redefining African humanity to the world, poisoning past, present and future relations with others who only know us through this stereotyping and thus damaging the truly human relations among peoples." He cites that it constituted the destruction of culture, language, religion and human possibility.^[20] Dr. Ron Karenga Dr. Ron Karenga (Maulana Ron Karenga, Maulana Karenga, Ron Ndabezitha Everett-Karenga, Ron N. Everett) is an author and activist best known as the founder of the African-American holiday of Kwanzaa, first celebrated in California, December 26, 1966 to January 1, 1967. ...

Economics of slavery

Slavery was involved in some of the most profitable industries in history. 70% of the slaves brought to the New World were used to produce sugar, the most labor-intensive crop. The rest were employed harvesting coffee, cotton, and tobacco, and in some cases in mining. The West Indian colonies of the European powers were some of their most important possessions, so they went to extremes to protect and retain them. For example, at the end of the Seven Years' War in 1763, France agreed to cede the vast territory of New France to the victors in exchange for keeping the minute Antillian island of Guadeloupe. Image File history File links Triangle_trade. ... Image File history File links Triangle_trade. ... Combatants Kingdom of Prussia Kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland Electorate of Hanover Kingdom of Portugal Brunswick Hesse-Kassel Holy Roman/Austrian Empire Kingdom of France Russian Empire Kingdom of Sweden Kingdom of Spain Electorate of Saxony Kingdom of Naples and Sicily Kingdom of Sardinia The Seven Years War (1754... Flag Capital Quebec Language(s) French Religion Roman Catholicism Government Monarchy King See List of French monarchs Governor See list of Governors Legislature Sovereign Council of New France Historical era Ancien RÃ©gime in France - Royal Control 1655 - Articles of Capitulation of Quebec 1759 - Articles of Capitulation of Montreal 1760...

Slave trade profits have been the object of many fantasies. Returns for the investors were not actually absurdly high (around 6% in France in the eighteenth century), but they were higher than domestic alternatives (in the same century, around 5%). Risks—maritime and commercial—were important for individual voyages. Investors mitigated it by buying small shares of many ships at the same time. In that way, they were able to diversify a large part of the risk away. Between voyages, ship shares could be freely sold and bought. All these made slave trade a very interesting investment (Daudin 2004). Historian Walter Rodney estimates that by c.1770, the King of Dahomey was earning an estimated £250,000 per year by selling captive African soldiers and even his own people to the European slave-traders. Most of this money was spent on British-made firearms (of very poor quality) and industrial-grade alcohol. Walter Rodney (March 23, 1942 - June 13, 1980) was a prominent Guyanese historian and political figure. ... Dahomey was a kingdom in Africa, situated in what is now the nation of Benin. ...

By far the most successful West Indian colonies in 1800 belonged to the United Kingdom. After entering the sugar colony business late, British naval supremacy and control over key islands such as Jamaica, Trinidad, and Barbados and the territory of British Guiana gave it an important edge over all competitors; while many British did not make gains, some made enormous fortunes, even by upper class standards. This advantage was reinforced when France lost its most important colony, St. Dominigue (western Hispaniola, now Haiti), to a slave revolt in 1791 and supported revolts against its rival Britain, after the 1793 French revolution in the name of liberty (but in fact opportunistic selectivity). Before 1791, British sugar had to be protected to compete against cheaper French sugar. After 1791, the British islands produced the most sugar, and the British people quickly became the largest consumers of sugar. West Indian sugar became ubiquitous as an additive to Chinese tea. Products of American slave labor soon permeated every level of British society with tobacco, coffee, and especially sugar all becoming indispensable elements of daily life for all classes.^{[citation needed]} Look up Trinidad in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... British Guiana and its boundary lines, 1896 Flag of British Guiana British Guiana was the name of the British colony on the northern coast of South America, now the independent nation of Guyana. ... Saint-Domingue was a French colony from 1697 to 1804 that is today the independent nation of Haiti. ...

Colonialism and the "scramble for Africa"

In the late nineteenth century, the European imperial powers staged a major "scramble for Africa" and occupied most of the continent, creating many colonial nation states, and leaving only two independent nations: Liberia, an independent state part-settled by African Americans; and Orthodox Christian Abyssinia (known today as Ethiopia). This colonial occupation continued until after the conclusion of World War II, when all the colonial states gradually obtained formal independence. Map of West Africa, ca. ... Map showing European claimants to the African continent in 1913 Turned Image:Colafrica. ... Map showing European claimants to the African continent in 1913 Turned Image:Colafrica. ... Combatants Allied Powers: Russian Empire France British Empire Italy United States Central Powers: Austria-Hungary German Empire Ottoman Empire Bulgaria Commanders Nicholas II Aleksei Brusilov Georges Clemenceau Joseph Joffre Ferdinand Foch Robert Nivelle Herbert Henry Asquith Sir Douglas Haig Sir John Jellicoe Victor Emmanuel III Luigi Cadorna Armando Diaz Woodrow... // Cecil Rhodes: Cape-Cairo railway project. ... Cecil Rhodes: Cape-Cairo railway project. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... An African American (also Afro-American, Black American, or simply black) is a member of an ethnic group in the United States whose ancestors, usually in predominant part, were indigenous to Africa. ... Eastern Christianity refers collectively to the Christian traditions and churches which developed in Greece, the Balkans, the rest of Eastern Europe, Asia Minor, the Middle East, northeastern Africa and southern India over several centuries of religious antiquity. ... This article needs cleanup. ... Combatants Allied powers: China France Great Britain Soviet Union United States and others Axis powers: Germany Italy Japan and others Commanders Chiang Kai-shek Charles de Gaulle Winston Churchill Joseph Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Adolf Hitler Benito Mussolini Hideki TÅjÅ Casualties Military dead: 17,000,000 Civilian dead: 33,000...

Colonialism had a destabilizing effect on what had been a number of ethnic groups that is still being felt in African politics. Before European influence, national borders were not much of a concern, with Africans generally following the practice of other areas of the world, such as the Arabian Peninsula, where a group's territory was congruent with its military or trade influence. The European insistence of drawing borders around territories to isolate them from those of other colonial powers often had the effect of separating otherwise contiguous political groups, or forcing traditional enemies to live side by side with no buffer between them. For example, although the Congo River appears to be a natural geographic boundary, there were groups that otherwise shared a language, culture or other similarity living on both sides. The division of the land between Belgium and France along the river isolated these groups from each other. Those who lived in Saharan or Sub-Saharan Africa and traded across the continent for centuries often found themselves crossing borders that existed only on European maps. Pith helmet of the Second French Empire. ... adam loves kasey! brandon loves megan M.she is mad about her computer |river_name = Congo River |image_name = Brazzaville ISS007-E-6305. ... Culture (from the Latin cultura stemming from colere, meaning to cultivate), generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic structures that give such activity significance. ... A geographical map of Africa, showing the ecological break that defines the sub-Saharan area A political map showing national divisions in relation to the ecological break Sub-Saharan Africa or is the term used to describe those countries of the African continent that are not considered part of political...

In nations that had substantial European populations, for example Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) and South Africa, systems of second-class citizenship were often set up in order to give Europeans political power far in excess of their numbers. In the Congo Free State, personal property of King Leopold II of Belgium, the native population was submitted to inhumane treatments and a near-slavery status assorted with forced labor. However, the lines were not always drawn strictly across racial lines. In Liberia, citizens who were descendants of American slaves had a political system for over 100 years that gave ex-slaves and natives to the area roughly equal legislative power despite the fact the ex-slaves were outnumbered ten to one in the general population. The inspiration for this system was the United States Senate, which had balanced the power of free and slave states despite the much-larger population of the former. Anthem: Rise O Voices of Rhodesia (from 1974) Capital Salisbury Language(s) English Government Republic PresidentÂ¹ - 1970-1975 Clifford Dupont - 1976-1978 John Wrathall Officer Administering the GovernmentÂ¹ - 1965-1970 Clifford Dupont Prime minister - 1965-1979 Ian Smith Historical era Cold War - Independence (UDI) November 11, 1965 - Republic declared March... Political power (imperium in Latin) is a type of power held by a person or group in a society. ... Flag Capital Boma Government Monarchy Ruler and owner Leopold II of Belgium Historical era New Imperialism - Established 1885 - Annexation by Belgium 15 November, 1908 The Congo Free State was a corporate state privately owned by King Leopold II of Belgium (not in his role as monarch) that included the entire... King Leopold II of the Belgians (April 9, 1835 â€“ December 17, 1909) succeeded his father, Leopold I of Belgium, to the Belgian throne in 1865 and remained king until his death. ... A legislature is a governmental deliberative body with the power to adopt laws. ... Seal of the U.S. Senate Federal courts Supreme Court Chief Justice Associate Justices Elections Presidential elections Midterm elections Political Parties Democratic Republican Third parties State & Local government Governors Legislatures State Courts Counties, Cities, and Towns Other countries Politics Portal Senate composition following 2006 elections The United States Senate is...

Europeans often changed the balance of power, created ethnic divides where they did not previously exist, and introduced a cultural dichotomy detrimental to the native inhabitants in the areas they controlled. For example, in what are now Rwanda and Burundi, two ethnic groups Hutus and Tutsis had merged into one culture by the time German colonists had taken control of the region in the nineteenth century. No longer divided by ethnicity as intermingling, intermarriage, and merging of cultural practices over the centuries had long since erased visible signs of a culture divide, Belgium instituted a policy of racial categorization upon taking control of the region, as racial based categorization and philosophies was a fixture of the European culture of that time. The term Hutu originally referred to the agricultural-based Bantu-speaking peoples that moved into present day Rwanda and Burundi from the West, and the term Tutsi referred to Northeastern cattle-based peoples that migrated into the region later. The terms described a person's economic class; individuals who owned roughly 10 or more cattle were considered Tutsi, and those with fewer were considered Hutu, regardless of ancestral history. This was not a strict line but a general rule of thumb, and one could move from Hutu to Tutsi and vice versa. Hutu is the name given to one of the three ethnic groups occupying Burundi and Rwanda. ... The Tutsi are one of three native peoples of the nations of Rwanda and Burundi in central Africa, the other two being the Twa and the Hutu. ... The Hutu are a Central African ethnic group, living mainly in Rwanda and Burundi. ... Map showing the approximate distribution of Bantu (dull yellow) vs. ... The Tutsi are one of three native peoples of the nations of Rwanda and Burundi in central Africa, the other two being the Twa and the Hutu. ...

The Belgians introduced a racialized system; European-like features such as fairer skin, ample height, narrow noses were seen as more ideally Hamitic, and belonged to those people closest to Tutsi in ancestry, who were thus given power amongst the colonized peoples. Identity cards were issued based on this philosophy. This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ...

Academic legacy of the African holocaust

An aspect of the African holocaust are the anti-African sentiments expressed in scholarship. It isolates the tradition of prejudicial study of African societies, cultures, languages and peoples by Western scholars (including other African Western scholars). It by default gives an inferior voice to all aspects of African culture and history. Writer Owen 'Alik Shahadah articulates that the pattern of scholarship emerged during slavery and colonialism to remove any form of noble claim from the victims of these systems, thus reducing them and justifying their position as “natural” and a continuation of their historical “worthlessness.” The first expressions of this academic trend appeared in the claim that "Slavery was a natural feature of African, and that Africans sold each other everyday." Though its roots started to justify what was one of the largest commercial exploitation in the history of humanity the legacy did not end after enslavement or colonialism ended. ^[21]. To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ...

While the denial of the Jewish Holocaust remains illegal in some European countries, and bodies such as the Anti-Defamation League exist to protect the history of Jewish suffering, no such laws or institutions exist for the African Holocaust. It is subjected to all forms of deformation and denial ^{[citation needed]}. The most recent of these are blame reassignment and statistical downsizing of the numbers of people trafficked ^{[citation needed]}. Richard Harwoods Did Six Million Really Die? Holocaust denial is the claim that the mainstream historical version of the Holocaust is either highly exaggerated or completely falsified. ... The Anti-Defamation League (or ADL) is an advocacy group founded by Bnai Brith in the United States whose stated aim is to stop, by appeals to reason and conscience and, if necessary, by appeals to law, the defamation of the Jewish people. ...

Problems with terminology

The term African Holocaust is preferred by some academics, as it implies intention as pointed out by Maulana Karenga.^[20] He stipulates that the translation of the word Maafa is slightly flawed as it can also mean accident, and the holocaust of enslavement was clearly "No accident." The term holocaust, however, can be misleading as it is primarily used to refer to the Nazi genocide and etymologically refers to something being "completely (holos) burnt (kaustos)".^{[citation needed]} Dr. Ron Karenga Dr. Ron Karenga (Maulana Ron Karenga, Maulana Karenga, Ron Ndabezitha Everett-Karenga, Ron N. Everett) is an author and activist best known as the founder of the African-American holiday of Kwanzaa, first celebrated in California, December 26, 1966 to January 1, 1967. ...

The term Transatlantic Slave Trade is also often erroneously used where the category trade tends to sanitize the high level of violence and mass murder that was inflicted on African peoples and societies. It thus becomes more of a commercial dilemma than a moral one. And since trade is the primary focus, the greater tragedy can be conveniently accepted as simply collateral damage of a commercial venture gone bad. On the other hand, without an economic incentive, it can be questioned whether the atrocities committed by Europeans on Africans would have occurred. Given this clear financial incentive, it is therefore not altogther unreasonable to see the Maafa in terms of trade. The Atlantic slave trade was the capture and transport of black Africans into bondage and servitude in the New World. ...

It is generally accepted that the term is used exclusively to detail the relationship between African and non-African people (consequences directly or indirectly of non-African actions on African people), and hence does not include African-African wars, enslavement, etc. For this reason the term is seen as an "ethnically biased" area of study as it excludes for the greater part African to African atrocities.^{[citation needed]}

Contents

Beyond slavery

Curse of Ham

Arab views on Curse of Ham

Early European interpretations

Slavery in Africa

Slavery in Ethiopia

Slavery in Songhai

European slave trade

Legacy of European enslavement of Africans

Arab slave trade

Legacy of Arab enslavement of Africans

Scale

Effects

Economics of slavery

Colonialism and the "scramble for Africa"

Academic legacy of the African holocaust

Problems with terminology

Further reading

References

External links

Contents

Beyond slavery GA_googleFillSlot("encyclopedia_square");

Curse of Ham

Arab views on Curse of Ham

Early European interpretations

Slavery in Africa

Slavery in Ethiopia

Slavery in Songhai

European slave trade

Legacy of European enslavement of Africans

Arab slave trade

Legacy of Arab enslavement of Africans

Scale

Effects

Economics of slavery

Colonialism and the "scramble for Africa"

Academic legacy of the African holocaust

Problems with terminology

Further reading

References

External links

Beyond slavery