Mayan
Geographic distribution:	Mesoamerica: Southern Mexico; Guatemala; Belize; western Honduras and El Salvador; small refugee and emigrant populations, especially in the United States and Canada
Genetic classification:	language family descended from Proto-Mayan. See below for details.
Subdivisions:	Huastecan Yucatecan Ch'olan Q'anjobalan-Chujean Mamean Quichean Poqom
ISO 639-2:	myn
Location of Mayan speaking populations. See below for a detailed map of the separate languages.

Page 9 of the Dresden Codex showing the classic Maya language written in Mayan hieroglyphs (from the 1880 Förstermann edition)

The Mayan languages (alternatively: Maya languages)^[1] form a language family spoken in Mesoamerica and northern Central America. Mayan languages are spoken by at least 6 million indigenous Maya, primarily in Guatemala, Mexico, and Belize. In 1996, Guatemala formally recognized 21 Mayan languages by name,^[2] and Mexico recognizes eight more. A Maya language is one of a group of languages spoken by the Maya peoples of Mesoamerica. ... Location of Mesoamerica in the Americas. ... A language family is a group of languages related by descent from a common proto-language. ... A language family is a group of languages related by descent from a common proto-language. ... Proto-Mayan is the hypothetical common ancestor of the 30 living Mayan languages. ... “Maya language” redirects here. ... ISO 639-2 is the second part of the ISO 639 standard, which lists codes for the representation of the names of languages. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... “Maya language” redirects here. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (325x676, 320 KB) Maya civilization- image from the Dresden Codex (page 9). ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (325x676, 320 KB) Maya civilization- image from the Dresden Codex (page 9). ... Maya codices (singular codex) are books written by the pre-Columbian Maya civilization, using the Maya hieroglyphic script. ... Maya glyphs in stucco at the Museo de sitio in Palenque, Mexico The Maya script, commonly known as Maya hieroglyphs, was the writing system of the pre-Columbian Maya civilization of Mesoamerica, presently the only deciphered script of the Mesoamerican writing systems. ... A language family is a group of languages related by descent from a common proto-language. ... Location of Mesoamerica in the Americas. ... For other uses, see Central America (disambiguation). ... this article concerns in particular the contemporary indigenous peoples and cultures who descend from, or remain, speakers of the Mayan languages of southern Mesoamerica. ... Mexico has a surprising lingusitic diversity; apart from Spanish, the government recognizes 62 Indigenous Amerindian languages as national languages. ...

The Mayan language family is one of the best documented and most studied in the Americas.^[3] Modern Mayan languages descend from Proto-Mayan, a language thought to have been spoken at least 5,000 years ago; it has been partially reconstructed using the comparative method. World map showing the Americas CIA political map of the Americas The Americas are the lands of the Western hemisphere or New World consisting of the continents of North America[1] and South America with their associated islands and regions. ... Proto-Mayan is the hypothetical common ancestor of the 30 living Mayan languages. ... Historical linguistics (also diachronic linguistics or comparative linguistics) is primarily the study of the ways in which languages change over time. ... The comparative method (in comparative linguistics) is a technique used by linguists to demonstrate genetic relationships between languages. ...

Mayan languages form part of the Mesoamerican Linguistic Area, an area of linguistic convergence developed throughout millennia of interaction between the peoples of Mesoamerica. All Mayan languages display the basic diagnostic traits of this linguistic area. For example, all use relational nouns instead of prepositions to indicate spatial relationships. They also possess grammatical and typological features that set them apart from other languages of Mesoamerica, such as the use of ergativity in the grammatical treatment of verbs and their subjects and objects, specific inflectional categories on verbs, and a special word class of "positionals" which is typical of all Mayan languages. // The Mesoamerican Linguistic Area is a sprachbund containing many of the languages natively spoken in the cultural area of Mesoamerica. ... A Sprachbund (German for language bond, also known as a linguistic area, convergence area, diffusion area) is a group of languages that have become similar in some way because of geographical proximity. ... In linguistics a relational noun is a kind of noun describing a relation between two entities and which is used to describe spatial and other relations in the same way prepositions are used in some languages. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with adposition. ... For the topic in theoretical computer science, see Formal grammar Grammar is the study of rules governing the use of language. ... Linguistic typology is the typology that classifies languages by their features. ... An ergative-absolutive language (or simply ergative) is one that treats the agent of transitive verbs distinctly from the subject of intransitive verbs and the object of transitive verbs. ... In grammar, a lexical category (also word class, lexical class, or in traditional grammar part of speech) is a linguistic category of words (or more precisely lexical items), which is generally defined by the syntactic or morphological behaviour of the lexical item in question. ...

During the pre-Columbian era of Mesoamerican history, some Mayan languages were written in the Maya hieroglyphic script. Its use was particularly widespread during the Classic period of Maya civilization (c. 250–900 CE). The surviving corpus of over 10,000 known individual Maya inscriptions on buildings, monuments, pottery and bark-paper codices,^[4] combined with the rich postcolonial literature in Mayan languages written in the Latin alphabet, provides a basis for the modern understanding of pre-Columbian history unparalleled in the Americas. The pre-Columbian era incorporates all period subdivisions in the history and prehistory of the Americas before the appearance of significant European influences on the Americas continent. ... Mesoamerican chronology The chronology of Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica is usually divided into the following eras: Paleo-Indian Period c. ... Maya glyphs in stucco at the Museo de sitio in Palenque, Mexico The Maya script, commonly known as Maya hieroglyphs, was the writing system of the pre-Columbian Maya civilization of Mesoamerica, presently the only deciphered script of the Mesoamerican writing systems. ... The Maya civilization is a Mesoamerican civilization, noted for the only known fully developed written language of the pre-Columbian Americas, as well as its spectacular art, monumental architecture, and sophisticated mathematical and astronomical systems. ... Page 9 of the Dresden Codex (from the 1880 Förstermann edition) Maya codices (singular codex) are folding books stemming from the pre-Columbian Maya civilization, written in Maya hieroglyphic script on Mesoamerican paper, made from the inner bark of certain trees, the main being the wild fig tree or... The traditions of indigenous Mesoamerican literature extend back to the oldest-attested forms of early writing in the Mesoamerican region, which date from around the mid-1st millennium BCE. Many of the pre-Columbian cultures of Mesoamerica are known to have been literate societies, who produced a number of Mesoamerican... The Latin alphabet, also called the Roman alphabet, is the most widely used alphabetic writing system in the world today. ...

History

Mayan languages are the descendants of a proto-language called Proto-Mayan or, in K'iche' Maya, Nab'ee Maya' Tzij ("the old Maya Language").^[5] The Proto-Mayan language is believed to have been spoken in the Cuchumatanes highlands of central Guatemala in an area corresponding roughly to where Q'anjobalan is spoken today.^[6] The first division occurred around 2200 BCE when Huastecan split away from Mayan Proper, after its speakers moved northwest along the Gulf Coast. Proto-Yucatecan and Proto-Ch'olan speakers subsequently split off from the main group and moved north into the Yucatán Peninsula. Speakers of the western branch moved south into the areas now inhabited by Mamean and Quichean people. When speakers of proto-Tzeltalan later separated from the Ch'olan group and moved south into the Chiapas highlands, they came into contact with speakers of Mixe-Zoquean languages. A proto-language is a language which was the common ancestor of related languages that form a language family. ... The Gulf Coast of Mexico stretches along the Gulf of Mexico from the border with the United states at Matamoros all the way to the tip of the Yucatán Peninsula at Cancún. ... The Yucatán peninsula as seen from space The Yucatán Peninsula separates the Caribbean Sea from the Gulf of Mexico. ... In the southern most state of Chiapas in Mexico. ... The Mixe-Zoque languages are a language family spoken in and around the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, Mexico. ...

In the Archaic period (before 2000 BCE), a number of loanwords from Mixe-Zoquean languages seem to have entered the proto-Mayan language. This has led to hypotheses that the early Maya were dominated by speakers of Mixe-Zoquean languages, possibly the Olmec culture.^[7] In the case of the Xinca and Lenca languages, on the other hand, Mayan languages are more often the source than the receiver of loanwords. This is seen by Mayan language specialists like Lyle Campbell to suggest a period of intense contact between Maya and the Lencan and Xinca people, possibly during the Classic period (250–900 CE).^[8] A loanword (or loan word) is a word directly taken into one language from another with little or no translation. ... Monument 1, one of the four Olmec colossal heads at La Venta. ... The Xinca language is a Mesoamerican language spoken by the indigenous Xinca people from communities in the southern portion of Guatemala, near its border with El Salvador and in the mountainous region to the north. ... The Lenca language is an unclassified indigenous language of Mesoamerica, spoken (or formerly spoken) by the indigenous Lenca peoples in a region encompassed by western Honduras and portions of El Salvador, Central America. ... Lyle Campbell is a linguist at the University of Utah in Salt Lake City, Utah, and the director of the universitys Center for American Indian Languages (CAIL). ... The Lenca people are an indigenous peoples of Central America, situated in the western highland regions of Honduras and eastern El Salvador. ... The Xinca are an indigenous people of Mesoamerica, with communities in the southern portion of Guatemala, near its border with El Salvador and in the mountainous region to the north. ...

Approximate migration routes and dates for various Mayan language families. The region shown as Proto-Mayan is now occupied by speakers of the Q'anjobalan branch (light blue in other figures).^[9]

The split between Proto-Yucatecan (in the north, that is, the Yucatán Peninsula) and Proto-Ch'olan (in the south, that is, the Chiapas highlands and Petén Basin) had already occurred by the Classic period, when most extant Maya inscriptions were written. Both variants are attested in hieroglyphic inscriptions at the Maya sites of the time, and both are commonly referred to as "Classic Maya language." Image File history File links Mayan_Language_Migration_Map. ... Image File history File links Mayan_Language_Migration_Map. ... The Petén Basin is a geographical subregion of Mesoamerica, located in the northern portion of the modern-day nation of Guatemala, and essentially contained within the department of El Petén. ... This List of Maya sites is an alphabetical listing of a number of significant archaeological sites associated with the Maya civilization of pre-Columbian Mesoamerica. ... The Classic Maya language is the oldest historically attested member of the Maya language family. ...

During the Classic period all the major branches diversified into separate languages. But the glyphic texts only record two varieties of Mayan — a Ch'olan variety found in texts written in the southern Maya area and the highlands, and a Yucatecan variety found in the texts from Yucatán Peninsula.^[10]

It was recently suggested that the specific variety of Ch'olan found in the glyphic texts is best understood as "Classic Ch'olti'an", the ancestor language of modern Ch'orti' and Ch'olti'. It is thought to have originated in western and south-central Petén Basin; it would have been used in the inscriptions and perhaps also spoken by elites and priests.^[11] The reason why only two linguistic varieties are found in the glyphic texts is probably that these served as prestige dialects throughout the Maya region; hieroglyphic texts would have been composed in the language of the elite.^[12] Nevertheless, common Mayan people must already have spoken a number of distinct languages by the Classic period. A prestige dialect is the dialect spoken by the most prestigious people in a speech community large enough to sustain multiple dialects. ...

During the Spanish colonization of Central America, all indigenous languages were eclipsed by Spanish which became the new prestige language. Mayan languages were no exception, and their use in many important domains of society, including administration, religion and literature, came to an end. Yet the Maya area was more resistant to outside influence than others,^[13] and perhaps for this reason many Maya communities still retain a high proportion of monolingual speakers. Nonetheless, the Maya area is now dominated by Spanish. While a number of Mayan languages are moribund or are considered endangered, others remain quite viable, with speakers across all age groups and native language use in all domains of society.^[14] Monoglottism (Greek monos, alone, solitary, + glotta, tongue, language) is the condition of being able to speak only a single language. ... A language is usually considered moribund (literally, dying) when it is no longer the language of the community, and is no longer learned by children, so that without massive intervention it will likely become extinct when the last of its current speakers dies. ... An endangered language is a language with so few surviving speakers that it is in danger of falling out of use. ...

As Maya archaeology advanced during the 20th century and nationalist and ethnic-pride-based ideologies spread, the Mayan-speaking peoples began to develop a shared ethnic identity as Maya, the heirs of the great Maya civilization.^[15] Nationalism is an ideology that creates and sustains a nation as a concept of a common identity for groups of humans. ... The Maya civilization is a Mesoamerican civilization, noted for the only known fully developed written language of the pre-Columbian Americas, as well as its spectacular art, monumental architecture, and sophisticated mathematical and astronomical systems. ...

The word "Maya" was likely derived from the postclassical Yucatán city of Mayapan; its more restricted meaning in pre-colonial and colonial times points to an origin in a particular region of the Yucatán Peninsula. The broader meaning of "Maya" now current, while defined by linguistic relationships, is also used to refer to ethnic or cultural traits. Most Mayans identify themselves first and foremost with a particular ethnic group, e.g. as "Yucatec" or "K'iche'"; but they also recognize a shared Mayan kinship.^[16] Mayapan (in Spanish Mayapán) is a Pre-Columbian Maya site in the state of Yucatán, Mexico, about 40 km south-east of Mérida and 100 km west of Chichen Itza. ...

Language has been fundamental in defining the boundaries of that kinship.^[17] Paradoxically perhaps, this pride in unity has led to an insistence on the separateness of different Mayan languages, some of which are so closely related that they could easily be referred to as dialects of a single language. However, given that the term "dialect" has been used by some with racialist overtones in the past, making a spurious distinction between Amerindian "dialects" and European "languages", the preferred usage in recent years has been to designate the linguistic varieties spoken by different ethnic group as separate languages.^[18]

In Guatemala, matters such as developing standardized orthographies for the Mayan languages are governed by the Academia de Lenguas Mayas de Guatemala (ALMG; Guatemalan Academy of Mayan Languages) which was founded by Mayan organisations in 1986. Following the 1996 peace accords it has been gaining growing recognition as the regulatory authority on Mayan languages both among Mayan scholars and the Maya peoples themselves. The Guatemalan Academy of Mayan Languages (Spanish: Academia de Lenguas Mayas de Guatemala, ALMG) is a Guatemalan organisation that regulates the use of the 21 Mayan languages spoken within the borders of the republic. ... This does not cite its references or sources. ...

Genealogy and classification

Relations with other families

The Mayan linguistic family has no demonstrated genetic ties to other linguistic families. Similarities with some languages of Mesoamerica are understood to be the due to diffusion of linguistic traits from neighboring languages into Mayan and not to common ancestry. Mesoamerica has been proven to be an area of substantial linguistic diffusion.^[19] Genetic, in linguistics, means due to descent from a common ancestor language, rather than borrowing at some time in the past between languages that were not necessarily descended from a common ancestor. ... // The Mesoamerican Linguistic Area is a sprachbund containing many of the languages natively spoken in the cultural area of Mesoamerica. ...

A wide range of proposals have tried to link the Mayan family to other language families or isolates, but none were generally supported by linguists. Examples include linking Mayan with Chipaya-Uru, Mapudungun, Lenca, P'urhépecha and Huave. Mayan has also been included in various Hokan and Penutian hypotheses. The linguist Joseph Greenberg included Mayan in his highly controversial Amerind hypothesis, which is rejected by most historical linguists as unsupported by available evidence. A language isolate, in the absolute sense, is a natural language with no demonstrable genealogical (or genetic) relationship with other living languages; that is, one that has not been demonstrated to descend from an ancestor common to any other language. ... Uru-Chipaya, also known as Chipaya-Uru is an indigenous language family of Bolivia consisting of two closely related languages. ... Mapudungun test of Wikipedia at Wikimedia Incubator Mapudungun (mapu means earth and dungun means to speak) is a language isolate spoken in central Chile and west central Argentina by the Mapuche (mapu is earth and che means people) people. ... The Lenca language is an unclassified indigenous language of Mesoamerica, spoken (or formerly spoken) by the indigenous Lenca peoples in a region encompassed by western Honduras and portions of El Salvador, Central America. ... Purhépecha men reeling cord for nets and making nets, 1899. ... Huave (also spelled Wabe) is a language isolate spoken by the indigenous Huave people on the Pacific coast of the Mexican state of Oaxaca. ... The Hokan language family is a hypothetical grouping of a dozen small language families spoken in California and Mexico. ... The Penutian is a phylum (or stock) of language families that include many Native American languages of western North America, predominantly spoken at one time in Washington, Oregon, and California. ... Joseph Greenberg Joseph Harold Greenberg (May 28, 1915–May 7, 2001) was a prominent and controversial linguist, known for his work in both language classification and typology. ... In addition to its use by social scientists to refer (broadly) to the various indigenous languages of The Americas, the term Amerind languages may controversially refer to one of the three families in Joseph H. Greenbergs classification of all Native American languages—the other two being Na-Dene... Historical linguistics (also diachronic linguistics or comparative linguistics) is primarily the study of the ways in which languages change over time. ...

According to Lyle Campbell, an expert in Mayan languages, the most promising proposal is the "Macro-Mayan" hypothesis, which posits linkages between Mayan, Mixe-Zoquean languages and Totonacan, but more research is needed to support or disprove this hypothesis.^[20] Lyle Campbell is a linguist at the University of Utah in Salt Lake City, Utah, and the director of the universitys Center for American Indian Languages (CAIL). ... In linguistics, a linkage is a group of undoubtedly related languages for whom no proto-language can be reconstructed. ... The Mixe-Zoque languages are a language family spoken in and around the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, Mexico. ... The Totonacan Languages are a family of closely-related languages spoken by approximately 200,000 Totonac people in the states of Veracruz, Puebla, and Hidalgo in Mexico. ...

Subdivisions

The Mayan language family is extremely well-documented, and its internal genealogical classification scheme is widely accepted and established, except for some minor unresolved differences.

One point still at issue is the position of Ch'olan and Q'anjobalan-Chujean. Some scholars think these form a separate Western branch^[21] (as in the diagram below). Other linguists do not support the positing of an especially close relationship between Ch'olan and Q'anjobalan-Chujean; consequently they classify these as two distinct branches emanating directly from the proto-language.

Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (1815x1392, 259 KB) A genealogy tree for the Mayan languages, based on an earlier tree by Maunus. ...

Geography and demographics

See also: List of Mayan languages

Map of areas where the various Mayan languages are spoken. Font sizes indicate relative sizes of speaker populations (Yucatec and K'iche' with 900,000 and 2,000,000 speakers respectively; 100,000–500,000 speakers; 10,000–100,000 speakers; and under 10,000 speakers.)

Category: ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (1580x1971, 306 KB) A map showing the present-day locations of the Mayan Languages. ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (1580x1971, 306 KB) A map showing the present-day locations of the Mayan Languages. ...

Huastecan branch

Wastek (also spelled Huastec and Huaxtec) is spoken in the Mexican states of Veracruz and San Luis Potosí by around 110,000 people.^[22] It is the most divergent of modern Mayan languages. Chicomuceltec was a language related to Wastek and spoken in Chiapas that became extinct some time before 1982.^[23] The Wastek or Huastec language is a Mayan language of Mexico, spoken by the Huastecs living in rural areas of San Luis Potosí and northern Veracruz. ... The state of Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave is one of the 31 states that comprise Mexico. ... The Mexican state of San Luis Potosí has an area of 62,848 km² (24,266 mi²). It is in the north-central part of the Mexican republic, bordered by the states of Jalisco, Guanajuato, Querétaro, Hidalgo, Veracruz, Tamaulipas, Nuevo León, Coahuila, and Zacatecas. ... Chicomuceltec (or Chicomucelteco) is a Mayan language that until recently was spoken in the towns of Mazapa de Madero, Amatenango, and Chicomuselo in Chiapas, Mexico, as well as some nearby areas of Guatemala. ...

Yucatecan branch

Yucatec Maya (known simply as "Maya" to its speakers) is the most commonly spoken Maya language in Mexico. It is currently spoken by approximately 800,000 people, the vast majority of whom are to be found on the Yucatán Peninsula.^[24][25] It has a rich post-colonial literature, and remains common as a first language in rural areas in Yucatán and in the adjacent states of Quintana Roo and Campeche. This article does not cite any references or sources. ... The Yucatán peninsula as seen from space The Yucatán Peninsula separates the Caribbean Sea from the Gulf of Mexico. ... Yucatán is the name of one of the 31 states of Mexico, located on the north of the Yucatán Peninsula. ... Quintana Roo is a state of Mexico, on the eastern part of the Yucatán Peninsula. ... The State of Campeche was long a part of Yucatán and shared its history through the mid 19th century. ...

The other three Yucatecan languages are Mopan, spoken by around 10,000 speakers primarily in Belize; Itza', an extinct or moribund language from Guatemala's Petén Basin;^[26] and Lacandón or Lakantum, also severely endangered with about 1,000 speakers in a few villages on the outskirts of the Selva Lacandona, in Chiapas. The Mopan Maya language is spoken in Belize and Guatemala. ... Itza (Itza, Petén Itzá Maya) is a Mayan language spoken only by a few elderly adults in communities to the north of Lake Itzá in Guatemala. ... The Lacandon people are indigenous Native American Maya people who live mostly in the jungles in Chiapas, Mexico (until 1854 a part of Guatemala). ... Tha Lacandon Jungle (Spanish: Selva Lacandona) is a jungle in the state of Chiapas, Mexico. ... Location within Mexico Country  Mexico Capital Tuxtla Gutiérrez Municipalities 118 Largest City Tuxtla Gutiérrez Government  - Governor Juan José Sabines Guerrero ( PRD)  - Federal Deputies PRI: 7 PRD: 5  - Federal Senators PRI: 1 PRD: 1 PVEM: 1 Area Ranked 8th  - State 74,211 km²  (28,653 sq mi) Population (2005...

Western branch

Ch'olan

The Ch'olan languages were formerly widespread throughout the Maya area, but today the language with most speakers is Ch'ol, spoken by 130,000 in Chiapas.^[27] Its closest relative, the Chontal Maya language,^[28] is spoken by 55,000^[29] in the state of Tabasco. Another related language, now endangered, is Ch'orti', which is spoken by 30,000 in Guatemala.^[30] It was previously also spoken in extreme western Honduras and El Salvador but the El Salvador variant is now extinct and that of Honduras is considered moribund. Ch'olti', a sister language of Ch'orti', is also extinct. Chol (or Chol)is a Mayan language used by the Chol ethnic group in the Mexican state of Chiapas. ... Yoko ochoco, also known as Chontal Maya, and Acalan, is a Maya language of the Cholan family spoken by the Chontal people of Tabasco, Mexico. ... Tabasco is a state in Mexico. ... The Chorti language (Chorti) is a Mayan language. ... The Cholti language is an extinct Mayan language which was spoken in the Manche region of eastern Guatemala. ...

Ch'olan languages are believed to be the most conservative in vocabulary and phonology, and are closely related to the language of the Classic-era inscriptions found in Central Lowlands. They may have served as prestige languages, coexisting with other dialects in some areas. This assumption provides a plausible explanation for the geographical distance between the Ch'orti' zone and the areas where Ch'ol and Chontal are spoken.^[31]

Tzeltalan

The closest relatives of the Ch'olan languages are the languages of the Tzeltalan branch, Tzotzil and Tzeltal, both spoken in Chiapas by large and stable or growing populations (265,000 for Tzotzil and 215,000 for Tzeltal).^[32] Tzotzil and Tzeltal have large numbers of monolingual speakers. Tzotzil is a Maya language spoken by the indigenous Tzotzil Maya people in Chiapas, Mexico. ... Tzeltal is a Maya language spoken in Chiapas, Mexico. ...

Q'anjobalan

Q'anjob'al is spoken by 77,700 in Guatemala's Huehuetenango department,^[33] with small populations elsewhere.^[34] Jakaltek (also known as Popti'^[35]) is spoken by almost 100,000 in several municipalities^[36] of Huehuetenango. Another member of this branch is Akatek, with over 50,000 speakers in San Miguel Acatán and San Rafael La Independencia. Qanjobal is a Mayan language of Mexico and Guatemala. ... Huehuetenango is a city in the highlands of western Guatemala. ... The Jacaltec (or Jakalteko or Popti) are a group of Maya Indians living in the Western Guatemala highlands and adjoining part of Chiapas and southern Mexico. ... Huehuetenango is a city in the highlands of western Guatemala. ... Akateko (Acateco, Acatec, Conob) is a Mayan language sometimes referred to as Western Kanjobal (Qanjobal) as it is very closely related to that language. ... San Miguel Acatán is a municipality in the Guatemalan department of Huehuetenango. ... San Rafael La Independencia is a municipality in the Guatemalan department of Huehuetenango. ...

Chuj is spoken by 40,000 people in Huehuetenango, and by 9,500 people, primarily refugees, over the border in Mexico, in the municipality of Trinitaria, Chiapas, and the villages of Tziscau and Cuauhtémoc. Tojolab'al is spoken in eastern Chiapas by 36,000 people.^[37] Chuj language is a language belonging to Kanjobalan-Chujean family of Mayan languages spoken in Guatemala. ... Tojolabal is a Mayan language spoken in Chiapas, Mexico. ...

Eastern branch

Quichean-Mamean

The Quichean-Mamean languages and dialects, with two sub-branches and three subfamilies, are spoken in the Guatemalan highlands.

Q'eqchi' (sometimes spelled Kekchi), which constitutes its own sub-branch within Quichean-Mamean, is spoken by about 400,000 people in the southern Petén and Alta Verapaz departments of Guatemala, and also in Belize by 9,000 speakers. In El Salvador it is spoken by 12,000 as a result of recent migrations.^[38] The Qeqchi language is spoken in Belize and Guatemala. ... El Petén Petén is a department of the nation of Guatemala. ... Alta Verapaz Semuc-Champey pools in the Cahabòn River, Alta Verapaz, Guatemala Alta Verapaz is a department in the north central part of Guatemala. ...

The Uspantek language, which also springs directly from the Quichean-Mamean node, is native only to the Uspantán municipio in the department of El Quiché, and has 3,000 speakers, one of whom is the Nobel Peace Prize winner Rigoberta Menchú.^[39] The Uspanteko language (Uspanteco, Uspantec) is spoken in Guatemala. ... Uspantán is a municipality in the Guatemalan department of El Quiché. Category: ... Municipalities of Guatemala The departments of Guatemala are divided into 332 municipalities or municipios. ... El Quiché For other uses, see Quiché (disambiguation). ... Lester B. Pearson after accepting the Nobel Peace Prize The Nobel Peace Prize (Swedish and Norwegian: Nobels fredspris) is the name of one of five Nobel Prizes bequeathed by the Swedish industrialist and inventor Alfred Nobel. ... Rigoberta Menchú Tum (b. ...

Mamean

The largest language in this branch is Mam, spoken by 150,000 people in the departments of San Marcos and Cuchumatanes. Awakatek is the language of 20,000 inhabitants of central Aguacatán, another municipality of Huehuetenango. Ixil is spoken by 18,000 in the "Ixil Triangle" region of the department of El Quiché.^[40] Tektitek (or Teko) is spoken by over 1,000 people in the municipality of Tectitán, and 1,000 refugees in Mexico. According to the Ethnologue the number of speakers of Tektitek is growing.^[41] The Mam are a Native American people of the highlands of western Guatemala. ... Awakateko (Aguacateco, Aguacatec) is a Mayan language related to Ixil. ... Aguacatán is a municipality in the Guatemalan department of Huehuetenango. ... Ixil is a Mayan language. ... The Ixil Triangle is a name given to the three villages of Santa Maria Nebaj, San Juan Cotzal, and San Gaspar Chajul in the Quiché department in the western highlands of Guatemala. ... The Tektiteko language (Tectiteco, Teco) is a member of the Quichean-Mamean branch of the Mayan language family. ...

Core Quichean

K'iche',^[42] the Mayan language with the largest number of speakers, is spoken by more than 2,000,000 people in the Guatemalan highlands, around the towns of Chichicastenango and Quetzaltenango and in the Cuchumatán mountains, as well as by urban emigrants in Guatemala City.^{[verification needed][43]} The famous Maya mythological document, Popol Vuh, is written in an antiquated K'iche' often called Classical Quiché. The K'iche' culture was at its pinnacle at the time of the Spanish conquest. Utatlán, near the present-day city of Santa Cruz del Quiché, was its economic and ceremonial center.^[44] The Kiche language (Quiché in Spanish) is a part of the Mayan language family. ... Chichicastenango, also known as Santo Tomás Chichicastenango, is a town in the El Quiché department of Guatemala, known for its traditional Maya Indian culture. ... Buildings flanking the Central Park Square in Quetzaltenango Building flanking the Central Park Square in Quetzaltenango Quetzaltenango is the second most populous city of Guatemala, after Guatemala City, and is the capital of Quetzaltenango Department. ... Guatemala City (in full, La Nueva Guatemala de la Asunción; locally known as Guatemala or Guate) is the capital and largest city of the nation of Guatemala. ... The Popol Vuh (Quiché for Council Book or Book of the Community; Popol Wuj in modern spelling) is the book of scripture of the Quiché, a kingdom of the post classic Maya civilization in highland Guatemala. ... Classical Quiché is the term used to describe an ancestral form of the modern-day Kiche language (Quiché in the older Spanish-influenced orthography), which was spoken in the highland regions of Guatemala around the time of the 16th century Spanish colonization of the Americas. ... The Kiche (or Quiché in Spanish spelling), are a Native American people, one of the Maya ethnic groups. ... Gumarcaj, sometimes rendered as Cumarcaj or Kumarcaaj, is an archeological site in El Quiché department of Guatemala. ... Santa Cruz de Quiché is a town in Guatemala, in the province of El Quiché, of which it is the departmental capital. ...

Achi is spoken by 85,000 people in Cubulco and Rabinal, two municipios of Baja Verapaz. In some classifications, e.g. the one by Campbell, Achi is counted as a form of K'iche'. However, owing to a historical division between the two ethnic groups, the Achi Maya do not regard themselves as K'iche'.^[45] Achi is a Mayan language very closely related to Quiché (Kiche). It is spoken primarily in the department of Baja Verapaz in Guatemala Categories: | | | ... Cubulco is a municipality in the Baja Verapaz department of Guatemala. ... Rabinal is a small town located in Baja Verapaz, Guatemala, at 15°6′0″ N 90°27′0″ W. It serves as the administrative seat for the surrounding municipality of the same name. ... Baja Verapaz is a department in Guatemala. ... Lyle Campbell is a linguist at the University of Utah in Salt Lake City, Utah, and the director of the universitys Center for American Indian Languages (CAIL). ...

The Kaqchikel language is spoken by about 400,000 people in an area stretching from Guatemala City westward to the northern shore of Lake Atitlán.^[46] Tz'utujil has about 90,000 speakers in the vicinity of Lake Atitlán.^[47] Other members of the K'ichean branch are Sakapultek, spoken by somewhat fewer than 40,000 people mostly in El Quiché department, and Sipakapense, which is spoken by 8,000 people in Sipacapa, San Marcos. The Annals of the Cakchiquels, written in Kaqchikel, is an important literary work dating from the 16th century that traces the history of the ruling classes of the Kaqchikel people. The Kaqchikel language (in modern orthography; formerly also spelled Cakchiquel or Cakchiquiel) is an indigenous Mesoamerican language and a member of the Quichean-Mamean branch of the Mayan languages family. ... Lago de Atitlán (Lake Atitlán) is a large lake in the Guatemalan Highlands. ... The Tzutujil language is one of the Mayan languages, and is closely related to the Cakchiquel language; both are similar to the Quiché language of the neighbouring and more populous Quiché Maya. ... Sakapultek is a Mayan language very closely related to Quiché (Kiche). It is spoken by somewhat fewer than 40,000 people in El Quiché department and in Guatemala City. ... El Quiché El Quiché is a department of the central American country Guatemala. ... Sipakapense is a Mayan language very closely related to Quiché (Kiche). It is spoken primarily in Sipacapa in the department of San Marcos in Guatemala Categories: | | | ... Sipacapa is a municipality in the San Marcos department of Guatemala. ... San Marcos San Marcos is a department in Guatemala. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Memorial de Sololá. (Discuss) This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ...

Poqom

The Poqom languages are closely related to Core Quichean, with which they constitute a Poqom-K'ichean sub-branch on the Quichean-Mamean node.^[48]

Poqomchi' is spoken by 90,000 people^[49] in Purulhá, Baja Verapaz, and in the following municipalities of Alta Verapaz: Santa Cruz Verapaz, San Cristóbal Verapaz, Tactic, Tamahú and Tucurú. Poqomam is spoken by around 30,000 people^[50] in several small pockets, the largest of which is in the department of Alta Verapaz. Formerly Poqomam was also spoken in El Salvador. Poqomchí is a Mayan language very closely related to Poqomam. ... Purulhá is a municipality in the Baja Verapaz department of Guatemala. ... Baja Verapaz is a department in Guatemala. ... Alta Verapaz Semuc-Champey pools in the Cahabòn River, Alta Verapaz, Guatemala Alta Verapaz is a department in the north central part of Guatemala. ... Santa Cruz Verapaz is a municipality in the Guatemalan department of Alta Verapaz. ... San Cristóbal Verapaz is a municipality in the Guatemalan department of Alta Verapaz. ... Tactic is a municipality in the Guatemalan department of Alta Verapaz. ... Tamahú is a municipality in the Guatemalan department of Alta Verapaz. ... Tucurú is a municipality in the Guatemalan department of Alta Verapaz. ... Poqomam is a Mayan language, closely related to poqomchí. It is spoken by ca. ... Alta Verapaz Semuc-Champey pools in the Cahabòn River, Alta Verapaz, Guatemala Alta Verapaz is a department in the north central part of Guatemala. ...

Phonology

Proto-Mayan sound system

Proto-Mayan (the common ancestor of the Mayan languages as reconstructed^[51] using the comparative method) has a predominant CVC syllable structure, only allowing consonant clusters across syllable boundaries.^[52] Most Proto-Mayan roots were monosyllabic except for a few disyllabic nominal roots. Due to subsequent vowel loss many Mayan languages now show complex consonant clusters at both ends of syllables. Following the reconstruction of Lyle Campbell and Terrence Kaufman, the Proto-Mayan language had the following sounds;^[53] the sounds present in the modern languages are largely similar to this root set. Proto-Mayan is the hypothetical common ancestor of the 30 living Mayan languages. ... The comparative method (in comparative linguistics) is a technique used by linguists to demonstrate genetic relationships between languages. ... Lyle Campbell is a linguist at the University of Utah in Salt Lake City, Utah, and the director of the universitys Center for American Indian Languages (CAIL). ... Terrence Kaufman is an American linguist specializing in documentation of unwritten languages, Mesoamerican historical linguistics and language contact phenomena. ...

Vowels Near-close Close-mid Mid Open-mid Near-open Open Where symbols appear in pairs, the one to the right represents a rounded vowel. ... A central vowel is a type of vowel sound used in some spoken languages. ... A back vowel is a type of vowel sound used in some spoken languages. ... In linguistics, vowel length is the perceived duration of a vowel sound. ... In linguistics, vowel length is the perceived duration of a vowel sound. ... In linguistics, vowel length is the perceived duration of a vowel sound. ... In linguistics, vowel length is the perceived duration of a vowel sound. ... In linguistics, vowel length is the perceived duration of a vowel sound. ... In linguistics, vowel length is the perceived duration of a vowel sound. ... A close vowel is a type of vowel sound used in many spoken languages. ... A close-mid vowel is a type of vowel sound used in some spoken languages. ... An open vowel is a vowel sound of a type used in most spoken languages. ... In phonetics, a bilabial consonant is a consonant articulated with both lips. ... Alveolar consonants are articulated with the tongue against or close to the superior alveolar ridge, which is called that because it contains the alveoli (the sockets) of the superior teeth. ... Palatal consonants are consonants articulated with the body of the tongue raised against the hard palate (the middle part of the roof of the mouth). ... Velars are consonants articulated with the back part of the tongue (the dorsum) against the soft palate (the back part of the roof of the mouth, known also as the velum). ... Uvulars are consonants articulated with the back of the tongue against or near the uvula, that is, further back in the mouth than velar consonants. ... Glottal consonants are consonants articulated with the glottis. ... Look up implosive in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Ejective consonants are a class of consonants which may contrast with aspirated or tenuis consonants in a language. ... Ejective consonants are a class of consonants which may contrast with aspirated or tenuis consonants in a language. ... Ejective consonants are a class of consonants which may contrast with aspirated or tenuis consonants in a language. ... Ejective consonants are a class of consonants which may contrast with aspirated or tenuis consonants in a language. ... A stop, plosive, or occlusive is a consonant sound produced by stopping the airflow in the vocal tract. ... Affricate consonants begin as stops (most often an alveolar, such as or ) but release as a fricative (such as or or, in a couple of languages, into a fricative trill) rather than directly into the following vowel. ... Fricatives (or spirants) are consonants produced by forcing air through a narrow channel made by placing two articulators close together. ... A nasal consonant is produced when the velum—that fleshy part of the palate near the back—is lowered, allowing air to escape freely through the nose. ... Liquid consonants, or liquids, are approximant consonants that are not classified as semivowels (glides) because they do not correspond phonetically to specific vowels (in the way that, for example, the initial in English yes corresponds to ). The class of liquids can be divided into lateral liquids and rhotics. ... Semivowels (also glides, more rarely: semiconsonants) are non-syllabic vowels that form diphthongs with syllabic vowels. ...

Phonological evolution of Proto-Mayan

Main article: Proto-Mayan

The classification of Mayan languages is based on changes shared between groups of languages. For example languages of the western group (such as Huastecan, Yucatecan and Ch'olan) all changed the Proto-Mayan phoneme */r/ into [j], some languages of the eastern branch retained [r] (K'ichean), and others changed it into [ʧ] or, word-finally, [t] (Mamean).^[54] The shared innovations between Huastecan, Yucatecan and Ch'olan show that they separated from the other Mayan languages before the changes found in other branches had taken place. Proto-Mayan is the hypothetical common ancestor of the 30 living Mayan languages. ... In human language, a phoneme is the theoretical representation of a sound. ...

The palatalized plosives ([tʲ’] and [tʲ] are not found in any of the modern families. Instead they are reflected differently in different branches, allowing a reconstruction of these phonemes as palatalized plosives. In the eastern branch (Chujean-Q'anjobalan and Ch'olan) they are reflected as [t] and [t’]. In Mamean they are reflected as [ʦ] and [ʦ’] and in Quichean as [ʧ] and [ʧ’]. Yucatec stands out from other western languages in that its palatalized plosives are sometimes changed into [ʧ] and sometimes [t].^[55] A stop or plosive or occlusive is a consonant sound produced by stopping the airflow in the vocal tract. ...

The Proto-Mayan velar nasal *[ŋ] is reflected as [x] in the eastern branches (Quichean-Mamean), [n] in Q'anjobalan, Ch'olan and Yucatecan, [h] in Huastecan, and only conserved as [ŋ] in Chuj and Jakaltek.^[57]

Other innovations

The subgrouping of the Mayan family is based on shared linguistic innovations. Some phonological developments that have been used to establish the current classification are described here.

The divergent status of Huastecan is revealed by a number of innovations not shared by other groups. Huastecan is the only branch to have changed Proto-Mayan *[w] into [b]. Wastek (but not Chicomuceltec) is also the only Mayan language to have a phonemic labialized velar phoneme [kʷ]; however, this is known to be a postcolonial development: comparing colonial documents in Wastek to modern Wastek, it can be seen that instances of modern [kʷ] were originally sequences of *[k] followed by a rounded vowel and a glide. For example, the word for "vulture", which in modern Wastek is pronounced [kʷiːʃ], was written <cuyx> in colonial Wastek, and pronounced *[kuwiːʃ]. A labiovelar consonant is a consonant made with two blockages, one at the lips (labial) and the other at the soft palate (velar). ... Exolabial and endolabial [&#655;] in Swedish. ...

The grouping together of the Ch'olan and Yucatecan branches is partly based on the innovative change of short *[a] to [ɨ]. All Cholan languages have changed the Proto-Mayan long vowels *[eː] and *[oː] to [i] and [u] respectively. The independent status of Yucatecan is evident in that all Yucatecan languages shifted proto-Mayan *[t] to [ʧ] in word-final position.

Quichean-Mamean, and some Q'anjobalan languages, have retained Proto-Mayan uvular stops ([q] and [q’]); in all other branches these sounds merged with [k] and [k’], respectively. Thus the Quichean-Mamean grouping can be said to rest mostly on shared retentions rather than innovations.

Mamean is largely differentiated from K'ichean by a chain shift which changed *[r] into [t], *[t] into [ʧ], *[ʧ] into [ʈʂ] and *[ʃ] into [ʂ]. These retroflex affricates and fricatives later spread to Q'anjob'alan through language contact.^[58] In the study of phonetic changes, a chain shift is a type of sound shift in which a group of sounds all change at about the same time, with some sounds taking the place of others. ... Sub-apical retroflex plosive In phonetics, retroflex consonants are consonant sounds used in some languages. ... Language contact occurs when speakers of distinct speech varieties interact. ...

Within the Quichean branch, Kaqchikel and Tz'utujil differ from Quichean proper in having changed a final Proto-Mayan *[w] and *[ɓ] into [j] and [ʔ] respectively in polysyllabic words.^[59]

Some other changes are general throughout the Mayan family. For example, the Proto-Mayan glottal fricative *[h], which no language has retained as such, has numerous reflexes in the various daughter languages depending on its position within a word. In some cases it lengthened a preceding vowel in languages which retained vowel length. In other languages it became [w], [j], [ʔ], [x], or disappeared.^[60]

Other sporadic innovations have occurred independently in several branches. For example distinctive vowel length has been lost in Q'anjobalan-Chujean (except for Mocho' and Akateko), Kaqchikel and Ch'olan. Other languages have transformed the length distinction into one of tense versus lax vowels, later losing the distinction in a majority of cases. However, Kaqchikel has preserved a centralized lax, schwa-like vowel as a reflex of Proto-Mayan [a].^[61] Two languages, Yucatec and Uspantek, as well as one dialect of Tzotzil,^[62] have introduced a tonal distinction in vowels, with high and low tones corresponding to former vowel length as well as reflecting *[h] and *[ʔ]. Tenseness is a term used in phonology to describe a particular vowel quality that is phonemically contrastive in many languages, including English. ... The IPA symbol for the Schwa In linguistics, specifically phonetics and phonology, schwa can mean: An unstressed and toneless neutral vowel sound in any language, often but not necessarily a mid-central vowel. ... It has been suggested that Tonal language be merged into this article or section. ...

Grammar

The grammar of Mayan languages is simpler than that of other Mesoamerican languages,^[63] yet its morphology is still considered agglutinating and polysynthetic.^[64] Verbs are marked for aspect or tense, the person of the subject, the person of the object (in the case of transitive verbs), and for plurality of person. Possessed nouns are marked for person of possessor. There are no cases or genders in Mayan languages. For other uses, see Morphology. ... It has been suggested that Agglutination be merged into this article or section. ... Polysynthetic languages are highly synthetic languages, i. ... In linguistics, the grammatical aspect of a verb defines the temporal flow (or lack thereof) in the described event or state. ... Grammatical tense is a way languages express the time at which an event described by a sentence occurs. ... Grammatical person, in linguistics, is deictic reference to the participant role of a referent, such as the speaker, the addressee, and others. ... According to a tradition that can be tracked back to Aristotle, every sentence can be divided in two main constituents, one being the subject of the sentence and the other being its predicate. ... An object in grammar is a sentence element and part of the sentence predicate. ... A transitive verb is a verb that requires both a subject and one or more objects. ... In linguistics, grammatical number is a morphological category characterized by the expression of quantity through inflection or agreement. ...

Word order

Proto-Mayan is thought to have had a basic Verb Object Subject word order with possibilities of switching to VSO in certain circumstances, such as complex sentences, sentences where object and subject were of equal animacy and when the subject was definite.^[65] Today Yucatecan, Tzotzil and Tojolab'al have a basic fixed VOS word order. Mamean, Q'anjob'al, Jakaltek and one dialect of Chuj have a fixed VSO one. Only Ch'orti' has a basic SVO word order. Other Mayan languages allow both VSO and VOS word orders. Verb Object Subject - commonly used in its abbreviated form VOS - is a term in Linguistic typology. ... Verb Subject Object—commonly used in its abbreviated form VSO—is a term in linguistic typology. ... In linguistic typology, subject-verb-object (SVO) is the sequence subject verb object in neutral expressions: Sam ate oranges. ...

Numeral classifiers

When counting it is necessary to use numeral classifiers which specify the class of items being counted; the numeral cannot appear without an accompanying classifier. Class is usually assigned according to whether the object is animate or inanimate or according to an object's general shape.^[66] Thus when counting "flat" objects, a different form of numeral classifier is used than when counting round things, oblong items or people. In some Mayan languages such as Chontal, classifiers take the form of affixes attached to the numeral; in others such as Tzeltal, they are free forms. In Jakaltek the classifiers can also be used as pronouns. Measure words, in linguistics, are words (or morphemes) that are used in combination with a numeral to indicate the count of nouns. ...

The meaning denoted by a noun may be altered significantly by changing the accompanying classifier. In Chontal, for example, when the classifier -tek is used with names of plants it is understood that the objects being enumerated are whole trees. If in this expression a different classifier, -ts'it (for counting long, slender objects) is substituted for -tek, this conveys the meaning that only sticks or branches of the tree are being counted:^[67]

Possession

The morphology of Mayan nouns is fairly simple: they inflect for number (plural or singular), and, when possessed, for person and number of their possessor.

Pronominal possession is expressed by a set of possessive prefixes attached to the noun, as in Kaqchikel ru-kej "his/her horse". Nouns may furthermore adopt a special form marking them as possessed.

For nominal possessors, the possessed noun is inflected as possessed by a third-person possessor, and followed by the possessor noun, e.g. Kaqchikel ru-kej ri achin "the man's horse" (literally "his horse the man"). This type of formation is a main diagnostic trait of the Mesoamerican Linguistic Area and recurs throughout Mesoamerica.^[68] // The Mesoamerican Linguistic Area is a sprachbund containing many of the languages natively spoken in the cultural area of Mesoamerica. ... Location of Mesoamerica in the Americas. ...

Mayan languages often contrast alienable and inalienable possession by varying the way the noun is (or is not) marked as possessed. Jakaltek, for example, contrasts inalienably possessed wetʃel "my photo (in which I am depicted)" with alienably possessed wetʃele "my photo (taken by me)". The prefix we- marks the first person singular possessor in both, but the absence of the -e possessive suffix in the first form marks inalienable possession.^[69] Possession, in the context of linguistics, is an asymmetric relationship between two constituents, one of which possesses (owns, rules over, has as a part, has as a relative, etc. ...

Relational nouns

Mayan languages which have prepositions at all normally have only one. To express location and other relations between entities, use is made of a special class of "relational nouns" . This pattern is also recurrent throughout Mesoamerica and is another diagnostic trait of the Mesoamerican Linguistic Area. In Mayan most relational nouns are metaphorically derived from body parts so that "on top of," for example, is expressed by the word for head.^[70] It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with adposition. ... In linguistics a relational noun is a kind of noun describing a relation between two entities and which is used to describe spatial and other relations in the same way prepositions are used in some languages. ...

Relational nouns are possessed by the constituent that is the reference point of the relation, and the relational noun names the relation. Thus in Mayan one would say "the mountain's head" (literally "its head the mountain") to mean "on (top of) the mountain". Thus in the Classical Quiché of the Popol Vuh we read u-wach ulew "on the earth" (literally "its face the earth"). The Popol Vuh (Quiché for Council Book or Book of the Community; Popol Wuj in modern spelling) is the book of scripture of the Quiché, a kingdom of the post classic Maya civilization in highland Guatemala. ...

Subjects and objects

Mayan languages are ergative in their alignment. This means that the subject of an intransitive verb is treated similarly to the object of a transitive verb, but differently from the subject of a transitive verb. An ergative-absolutive language (or simply ergative) is one that treats the agent of transitive verbs distinctly from the subject of intransitive verbs and the object of transitive verbs. ... In linguistics, morphosyntactic alignment is the system used to distinguish between the arguments of transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. ...

Mayan languages have two sets of affixes that are attached to a verb to indicate the person of its arguments. One set (often referred to in Mayan grammars as set A) indicates the person of subjects of intransitive verbs, and of objects of transitive verbs. They can also be used with adjective or noun predicates to indicate the subject.

Another set (set B) is used to indicate the person of subjects of transitive verbs, and also the possessors of nouns (including relational nouns).^[71]

Verbs

In addition to subject and object (agent and patient), the Mayan verb has affixes signalling aspect, tense, and mood as in the following example:

Tense systems in Mayan languages are generally simple. Jakaltek, for example, contrasts only past and non-past, while Mam has only future and non-future. Aspect systems are normally more prominent. Mood does not normally form a separate system in Mayan, but is instead intertwined with the tense/aspect system.^[72] Kaufman has reconstructed a tense/aspect/mood system for proto-Mayan that includes seven aspects: incompletive, progressive, completive/punctual, imperative, potential/future, optative, and perfective.^[73] Grammatical tense is a way languages express the time at which an event described by a sentence occurs. ... In linguistics, the grammatical aspect of a verb defines the temporal flow (or lack thereof) in the described event or state. ... It has been suggested that prohibitive mood be merged into this article or section. ...

Mayan languages tend to have a rich set of grammatical voices. Proto-Mayan had at least one passive construction as well as an antipassive rule for downplaying the importance of the agent in relation to the patient. Modern K'iche' has two antipassives: one which ascribes focus to the object and another that emphasizes the verbal action.^[74] Other voice-related constructions occurring in Mayan languages are the following: mediopassive, incorporational (incorporating a direct object into the verb), instrumental (promoting the instrument to object position) and referential (a kind of applicative promoting an indirect argument such as a benefactive or recipient to the object position).^[75] In grammar, the voice of a verb describes the relationship between the action (or state) that the verb expresses and the participants identified by its arguments (subject, object, etc. ... The antipassive voice is a verb voice found mostly in ergative languages. ... The mediopassive voice is a grammatical voice which subsumes the meanings of both the middle voice and the passive voice. ... The applicative voice is a grammatical voice which promotes an oblique argument of a verb to the (core) patient argument, and indicates the oblique role within the meaning of the verb. ... The benefactive is a noun case or an adposition which indicates movement towards or for someone. ...

Statives and positionals

In Mayan languages, words are usually viewed as belonging to one of four classes: verbs, statives, adjectives, and nouns.

Statives are a class of predicative words expressing a quality or state, whose syntactic properties fall in between those of verbs and adjectives in Indo-European languages. Like verbs, statives can sometimes be inflected for person but normally lack inflections for tense, aspect and other purely verbal categories. Statives can be adjectives, positionals or numerals. In linguistics and logic, a predicate is an expression that can be true of something. ...

Positionals, a word class characteristic of, if not unique to, the Mayan languages, are statives with meanings related to the position or shape of an object or person. Mayan languages have between 250 and 500 distinct positional roots: The root is the primary lexical unit of a word, which carries the most significant aspects of semantic content and cannot be reduced into smaller constituents. ...

Telan ay jun naq winaq yul b'e.
There is a man lying down fallen on the road


Woqan hin k'al ay max ek'k'u.
I spent the entire day sitting down


Yet ewi xoyan ay jun lob'aj stina.
Yesterday there was a snake lying curled up in the entrance of the house

In these three Q'anjob'al sentences,^[76] the positionals are telan ("something large or cylindrical lying down as if having fallen"), woqan ("person sitting on a chairlike object"), and xoyan ("curled up like a rope or snake").

Word formation

Compounding of noun roots to form new nouns is commonplace; there are also many morphological processes to derive nouns from verbs. Verbs also admit highly productive derivational affixes of several kinds, most of which specify transitivity or voice.^[77] In linguistics, derivation is the process of creating new lexemes from other lexemes, for example, by adding a derivational affix. ...

Some Mayan languages allow incorporation of noun stems into verbs, either as direct objects or in other functions. However, there are few affixes with adverbial or modal meanings. An adverb is a part of speech. ...

As in other Mesoamerican languages, there is widespread metaphorical use of roots denoting body parts, particularly to form locatives and relational nouns such as Tzeltal/Tzotzil ti' na "door" (lit. "mouth of house"), or Kaqchikel chi ru-pam "inside" (lit. "mouth its-stomach").

Writing systems

A complex script, used to write Mayan languages in pre-Columbian times and known today from engravings at several Maya archaeological sites, has been deciphered almost completely. This was a mixed, partly logographic and partly syllabic writing system.^[78]

In colonial times Mayan languages came to be written in a script derived from the Latin alphabet; orthographies were developed mostly by missionary grammarians.^[79] Not all modern Mayan languages have standardized orthographies, but the Mayan languages of Guatemala use a standardized, Latin-based phonemic spelling system developed by the Academia de Lenguas Mayas de Guatemala (ALMG). Orthographies for the languages of Mexico are currently being developed by the Instituto Nacional de Lenguas Indígenas (INALI). The Guatemalan Academy of Mayan Languages (Spanish: Academia de Lenguas Mayas de Guatemala, ALMG) is a Guatemalan organisation that regulates the use of the 21 Mayan languages spoken within the borders of the republic. ...

Glyphic writing

Main article: Maya script

The pre-Columbian Maya civilization developed and used an intricate and versatile writing system which is the only Mesoamerican script that can be said to be almost fully deciphered. Earlier-established civilizations to the west and north of the Maya homelands that also had scripts recorded in surviving inscriptions include the Zapotec, Olmec, and the Zoque-speaking peoples of the southern Veracruz and western Chiapas area — but their scripts are as yet largely undeciphered. It is generally agreed that the Maya writing system was adapted from one or more of these earlier systems, and a number of references identify the undeciphered Olmec script as its most likely precursor.^[80] Maya glyphs in stucco at the Museo de sitio in Palenque, Mexico The Maya script, commonly known as Maya hieroglyphs, was the writing system of the pre-Columbian Maya civilization of Mesoamerica, presently the only deciphered script of the Mesoamerican writing systems. ... The Maya civilization is a Mesoamerican civilization, noted for the only known fully developed written language of the pre-Columbian Americas, as well as its spectacular art, monumental architecture, and sophisticated mathematical and astronomical systems. ... Writing systems of the world today. ... Mesoamerica is one of the relatively few places in the world where writing has developed independently throughout history. ... Extent of the Zapotec civilization The Zapotec civilization was an indigenous pre-Columbian civilization that flourished in the Valley of Oaxaca of southern Mesoamerica. ... Monument 1, one of the four Olmec colossal heads at La Venta. ... The Zoque are an indigenous people of Mexico. ... The state of Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave is one of the 31 states that comprise Mexico. ... Olmec hieroglyphs (or Olmec script) refers to the putative writing system associated with the Olmec archaeological culture which flourished in the Gulf Coast region of Mexico, ca. ...

In the course of the deciphering of the Maya hieroglyphic script it has become evident that it was a fully-functioning writing system in which it was possible to express any sentence of the spoken language unambiguously. The system is of a type best classified as logosyllabic,^[81] in which symbols (glyphs or graphemes) can be used as either logograms or syllables. A Logosyllabary is a type of writing system whose symbols (or graphemes) are mostly composed of both syllables and logograms. ... variant glyphs representing the character a (allographs of a) in the Zapfino typeface. ... In typography, a grapheme is the atomic unit in written language. ... Egyptian hieroglyphs, which have their origins as logograms. ... A syllable (Ancient Greek: ) is a unit of organization for a sequence of speech sounds. ...

The script has a complete syllabary (although not all possible syllables have yet been identified), and a Maya scribe would have been able to write anything out phonetically, syllable by syllable, using these symbols.^[82] In practice however, almost all inscriptions of any length were written employing a combination of syllabic signs and word signs (called logograms). A syllabary is a set of written symbols that represent (or approximate) syllables, which make up words. ... Phonetic (pho-NET-ic) is a nationwide voicemail-to-text messaging service available for most digital mobile phones in which a subscriber is provided a custom voice mailbox for the purpose of receiving all incoming voice messages as actual transcribed text for reading via short messaging (also known as SMS...

Maya glyphs in stucco at the Museo de sitio in Palenque, Mexico

At least two major Mayan languages have been confidently identified in hieroglyphic texts, with at least one other language probably identified. An archaic language variety known as Classic Maya predominates in these texts, particularly in the Classic-era inscriptions of the southern and central lowland areas. This language is most closely related to the Ch'olan branch of the language family, modern descendants of which include Ch'ol, Ch'orti' and Chontal. Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (896x624, 248 KB) edit of Image:Palenque glyphs. ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (896x624, 248 KB) edit of Image:Palenque glyphs. ... The Palace, Ruins of Palenque Palenque is a Maya archeological site near the Usumacinta River in the Mexican state of Chiapas, located at about 130 km south of Ciudad del Carmen (see map). ... The Classic Maya language is the oldest historically attested member of the Maya language family. ...

Inscriptions in an early Yucatecan language (the ancestor of the main surviving Yucatec language) have also been recognised or proposed, mainly in the Yucatán Peninsula region and from a later period. Three of the four extant Maya codices are based on Yucatec. It has also been surmised that some inscriptions found in the Chiapas highlands region may be in a Tzeltalan language whose modern descendants are Tzeltal and Tzotzil.^[83] Other regional varieties and dialects are also presumed to have been used, but have not yet been identified with certainty.^[84] Yucatec Maya is a Maya language spoken in the Yucatan Peninsula, northern Belize and parts of Guatemala. ... The Yucatán peninsula as seen from space The Yucatán Peninsula separates the Caribbean Sea from the Gulf of Mexico. ... Page 9 of the Dresden Codex (from the 1880 Förstermann edition) Maya codices (singular codex) are folding books stemming from the pre-Columbian Maya civilization, written in Maya hieroglyphic script on Mesoamerican paper, made from the inner bark of certain trees, the main being the wild fig tree or... In the southern most state of Chiapas in Mexico. ...

Use and knowledge of the Maya script continued until the 16th century Spanish conquest at least. Bishop Diego de Landa described the use of hieroglyphic writing in the religious practices of Yucatecan Maya, which he actively prohibited. De Landa and the Spanish colonizers of the Mayan area destroyed large numbers of codices written in hieroglyphs, effectively ending the Mesoamerican tradition of literacy in a native script. The Spanish Conquest of Yucatán was the campaign undertaken by the Spanish conquistadores against the Late Postclassic Maya states and polities, particularly in the northern and central Yucatán Peninsula but also involving the Maya polities of the Guatemalan highlands region. ... Diego de Landa Calderón (1524 – 1579) was Bishop of Yucatán. ...

Modern orthography

Since the colonial period, practically all Maya writing has used Latin characters. Formerly spelling was generally based on Spanish, and it is only recently that standardized orthographic conventions have started to arise. The first widely-accepted orthographic standards were set in Yucatec Maya by the authors and contributors of the Diccionario Maya Cordemex, a project directed by Alfredo Barrera Vásquez and first published in 1980.^[85] Subsequently, the Guatemalan Academy of Mayan Languages (known by its Spanish acronym ALMG), founded in 1986, adapted these standards to the 21 Mayan languages of Guatemala. The Latin alphabet, also called the Roman alphabet, is the most widely used alphabetic writing system in the world today. ... The Guatemalan Academy of Mayan Languages (Spanish: Academia de Lenguas Mayas de Guatemala, ALMG) is a Guatemalan organisation that regulates the use of the 21 Mayan languages spoken within the borders of the republic. ...

For the languages that make a distinction between palato-alveolar and retroflex affricates and fricatives (Mam, Ixil, Tektitek, Awakatek, Q'anjob'al, Popti', and Akatek) the following set of conventions is applied. Postalveolar (or palato-alveolar) consonants are consonants articulated with the tip of the tongue between the alveolar ridge (the place of articulation for alveolar consonants) and the palate (the place of articulation for palatal consonants). ... Sub-apical retroflex plosive In phonetics, retroflex consonants are consonant sounds used in some languages. ...

One element of the revised orthographies that is not widely accepted, especially outside the Guatemalan context, is the conversion of proper nouns (such as names of archaeological sites, modern settlements, and cultures). Thus, the Cordemex continues to use the term "Yucatan" (rather than "Yukatan") in its preface, despite the fact that its orthography does not utilize a "c", and most scholarly archaeological texts continue to print the original spellings for archaeological sites and cultures that have been canonized in the literature over the centuries.

Literature

Main article: Mesoamerican literature

From the Classic period to the present day, a body of literature has been written in Mayan languages. The earliest texts to have been preserved are largely monumental inscriptions documenting rulership, succession, and ascension, conquest and calendrical and astronomical events. It is likely that other kinds of literature were written in perishable media such as codices made of bark, only four of which have survived the ravages of time and the campaign of destruction by Spanish missionaries.^[86] The traditions of indigenous Mesoamerican literature extend back to the oldest-attested forms of early writing in the Mesoamerican region, which date from around the mid-1st millennium BCE. Many of the pre-Columbian cultures of Mesoamerica are known to have been literate societies, who produced a number of Mesoamerican... Maya codices (singular codex) are books written by the pre-Columbian Maya civilization, using the Maya hieroglyphic script. ... Part of the Huexotzinco Codex, printed on amatl Amatl (from the Nahuatl paper) or Amate (Spanish) is a type of paper developed in Pre-Columbian Maya civilization. ...

Shortly after the Spanish conquest, the Mayan languages began to be written with Latin letters. Colonial-era literature in Mayan languages include the famous Popol Vuh, a mythico-historical narrative written in 17th century Classical Quiché but believed to be based on an earlier work written in the 1550s, now lost. The Título de Totonicapán and the 17th century theatrical work the Rabinal Achí are other notable early works in K'iche', the latter in the Achí dialect.^[87] The Annals of the Cakchiquels from the late 16th century, which provides a historical narrative of the Kaqchikel, contains elements paralleling some of the accounts appearing in the Popol Vuh. The historical and prophetical accounts in the several variations known collectively as the books of Chilam Balam are primary sources of early Yucatec Maya traditions.^[88] The only surviving book of early lyric poetry, the Songs of Dzitbalche by Ah Bam, comes from this same period.^[89] Aztec empire The Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire was one of the most important campaigns in the Spanish colonization of America. ... The Popol Vuh (Quiché for Council Book or Book of the Community; Popol Wuj in modern spelling) is the book of scripture of the Quiché, a kingdom of the post classic Maya civilization in highland Guatemala. ... Actors representing the Rabinaleb Prince and Princess, in a street of the in Rabinal, Guatemala The Rabinal Achí is a Maya theatrical play performed in Rabinal, Alta Verapaz, Guatemala, its original name is Xajooj Tun meaning, Tun (drum) Dance. ... Achi is a Mayan language very closely related to Quiché (Kiche). It is spoken primarily in the department of Baja Verapaz in Guatemala Categories: | | | ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Memorial de Sololá. (Discuss) This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... The Chilam Balam (literally Balam [Jaguar] oracle priest) manuscripts stem from Yucatec towns such as Chumayel, Kaua, Mani and Tizimin, and date back to the 17th and 18th centuries. ... The [Book of the] Songs of Dzitbalché (Spanish: ) is the source of almost all the ancient Mayan lyric poems that have survived, and is closely connected to the Book of Chilam Balam, the sacred book of the Yucatec Maya. ...

In addition to these singular works, many early grammars of indigenous languages, called "artes", were written by priests and friars. Languages covered by these early grammars include Kaqchikel, Classical Quiché, Tzeltal, Tzotzil and Yucatec. Some of these came with indigenous-language translations of the Catholic catechism.^[90]

Almost no literature in indigenous languages was written in the postcolonial period (after 1821) except by linguists and ethnologists gathering oral literature.^[91] The Mayan peoples had remained largely illiterate in their native languages, learning to read and write in Spanish, if at all. However, since the establishment of the Cordemex (1980) and the Guatemalan Academy of Mayan Languages (1986), native language literacy has begun to spread and a number of indigenous writers have started a new tradition of writing in Mayan languages. Notable among this new generation is the K'iche' poet Humberto Ak'ab'al, whose works are often published in dual-language Spanish/K'iche' editions.^[92] The Kiche language (Quiché in Spanish) is a part of the Mayan language family. ... Humberto Akabal also Akabal or Akabal (born 1952 Momostenango) is a Kiche Maya poet from Guatemala. ...

Theatrical reference

Mel Gibson's 2006 motion picture Apocalypto was filmed in Yucatec Maya. Mel Columcille Gerard Gibson AO (born January 3, 1956) is an American born Australian actor, director, and producer. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... For other uses see film (disambiguation) Film refers to the celluliod media on which movies are printed Film &#8212; also called movies, the cinema, the silver screen, moving pictures, photoplays, picture shows, flicks, or motion pictures, &#8212; is a field that encompasses motion pictures as an art form or as... Apocalypto is an Academy Award nominated 2006 epic film directed by Mel Gibson. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ...

See also

• Mayan sign languages

Mayan sign languages are used in Mexico and Guatemala by Maya communities with unusally high numbers of deaf inhabitants. ...

Notes

Linguistics is the scientific study of language, which can be theoretical or applied. ... In linguistics, a noun or noun substantive is a lexical category which is defined in terms of how its members combine with other grammatical kinds of expressions. ... In grammar, an adjective is a word whose main syntactic role is to modify a noun or pronoun (called the adjectives subject), giving more information about what the noun or pronoun refers to. ... Karl Theodor Sapper (1866–1945) was a German traveller, explorer, antiquarian and linguist, who is known for his research into the natural history, cultures and languages of Central America around the turn of the 20th century. ... Flores is the capital city of El Petén department of Guatemala. ... Conquistadors (Spanish: []) (English: Conqueror) were Spanish soldiers, explorers and adventurers who invaded and conquered much of the Americas and Asia Pacific, bringing them under Spanish colonial rule between the 15th and 19th centuries, starting with the 1492 settlement by Christopher Columbus in what is now the Dominican Republic and Haiti. ... The Caste War of Yucatán (1847–1901) began with the revolt of native Maya people of Yucatán (Mexico) against the population of European descent (called Yucatecos) in political and economic control. ... san luis rio colorado ... The Tequistlatecan language group also called Chontal of Oaxaca consists of three distinct languages. ... This does not cite its references or sources. ... Mexico shares international borders with three nations: To the north, the United States–Mexico border, which extends for a length of 3141 km through the states of Baja California, Sonora, Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León and Tamaulipas. ... Tuscarawas County is a county located in the state of Ohio. ... Mocho or Mototzintlec is a language belonging to Kanjobalan-Chujean family of Mayan languages spoken in Mexico. ... A municipio (Spanish for municipality) is a second-level political and administrative division in Mexico. ... Jacaltenango Is a small town in Huehuetenango, Guatemala, its a beatiful town located at a valley surrounded by the Sierra Madre mountains, it has a population of about 20,000 people and about a third its indigenous, its economy its based mainly in agrultural products, specially coffee, it exports about... La Democracia is a municipality in the Guatemalan department of Huehuetenango. ... Concepción (Spanish for conception, in reference to the Immaculate Conception of Roman Catholic dogma) is the name of several towns and cities in Latin America: Concepción, Chile Concepción, Santander, Colombia Concepción, Campeche, Mexico Concepción, Tabasco, Mexico Concepción, Paraguay Concepción, Zulia State, Venezuela And... San Antonio Huista is a municipality in the Guatemalan department of Huehuetenango. ... Santa Ana Huista is a municipality in the Guatemalan department of Huehuetenango. ... Nentón is a municipality in the Guatemalan department of Huehuetenango. ... See Anthropology. ... Tojolabal is a Mayan language spoken in Chiapas, Mexico. ... March 26 is the 85th day of the year (86th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... February 23 is the 54th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ...

References

Wikisource has an original article from the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia about:

Maya Indians

• Barrera Vásquez, Alfredo; Juan Ramón Bastarrachea Manzano and William Brito Sansores (1980). Diccionario maya Cordemex : maya-español, español-maya. Mérida, Yucatán, México: Ediciones Cordemex. OCLC 7550928.  (Spanish)
• Bolles, David (1997–). Combined Dictionary–Concordance of the Yucatecan Mayan Language (revised 2003). Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies, Inc. (FAMSI). Retrieved on 2006-12-12.
• Bolles, David; and Alejandra Bolles (2004). A Grammar of the Yucatecan Mayan Language (revised online edition, 1996 Lee, New Hampshire). Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies, Inc. (FAMSI). The Foundation Research Department. Retrieved on 2006-12-12.
• Campbell, Lyle (1997). American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America (Oxford Studies in Anthropological Linguistics, 4). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-195-09427-1. 
• Campbell, Lyle; and Una Canger (1978). "Chicomuceltec's last throes". International Journal of American Linguistics 44: pp.228–230. ISSN 0020-7071. 
• Campbell, Lyle; and Terrence Kaufman (1976). "A Linguistic Look at the Olmec". American Antiquity 41 (1): pp.80–89. ISSN 0002-7316. 
• Campbell, Lyle; and Terrence Kaufman (October 1985). "Mayan Linguistics: Where are We Now?". Annual Review of Anthropology 14 (1): pp.187–195. DOI:10.1146/annurev.an.14.100185.001155. 
• Campbell, Lyle; Terrence Kaufman and Thomas C. Smith-Stark (1986). "Meso-America as a Linguistic Area". Language 62 (3): pp. 530–570. 
• Choi, Jinsook (2002). "The Role of Language in Ideological Construction of Mayan Identities in Guatemala" (PDF). Texas Linguistic Forum 45: Proceedings of the Tenth Annual Symposium about Language and Society—Austin, April 12–14. 
• Coe, Michael D. (1987). The Maya, 4th edition (revised), London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-27455-X. 
• Curl, John (2005). Ancient American Poets. Tempe AZ: Bilingual Press. ISBN 1-931010-21-8. 
• Dienhart, John M. (1997). The Mayan Languages- A Comparative Vocabulary (electronic version). Odense University. Retrieved on 2006-12-12.
• Edmonson, Munro S. (1968). "Classical Quiche", in Norman A. McQuown (Volume ed.): Handbook of Middle American Indians, Vol. 5: Linguistics, R. Wauchope (General Editor), Austin: University of Texas Press, pp.249–268. ISBN 0-292-73665-7. 
• Edmonson, Munro S. (1985.). "Quiche Literature", in Victoria Reifler Bricker (volume ed.): Supplement to the Handbook of Middle American Indians, Volume 3. Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-77593-8. 
• Edmonson, Munro S.; and Victoria R. Bricker (1985.). "Yucatecan Mayan Literature", in Victoria Reifler Bricker (volume ed.): Supplement to the Handbook of Middle American Indians, Volume 3. Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-77593-8. 
• England, Nora C. (1994). Autonomia de los Idiomas Mayas: Historia e identidad. (Ukuta'miil Ramaq'iil Utzijob'aal ri Maya' Amaaq'.), 2nd edition, Guatemala City: Cholsamaj. ISBN 84-89451-05-2.  (Spanish)
• Fabri, Antonella (2003). "Genocide or Assimilation: Discourses of Women's Bodies, Health, and Nation in Guatemala", in Richard Harvey Brown (ed.): The Politics of Selfhood: Bodies and Identities in Global Capitalism. University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 0-8166-3754-7. 
• Fernández de Miranda, María Teresa (1968). "Inventory of Classificatory Materials", in Norman A. McQuown (Volume ed.): Handbook of Middle American Indians, Vol. 5: Linguistics, R. Wauchope (General Editor), Austin: University of Texas Press, pp.63–78. ISBN 0-292-73665-7. 
• Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (Ed.) (2005). Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Fifteenth edition, online version, Dallas, TX: SIL International. Retrieved on 2006-12-06. 
• Gossen, Gary (1985). "Tzotzil Literature", in Victoria Reifler Bricker (ed.): Supplement to the Handbook of Middle American Indians, Volume 3. Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-77593-8. 
• Grenoble, Lenore A.; and Lindsay J. Whaley (1998). "Preface", in Lenore A. Grenoble and Lindsay J. Whaley (eds.): Endangered languages: Current issues and future prospects. (PDF), Cambridge University Press, xi-xii. ISBN 0-521-59102-3. 
• Houston, Stephen D.; John Robertson and David Stuart (2000). "The Language of Classic Maya Inscriptions". Current Anthropology 41 (3): pp.321–356. ISSN 0010-3204. 
• Kaufman, Terrence (1976). "Archaeological and Linguistic Correlations in Mayaland and Associated Areas of Meso-America". World Archaeology 8 (1): pp. 101–118. ISSN 0043-8243. 
• Kettunen, Harri; and Christophe Helmke (2005). Introduction to Maya Hieroglyphs (PDF), Wayeb and Leiden University. Retrieved on 2006-10-10. 
• Lenkersdorf, Carlos (1996). Los hombres verdaderos. Voces y testimonios tojolabales. Lengua y sociedad, naturaleza y cultura, artes y comunidad cósmica. Mexico City: Siglo XXI. ISBN 968-23-1998-6.  (Spanish)
• Longacre, Robert (1968). "Systemic Comparison and Reconstruction", in Norman A. McQuown (Volume ed.): Handbook of Middle American Indians, Vol. 5: Linguistics, R. Wauchope (General Editor), Austin: University of Texas Press, pp.117–159. ISBN 0-292-73665-7. 
• McQuown, Norman A. (1968). "Classical Yucatec (Maya)", in Norman A. McQuown (Volume ed.): Handbook of Middle American Indians, Vol. 5: Linguistics, R. Wauchope (General Editor), Austin: University of Texas Press, pp.201–248. ISBN 0-292-73665-7. 
• Mooney, James (1911). "Maya Indians". Catholic Encyclopedia (New Advent online reproduction) vol. X. New York: Robert Appleton and Company. Retrieved on 2007-06-06. 
• Oxlajuuj Keej Maya' Ajtz'iib' (OKMA) (1993). Maya' chii'. Los idiomas Mayas de Guatemala. Guatemala City: Cholsamaj. ISBN 89451-52-4. 
• Sapper, Karl (1912). "Über einige Sprachen von Südchiapas". Proceedings of the Seventeenth International Congress of Americanists (1910): pp.295–320.  (German)
• Schele, Linda; and David Friedel (1990). A Forest of Kings: The Untold Story of the Ancient Maya. New York: William Morrow. ISBN 0-688-07456-1. 
• Soustelle, Jacques (1984). The Olmecs: The Oldest Civilization in Mexico. New York: Doubleday and Co. ISBN 0-385-17249-4. 
• Spence, Jack; David R. Dye, Paula Worby, Carmen Rosa de Leon-Escribano, George Vickers, and Mike Lanchin (August 1988). Promise and Reality: Implementation of the Guatemalan Peace Accords. Hemispheres Initiatives. Retrieved on 2006-12-06.
• Suaréz, Jorge A. (1983). The Mesoamerican Indian Languages (Cambridge Language Surveys). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-22834-4. 
• Tozzer, Alfred M. [1921] (1977). A Maya Grammar, (unabridged republication), New York: Dover. ISBN 0-486-23465-7. 

Image File history File links Wikisource-logo. ... The original Wikisource logo. ... This article needs additional references or sources for verification. ... The Online Computer Library Center (OCLC) was founded in 1967 and originally named the Ohio College Library Center. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 346th day of the year (347th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 346th day of the year (347th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Lyle Campbell is a linguist at the University of Utah in Salt Lake City, Utah, and the director of the universitys Center for American Indian Languages (CAIL). ... Lyle Campbell is a linguist at the University of Utah in Salt Lake City, Utah, and the director of the universitys Center for American Indian Languages (CAIL). ... Una Canger (neé Una Rasmussen)(May 14, 1938 – ) is a danish linguist specializing in languages of Mesoamerica. ... The International Journal of American Linguistics (IJAL) is an academic journal devoted to the study of the indigenous languages of the Americas. ... ISSN, or International Standard Serial Number, is the unique eight-digit number applied to a periodical publication including electronic serials. ... Lyle Campbell is a linguist at the University of Utah in Salt Lake City, Utah, and the director of the universitys Center for American Indian Languages (CAIL). ... Terrence Kaufman is an American linguist specializing in documentation of unwritten languages, Mesoamerican historical linguistics and language contact phenomena. ... ISSN, or International Standard Serial Number, is the unique eight-digit number applied to a periodical publication including electronic serials. ... Lyle Campbell is a linguist at the University of Utah in Salt Lake City, Utah, and the director of the universitys Center for American Indian Languages (CAIL). ... Terrence Kaufman is an American linguist specializing in documentation of unwritten languages, Mesoamerican historical linguistics and language contact phenomena. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... Lyle Campbell is a linguist at the University of Utah in Salt Lake City, Utah, and the director of the universitys Center for American Indian Languages (CAIL). ... Terrence Kaufman is an American linguist specializing in documentation of unwritten languages, Mesoamerican historical linguistics and language contact phenomena. ... PDF is an abbreviation with several meanings: Portable Document Format Post-doctoral fellowship Probability density function There also is an electronic design automation company named PDF Solutions. ... I dont know anything! ... Odense University, now Syddansk Universitet Odense or SDU Odense in abbreviated form, is part of the University of Southern Denmark since 1998. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 346th day of the year (347th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Robert Wauchope may refer to one of several people: Robert Wauchope (archbishop) Archbishop of Armagh from 1539 to 1551 Robert Wauchope (admiral) Royal Navy Admiral and Inventor of the time ball Sometimes refers to : Robert Wauch Royal Navy Captain and namesake of Wauchope, New South Wales. ... Robert Wauchope may refer to one of several people: Robert Wauchope (archbishop) Archbishop of Armagh from 1539 to 1551 Robert Wauchope (admiral) Royal Navy Admiral and Inventor of the time ball Sometimes refers to : Robert Wauch Royal Navy Captain and namesake of Wauchope, New South Wales. ... SIL International is a worldwide non-profit evangelical Christian organization whose main purpose is to study, develop and document lesser-known languages in order to expand linguistic knowledge, promote literacy and aid minority language development. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... December 6 is the 340th day of the year (341st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... PDF is an abbreviation with several meanings: Portable Document Format Post-doctoral fellowship Probability density function There also is an electronic design automation company named PDF Solutions. ... Stephen D. Houston (1958—) is an American anthropologist, epigrapher and Mayanist scholar, who is particularly renowned for his research into the pre-Columbian Maya civilization of Mesoamerica. ... ISSN, or International Standard Serial Number, is the unique eight-digit number applied to a periodical publication including electronic serials. ... Terrence Kaufman is an American linguist specializing in documentation of unwritten languages, Mesoamerican historical linguistics and language contact phenomena. ... ISSN, or International Standard Serial Number, is the unique eight-digit number applied to a periodical publication including electronic serials. ... PDF is an abbreviation with several meanings: Portable Document Format Post-doctoral fellowship Probability density function There also is an electronic design automation company named PDF Solutions. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 283rd day of the year (284th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Robert Wauchope may refer to one of several people: Robert Wauchope (archbishop) Archbishop of Armagh from 1539 to 1551 Robert Wauchope (admiral) Royal Navy Admiral and Inventor of the time ball Sometimes refers to : Robert Wauch Royal Navy Captain and namesake of Wauchope, New South Wales. ... Robert Wauchope may refer to one of several people: Robert Wauchope (archbishop) Archbishop of Armagh from 1539 to 1551 Robert Wauchope (admiral) Royal Navy Admiral and Inventor of the time ball Sometimes refers to : Robert Wauch Royal Navy Captain and namesake of Wauchope, New South Wales. ... This article needs additional references or sources for verification. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... is the 157th day of the year (158th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Karl Theodor Sapper (1866–1945) was a German traveller, explorer, antiquarian and linguist, who is known for his research into the natural history, cultures and languages of Central America around the turn of the 20th century. ... Linda Schele (1942 - 18 April 1998 was a noted expert in the field of Maya epigraphy and iconography. ... Jacques Soustelle was born in Montpellier, France on 3 February 1912 and died 6 August 1990. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... December 6 is the 340th day of the year (341st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Alfred Marston Tozzer (4 July 1877 - 5 October 1954) was an American anthropologist, archaeologist, linguist, and educator. ...

External links

Maya civilization Maya architecture Maya calendar Mayan languages Maya mythology Maya peoples Maya religion Maya society Image File history File linksMetadata Size of this preview: 800 × 467 pixel Image in higher resolution (2272 × 1326 pixel, file size: 1. ... The Maya civilization is a Mesoamerican civilization, noted for the only known fully developed written language of the pre-Columbian Americas, as well as its spectacular art, monumental architecture, and sophisticated mathematical and astronomical systems. ... As unique and spectacular as any Greek or Roman architecture, Maya architecture spans many thousands of years. ... The Maya calendar is actually a system of distinct calendars and almanacs used by the Maya civilization of pre-Columbian Mesoamerica, and by some modern Maya communities in highland Guatemala. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... this article concerns in particular the contemporary indigenous peoples and cultures who descend from, or remain, speakers of the Mayan languages of southern Mesoamerica. ... The indigenous religious beliefs and practices of the ancient and modern Maya vary greatly over space and time, but certain common features can be discerned, all of which are consistent with other Mesoamerican religions. ... It has been suggested that Maya women be merged into this article or section. ...

• The Guatemalan Academy of Mayan Languages - Spanish/Mayan site, the primary authority on Mayan Languages (Spanish)
• The Mayan Languages- A Comparative Vocabulary contains more than 40,000 entries for 31 Mayan languages
• Ethnologue Mayan language family tree, with ISO codes
• Mayan languages from the Rosetta Project
• Officializing Mayan Languages in the Guatemalan Peace Accord
• Online bibliography of Mayan languages at the University of Texas