This article about cannabis discusses the use of the plant as a medicinal drug. For other uses, see cannabis.

Medical marijuana is an expression originating in the North America and refers to the use of Cannabis sativa (hemp) as a therapeutic prescription drug, most notably as an antiemetic. photographer unknown. ... NLM (National Library of Medicine, contains resources for patients and healthcare professionals) Virtual Hospital (digital health sciences library by the University of Iowa) Online Medical Dictionary Collection of links to free medical resources Wikicities has a wiki about medicine: Medicine Categories: Medicine | Health ... A drug is any substance that can be used to modify a chemical process or processes in the body, for example to treat an illness, relieve a symptom, enhance a performance or ability, or to alter states of mind. ... Species Cannabis sativa Cannabis indica Cannabis ruderalis Cannabis is a plant genus and may refer to any of these articles: Uses, effects, areas of study: Cannabis (drug) discusses its use as a psychoactive drug. ... World map showing location of North America A satellite composite image of North America North America is a continent in the northern hemisphere, bounded on the north by the Arctic Ocean, on the east by the North Atlantic Ocean, on the south by the Caribbean Sea, and on the west... Binomial name Cannabis sativa Linnaeus see text Cannabis, also known as hemp, is a genus of hardy, dioecious, annual herb. ... U.S. Marihuana production permit, from the film Hemp for Victory. ... A prescription drug is a medication that is regulated by legislation to require a prescription before it can be obtained. ... An antiemetic is a drug that is effective against vomiting and nausea. ...

The name marijuana is Mexican or Latin American in origin. That marijuana is now well known in English as a name for cannabis is due largely to the efforts of U.S. drug prohibitionists during the 1920s and 30s. Under the name hemp the herb was already well known as a source of industrial materials and, under the name cannabis, it was also in widespread legal use as a medicine. Wikiquote has a collection of quotations by or about: United States Wikinews has a related story: United States United States government CIA World Factbook Entry for United States House. ...

Due to the widespread use of cannabis as a recreational drug, even in jurisdictions where it is illegal, its licensed or legalized use in medicine is now a controversial issue—particularly in the United States and the UK. Recreational drug use is the use of psychoactive drugs for recreational rather than medical or spiritual purposes, although the distinction is not always clear. ...

There are many competing claims regarding the use of cannabis in a medicinal context. Some claim that it is effective for a wide spectrum of medical problems, while others limit its efficacy to a few specific circumstances. On the other side of the debate, there are those who feel that cannabis simply has no legitimate medical uses, and others who feel that there are theoretical uses that are superseded by more effective treatments using other drugs. As an example, Dr. Stuart Hoffman, formerly a private oncologist and now working for ChoicePoint, a drug testing company, has claimed that other combinations of drugs render any potential use of cannabis outdated [1]. Please refer to cancer for the biology of malignant disease, as well as a list of malignant diseases. ... This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ... Drug testing is a subject of a lot of controversy. ...

Though the United States federal government does not, and never has, recognized legitimate medical uses, Francis L. Young, an administrative law judge with the Drug Enforcement Agency, has declared that in its natural form, (cannabis) is one of the safest therapeutically active substances known [2]. Francis L. Young served as Chief Administrative Law Judge for the Drug Enforcement Administration during the late 1980s. ... Since 1973, the DEA has enforced the drug laws in the United States. ...

History

Cannabis has been used for medicinal purposes since at least 2,000 years ago. Surviving texts from China, India, Greece and Persia confirm that its psychoactive properties were recognized, and the ancient doctors used it for a variety of illnesses and ailments. These included a whole host of gastrointestinal disorders, insomnia, headaches and as a pain reliever, frequently used in childbirth. Iran (Persia) (Persian: ایران) is a Middle Eastern country located in Southwest Asia. ...

Cannabis as a medicine was common throughout most of the world in the 1800s. It was used as the primary painkiller until the invention of aspirin. Modern medical and scientific inquiry began with doctors like O'Shaughnessy and Moreau de Tours, who used it to treat melancholia, migraines, and as a sleeping aid, analgesic and anticonvulsant. Events and Trends Beginning of the Napoleonic Wars (1803 - 1815). ... A very old bottle of Aspirin Aspirin or acetylsalicylic acid is a drug in the family of salicylates, often used as an analgesic (against minor pains and aches), antipyretic (against fever), and anti-inflammatory. ... Disambiugation: This article is about the toxicologist and chemist. ... Melancholia (Greek μελαγχολια) was described as a distinct disease as early as the fifth and fourth centuries BC in the Hippocratic writings. ... An analgesic (colloquially known as painkiller) is any member of the diverse group of drugs used to relieve pain. ... The anticonvulsants, sometimes also called antiepileptics, belong to a diverse group of pharmaceuticals used in prevention of the occurrence of epileptic seizures. ...

By the time the United States banned the plant (the first country to do so), it was no longer extremely popular. The only opponent to the bill, The Marihuana Tax Act, was the representative of the American Medical Association. The American Medical Association (AMA) is the largest association of medical doctors in the United States. ...

Later in the century, researchers investigating methods of detecting marijuana intoxication discovered that smoking the drug reduced intraocular pressure. High intraocular pressure causes blindness in glaucoma patients, so many believed that using the drug could prevent blindness in patients. Many Vietnam War veterans also believed that the drug prevented muscle spasms caused by battle-induced spinal injuries. Later medical use has focused primarily on its role in preventing the wasting syndromes and chronic loss of appetite associated with chemotherapy and AIDS, along with a variety of rare muscular and skeletal disorders. Less commonly, cannabis has been used in the treatment of alcoholism and addiction to other drugs such as heroin and the prevention of migraines. The Vietnam War was fought from 1957 to 1975 between Soviet and Chinese-supported Vietnamese nationalist and Communist forces and an array of Western and pro-Western forces, most notably the United States. ... Chemotherapy is the use of chemical substances to treat disease. ... The Red Ribbon symbol is used internationally to represent the fight against AIDS. AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome or Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome, rarely written Aids) is a disease characterized by the destruction of the human immune system. ... Polish propaganda poster saying: Stop drinking! Come with us build happy tomorrows. ... Addiction is an uncontrollable compulsion to repeat a behavior regardless of its consequences. ... Many drugs are provided in tablet form. ... Heroin or diamorphine (INN) (colloquially referred to as brown sugar, junk, babania, horse, golden brown, smack, black tar, H, big H, lady H, dope, skag, juice, diesel, etc. ...

In 1972 Tod H. Mikuriya, M.D. reignited the debate concerning marijuana as medicine when he published "Marijuana Medical Papers 1839-1972". Tod H. Mikuriya (b. ...

Later in the 1970s, a synthetic version of THC, the primary active ingredient in cannabis, was synthesized to make the drug Marinol. Users reported several problems with Marinol, however, that led many to abandon the pill and resume smoking the plant. Patients complained that the violent nausea associated with chemotherapy made swallowing pills difficult. Smoked marijuana takes effect almost immediately, and is therefore easily dosed; many patients only smoke enough to feel the medical effects -- many complained that Marinol was more potent than they needed, and that the mental effects made normal daily functioning impossible. In addition, Marinol was far more expensive, costing upwards of several thousand dollars a year for the same effect as smoking a plant easily grown throughout most of the world. Many users felt Marinol was less effective, and that the mental effects were far more disastrous; some studies have indicated that other chemicals in the plant may have a synergistic effect with THC. This article provides extensive lists of events and significant personalities of the 1970s. ... Tetrahydrocannabinol, also known as THC, Δ9-THC, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol), Δ1-tetrahydrocannabinol (using an older numbering scheme), or dronabinol, is the main psychoactive substance found in the hemp plant Cannabis sativa. ... Marinol. ...

In addition, during the 1970s and 1980s, six US states' health departments performed studies on the use of medical marijuana. These are widely considered some of the most useful and pioneering studies on the subject.

Early studies on efficacy

New Mexico

Approved by the Food and Drug Administration, the study included 250 patients and compared smoked marijuana to oral THC. All participants were referred by an MD and had failed to control vomiting using at least three alternative antiemetics. Patients chose smoking marijuana or taking the THC pill. Multiple objective and subjective standards were used to determing the effectiveness. The United States Food and Drug Administration is the government agency responsible for regulating food, dietary supplements, drugs, cosmetics, medical devices, biologics and blood products in the United States. ...

• Conclusion: Marijuana is far superior to the best available drug, Compazine, and smoked marijuana is clearly superior to oral THC. "More than ninety percent of the patients who received marijuana... reported significant or total relief from nausea and vomiting". No major side effects were reported, though three patients reported adverse reactions that did not involve marijuana alone. The report can be read here

Prochlorperazine is a typical antipsychotic drug sold under the names Compazine and Stemetil. ...

New York

New York ran a large scale study using 199 patients who had not found success with other antiemetic therapies. Each patient received 6,044 marijuana cigarettes, which were provided to the patient during 514 treatment episodes

• Conclusions: North Shore Hospital reported marijuana was effective at reducing emesis 92.9 percent of the time; Columbia Memorial Hospital reported efficacy of 89.7 percent; Upstate Medical Center, St. Joseph's Hospital and Jamestown General Hospital reported 100 percent of the patients smoking marijuana gained significant benefit. "Patient evaluations have indicated that approximately ninety-three (93) percent of marijuana inhalation treatment episodes are reported to be effective or highly effective when compared to other antiemetics."; no serious adverse side effects were reported.

Tennessee

27 patients had failed on other antiemetic therapies, including oral THC.

• Conclusion: 90.4% success for smoked marijuana; 66.7% for oral THC. "We found both marijuana smoking and THC capsules to be effective antiemetics. We found an approximate 23 percent higher success rate among those patients administered THC capsules. We found no significant differences in success rates by age group. We found that the major reason for smoking failure was smoking intolerance; while the major reason for THC capsule failure was nausea and vomiting so severe that the patient could not retain the capsule.

California

A series of studies throughout the 1980s involved 90–100 patients a year. The study was designed to make it easier for patients to enter the oral THC part of the study. Patients who wanted smoked marijuana had to be over 15 years old (oral THC patients had to be over 5) and use the drug only in the hospital and not at home. Smoked marijuana patients also had to receive rare and painful forms of chemotherapy. // Events and trends The 1980s marked an abrupt shift towards more conservative lifestyles after the momentous cultural revolutions which took place in the 1960s and 1970s and the definition of the AIDS virus in 1981. ...

• Conclusion: Despite the bias towards oral THC, the California study concluded that smoked marijuana was more effective and established a safe dosage regimen that minimized adverse side effects. The full text of the study can be seen here.

Michigan

165 patients were randomly assigned to use either Torecan, an antiemetic, or smoked marijuana. The randomization process failed, however, and the patients were allowed to crossover.

• Conclusion: 71.1% of marijuana users reported no or moderate nausea and 90% chose to continue using it; 8 out of 83 patients who had initially been randomly assigned to marijuana chose to switch to Torecan; 22 out of 23 patients randomized to Torecan chose to switch to smoked marijuana. Side effects included increased appetite (this is a positive effect) reported by 32.3%, insomnia, reported by 21% and sore throat, reported by 13 patients out of 165.

Georgia

119 patients that had failed using other antiemetics were randomly assigned to oral THC pills and either standardized or patient-controlled smoking of marijuana.

• Conclusion: All three categories were successful -- patient controlled smokers at 72.2%; standardized smokers at 65.4%; oral THC at 76%. Failure of oral THC patients was due to adverse reaction (6 out of 18) or failure to improve (9 out of 18); failure of smoking marijuana was due to intolerance for smoking (6 out of 14) or failure to improve (3 out of 14).

Current status of medical marijuana around the world

International law

Marijuana is in Schedule IV of the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, making it subject to special restrictions. Article 2 provides for the following, in reference to Schedule IV drugs: Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs Opened for signature March 30, 1961 at New York Entered into force December 13, 1964[1] Conditions for entry into force 40 ratifications Parties 180[2] The Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs is the international treaty against illicit drug manufacture and trafficking that forms the...

A Party shall, if in its opinion the prevailing conditions in its country render it the most appropriate means of protecting the public health and welfare, prohibit the production, manufacture, export and import of, trade in, possession or use of any such drug except for amounts which may be necessary for medical and scientific research only, including clinical trials therewith to be conducted under or subject to the direct supervision and control of the Party.

This provision, while apparently providing for the limitation of marijuana to research purposes only, also seems to allow some latitude for nations to make their own judgments. The official Commentary on the Single Convention indicates that Parties are expected to make that judgment in good faith.

Albania

In spite of laws prohibiting growing and possessing cannabis, enforcement has been virtually nil. There have been fewer than ten arrests in five years.

Australia

After politicians in the Australian Capital Territory voted to allow doctors to determine when cannabis was appropriate for their patients, intense lobbying by the federal government resulted in the legislation being overturned. Motto: Pro Rege, Lege et Grege (For the Queen, the Law and the People) Nickname: (none) Other Australian states and territories Capital Canberra Government Administrator Chief Minister Const. ...

Belgium

Though the drug is still illegal, the Belgian government has recently initiated trials to determine the effectiveness of medical marijuana, and may soon decriminalize possession of small amounts.

Cameroon

Growing cannabis for any reason is illegal, though AIDS and cancer patients are allowed to use the drug to treat their symptoms. The Red Ribbon symbol is used internationally to represent the fight against AIDS. AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome or Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome, rarely written Aids) is a disease characterized by the destruction of the human immune system. ... When normal cells are damaged or old they undergo apoptosis; cancer cells, however, avoid apoptosis. ...

Canada

In Hitzig v. Canada (2003), a court again declared Canada's Marijuana Medical Access Regulations unconstitutional "in not allowing seriously ill Canadians to use marijuana because there is no legal source of supply of the drug." In effect, this means that Canadians cannot be prosecuted for using marijuana medically because the Marijuana Medical Access Regulations gives patients the right to do so, but does not set up any legal apparatus for obtaining cannabis. Hitzig v. ...

Back in July 2000, in the "Parker" (epileptic Terry Parker) decision, another judge had made a declaration of invalidity of Canada's drug laws as they relate to the "simple possession" of marijuana due to the lack of a reasonable exemption from the law for medicinal use. The Canadian government was given one year (a suspension of the declaration of invalidity) to remedy the situation, and created the Marijuana Medical Access Regulations. These regulations have been repeatedly deemed unconstitutional in a series of court decisions including "Hitzig."

In a similar case based upon these decisions, lawyer Brian McAllister argued on behalf of a 16 year old that because the Canadian government, after setting up the MMAR, never reenacted the relevant section of the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act, Canada effectively has no prosecutable laws prohibiting the "simple possession" of any amount of cannabis. The Controlled Drugs and Substances Act is Canadas federal drug control statute. ... Possession is having some degree of control over something else. ...

Representatives of the United States federal government have claimed that decriminalizing cannabis in Canada may disrupt border trade and relations between the two countries; many Canadians believe that this remains the primary obstacle to decriminalization in Canada. There is some belief that American egotism or desire to be "the world's policeman" is a factor in its attitudes. Border trade is the increased trade in areas near a national border caused by a price difference, either generally or only for particular products (especially alcohol and tobacco products), in the two countries. ... Decriminalization is the process of making an action no longer a criminal act in the relevant jurisdiction. ...

Canada produces about 400kg of medical marijuana annually, in an abandoned mine in Flin Flon, Manitoba. On April 19, 2005, the Canadian government additionally licenced the prescription sale of a natural marijuana extract - effectively liquid marijuana - called Sativex. [3] Flin Flon, Manitoba-Saskatchewan (pop. ... April 19 is the 109th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (110th in leap years). ... Sativex is a mouth spray for multiple sclerosis sufferers, who can use it to alleviate pain. ...

Germany

Purportedly, use is legal and possession of small amounts not enforced.

Israel

A small number of people have been granted special permission to use cannabis for medical uses by the Health Ministry.

Israel military uses marijuana for experimental treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder of soldiers. [4] [5] [6] The Israel Defense Forces (IDF) (Hebrew: צבא ההגנה לישראל Tsva Ha-Haganah Le-Yisrael ([Army] Force [for] the Defense of Israel), often abbreviated צהל Tsahal, alternative English spelling Tzahal, is the name of Israels armed forces, comprising the Israel army, Israel air force and Israel navy. ... Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a term for the psychological consequences of exposure to or confrontation with stressful experiences, which involve actual or threatened death, serious physical injury or a threat to physical integrity and which the person found highly traumatic. ...

Jamaica

Cannabis possession remains illegal for any reason, though enforcement is scarce. A recent panel recommended legalizing possession for adults for recreation or medical use.

Japan

All THC-containing forms of cannabis have been illegal since 1948, when the occupying forces of the United States enacted the Hemp Control Law after World War 2. 1948 is a leap year starting on Thursday (link will take you to calendar). ... German soldiers at the Battle of Stalingrad World War II was the most extensive and costly armed conflict in the history of the world, involving the great majority of the worlds nations, being fought simultaneously in several major theatres, and costing tens of millions of lives. ...

Luxembourg

Cannabis possession is now legal for adults for recreational or medical uses as long the possessor is not near a campus and no children are involved. A loophole in the law makes it impossible for police to search for or seize cannabis, making enforcement difficult.

Netherlands

Cannabis has been legally available for recreational use in coffee shops for several years. Thus it has also been available without a prescription for medical uses. In addition, since 2003 it is a legal prescription drug, available at the pharmacy. There it costs more than in the coffee shop: ca. €9 per gram. It is important to note that laws remain on the books classifying possesion and sale as illegal, but due to a non-enforcement policy, it has been de facto legalized. See Drug policy of the Netherlands. A Street Cafe, Jerusalem, Henry Fenn (1838- ): steel engraving in Picturesque Palestine, ca 1875 A coffeehouse, coffee shop, or café shares some of the characteristics of a bar, and some of the characteristics of a restaurant. ... A prescription drug is a medication that is regulated by legislation to require a prescription before it can be obtained. ... Pharmacy (from the Greek φάρμακον = drug) is the profession of compounding and dispensing medication. ... The drug policy of the Netherlands is based on two principles: Drug use is a public health issue, not a criminal matter A distinction between hard drugs and soft drugs exists It is a pragmatic policy. ...

New Zealand

Health Minister Annette King has stated that she is not "unsympathetic to using cannabis in a medicinal form. But that's different to saying we should let everybody smoke it." Her official position is that more conclusive studies are needed, and a method of regulating dosage is necessary before she support medical access to cannabis. Annette Faye King (born 13 September New Zealand politician. ...

Scott David Findlay, a paraplegic, was convicted of cannabis charges. The judge, Robert Spear (Dunedin District Court) offered to allow community service instead of imprisonment, but Findlay does not recognize the validity of New Zealand's cannabis laws and would not perform community service. Judge Spear claimed this was a "hollow protest" that he was nonetheless allowed to make, and sentenced him to three months imprisonment. Paraplegia is a condition where the lower half of a patients body is paralyzed and cannot move. ...

Portugal

Since 2001, possession of any drug for personal use has been legal, though sale and trafficking are still criminal offenses. One can still be arrested and fined for using cannabis in public, or for possession of more than 25 grams. 2001 is a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar. ...

Spain

Research provides an important new lead compound for anticancer drugs, links to the story can be found here. The full text of the study can be seen here.

South Africa

Prof. Frances Ames completed her research in 1958. The full text of the study can be seen here. Further medical research is currently being performed by the University of the Western Cape by Dr John Thomas.

Switzerland

Though all possession and cultivation remains illegal in most parts of the country, coffee shops can still be found in Bienne and Interlaken. However, power rests in the hands of the UDC (Union Droite Cretienne; Right Catholic Government), which is strongly committed to winning the fight against marijuana and all drugs in Switzerland.

United Kingdom

In 1998, a House of Lords inquiry recommended that cannabis be made available with a doctor's prescription. Though the government of the UK has not accepted the recommendations, new long-term clinical trials have been authorized. Increasingly, juries have returned verdicts of "not guilty" for people charged with marijuana possession for medical use. 1998 is a common year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar, and was designated the International Year of the Ocean. ... This article is about the British House of Lords. ...

In 2003, GW Pharmaceuticals, the UK company granted the exclusive licence to cultivate cannabis for medicinal trials announced the completion of its clinical trials. The company has said that it is on track for obtaining regulatory approval to license the manufacture and sale of a cannabis based medicine starting in 2004. (In April 2005 its Sativex marijuana extract was licenced for prescription sale in Canada.) 2003 is a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... 2004 is a leap year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ... April is the fourth month of the year in the Gregorian Calendar and one of four with the length of 30 days. ...

United States

There is a split between the US federal and state governments over medical marijuana policy. On June 6, 2005, the Supreme Court, in Gonzales v. Raich, ruled in a 6-3 decision that Congress has the right to outlaw medicinal marijuana, thus subjecting all patients to federal prosecution even in states where the treatment is legalized. Currently, there are ten states with effective medical marijuana laws on the books: Alaska, California, Colorado, Hawaii, Maine, Montana, Nevada, Oregon, Vermont, and Washington. June 6 is the 157th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (158th in leap years), with 208 days remaining. ... 2005 is a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar and is the current year. ... Gonzales v. ... State nickname: The Last Frontier, The Land of the Midnight Sun Other U.S. States Capital Juneau Largest city Anchorage Governor Frank Murkowski (R) Official languages English Area 1,717,854 km² (1st)  - Land 1,481,347 km²  - Water 236,507 km² (13. ... State nickname: The Golden State Other U.S. States Capital Sacramento Largest city Los Angeles Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger (R) Official languages English Area 410,000 km² (3rd)  - Land 404,298 km²  - Water 20,047 km² (4. ... This is the article on the state. ... State nickname: The Aloha State Other U.S. States Capital Honolulu Largest city Honolulu Governor Linda Lingle Official languages Hawaiian and English Area 28,337 km² (43rd)  - Land 16,649 km²  - Water 11,672 km² (41. ... State nickname: The Pine Tree State Other U.S. States Capital Augusta Largest city Portland Governor John Baldacci Official languages None Area 86,542 km² (39th)  - Land 80,005 km²  - Water 11,724 km² (13. ... State nickname: Treasure State Other U.S. States Capital Helena Largest city Billings Governor Brian Schweitzer Official languages English Area 381,156 km² (4th)  - Land 377,295 km²  - Water 3,862 km² (1%) Population (2000)  - Population 902,195 (44th)  - Density 2. ... State nickname: Silver State, Battle Born State (official) Other U.S. States Capital Carson City Largest city Las Vegas Governor Kenny Guinn Official languages None Area 286,367 km² (7th)  - Land 284,396 km²  - Water 1,971 km² (0. ... State nickname: Beaver State Other U.S. States Capital Salem Largest city Portland Governor Ted Kulongoski Official languages None Area 255,026 km² (9th)  - Land 248,849 km²  - Water 6,177 km² (2. ... State nickname: The Green Mountain State Other U.S. States Capital Montpelier Largest city Burlington Governor Jim Douglas Official languages None Area 24,923 km² (45th)  - Land 23,974 km²  - Water 949 km² (3. ... State nickname: The Evergreen State Other U.S. States Capital Olympia Largest city Seattle Governor Christine Gregoire Official languages None Area 184,824 km² (18th)  - Land 172,587 km²  - Water 12,237 km² (6. ...

The case brought into tension two themes of the Rehnquist court: the limits it has imposed on the federal government and the latitude it has afforded law enforcement officers. Those issues produced an unusual breakdown among the nine justices. William Rehnquist Chief Justice William Hubbs Rehnquist (born October 1, 1924) is an American jurist and former law clerk and Assistant Attorney General. ...

Joining Justice John Paul Stevens's majority decision were Justices Anthony M. Kennedy, David H. Souter, Ruth Bader Ginsburg and Stephen G. Breyer. Justice Antonin Scalia wrote separately to say he agreed with the result, though not the majority's reasoning. Chief Justice William H. Rehnquist and Justices Sandra Day O'Connor and Clarence Thomas dissented. Justice John Paul Stevens Justice John Paul Stevens (born April 20, 1920) is an American jurist who has been a U.S. Supreme Court Associate Justice since 1975; he is the oldest justice on the court. ... Justice Anthony Kennedy Anthony McLeod Kennedy (born July 23, 1936) has been a US Supreme Court Associate Justice since 1988. ... David Hackett Souter (born September 17, 1939) has been a US Supreme Court Associate Justice since 1990. ... Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg Justice Ruth Joan Bader Ginsburg (born March 15, 1933) is a United States jurist. ... Stephen Gerald Breyer (born August 15, 1938) has been a US Supreme Court Associate Justice since 1994. ... Justice Antonin Scalia Justice Antonin Scalia (born March 11, 1936) has been a U.S. Supreme Court Associate Justice since 1986. ... William H. Rehnquist has served as the Chief Justice of the United States since 1986. ... Justice Sandra Day OConnor Sandra Day OConnor (born March 26, 1930) has been an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States since 1981. ... Justice Clarence Thomas Justice Clarence Thomas (born June 23, 1948) is an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. ...

According to the federal Controlled Substances Act of 1970, marijuana "has no accepted medical use" and is illegal for any reason, with the notable exception of FDA-approved research programs. The Act allows mis-controlled substances to be reclassified by petition by any member of the public, but federal agencies whose power and budgets depend on the illegal status of marijuana have denied each such petition (another, by Jon Gettman, is pending). See cannabis rescheduling in the United States. FDA logo The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is the government agency responsible for regulating food (human and animal), dietary supplements, drugs (human and animal), cosmetics, medical devices (human and animal), biologics and blood products in the United States. ... Schedules of Controlled Substances Schedule I The drug or other substance has a high potential for abuse. ...

A successful "medical necessity" defense by patient Robert Randall led the FDA to create an "Investigational New Drug Program", which provides medical marijuana grown under a NIDA contract at the Research Institute for Pharmaceutical Science at the University of Mississippi to a small number of patients since 1978. The program was closed to new patients in 1992 when many AIDS patients applied. Six living patients continue to receive federal marijuana, including Irvin Rosenfeld [7] (for bone spurs), Elvy Musikka (for glaucoma), and George McMahon (who authored Prescription Pot, a book detailing the federal program, which contains the only existing medical study performed on the legal patients). These patients are required by the U.S. Government to smoke the marijuana through a "rolled paper tube" (they are not allowed to eat it or use pipes or vaporizers). All the patients and their doctors report significant medical benefits from their use of marijuana. Cover of a NIDA educational booklet. ... The Red Ribbon symbol is used internationally to represent the fight against AIDS. AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome or Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome, rarely written Aids) is a disease characterized by the destruction of the human immune system. ...

DEA and NIDA opposition prevented any scientific studies of medical marijuana for more than a decade, but in the 1990s, activists and doctors were energized by seeing marijuana help dying AIDS patients. A study of smoked marijuna at the University of California at San Francisco under Dr. Donald Abrams was approved after five years of bureacracy. Further research followed, particularly due to a ten million dollar research appropriation by the California legislature. Many years of work remain before sufficient research could be approved and conducted to meet the FDA's standards for approving marijuana as a new prescription medicine. Politicians are generally hostile to altering the status of marijuana. However, the popularity of medical marijuana among ordinary citizens, who regularly poll at about 75% in favor, has resulted in the introduction of bills in Congress which would eliminate federal controls in states which approve medical marijuana. No such bill has received enough votes in Congress to become law, possibly because the currently dominant Republican Party is opposed. Since 1973, the DEA has enforced the drug laws in the United States. ... The University of California (UC) is a public university system within the State of California. ... The downtown San Francisco skyline, looking east from the central part of the city. ... The Republican Party, often called the GOP (for Grand Old Party, although one early citation described it as the Gallant Old Party [1]), is one of the two major political parties in the United States. ...

At the state level, thirty-three states and the District of Columbia have legislation on the books which allows for medical use of marijuana. Most require that it be "prescribed", which is problematic when federal agencies control doctors' power to prescribe. Ten states have made laws which permit doctors to instead "recommend" marijuana, starting with California Proposition 215 (1996). The most recent such state was Montana in 2004, with voters 62% in favor and 38% opposed. Hawaii, Maine and Maryland have legalized medical marijuana by legislative action, and the California legislature expanded patient protections in 2003. District of Columbia voters also passed several modern medical marijuana initiatives, but Congress first denied the funds to count the vote, then when that was declared unconstitutional, voted to overturn the initiative. Even in the best states, law enforcement agencies and individual officers frequently violate the law and the rights of patients, by stealing or destroying medical marijuana, and/or arresting the patients. For example, the official position of the California Narcotics Officers Association is that medical marijuana activists "misled" the public which voted to change the law [8]. Legal and social support groups such as Americans for Safe Access [9] have sprung up in defense. Proposition 215 was a proposition in the state of California on the November 5, 1996 ballot. ... State nickname: The Aloha State Other U.S. States Capital Honolulu Largest city Honolulu Governor Linda Lingle Official languages Hawaiian and English Area 28,337 km² (43rd)  - Land 16,649 km²  - Water 11,672 km² (41. ... State nickname: The Pine Tree State Other U.S. States Capital Augusta Largest city Portland Governor John Baldacci Official languages None Area 86,542 km² (39th)  - Land 80,005 km²  - Water 11,724 km² (13. ... State nickname: Old Line State; Free State Other U.S. States Capital Annapolis Largest city Baltimore Governor Robert L. Ehrlich Official languages English Area 32,160 km² (42nd)  - Land 25,338 km²  - Water 6,968 km² (21%) Population (2000)  - Population 5,296,486 (19th)  - Density 165 /km² (5th) Admission into... State nickname: The Golden State Other U.S. States Capital Sacramento Largest city Los Angeles Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger (R) Official languages English Area 410,000 km² (3rd)  - Land 404,298 km²  - Water 20,047 km² (4. ... Aerial photo (looking NW) of the Washington Monument and the White House in Washington, D.C. Washington, D.C., officially the District of Columbia (also known as D.C.; Washington; the Nations Capital; the District; and, historically, the Federal City) is the capital city and administrative district of the...

Sale of medical marijuana is illegal or barely legal, even in states where patients have the right to grow or use it, due to public confusion between dispensaries and "drug dealers". However, medical marijuana dispensaries have been established in many locations, particularly in California, where they work openly with local government officials to resolve any difficulties. Many offer social services, medical consultations, and support groups as well as medicine. The first such dispensary, run by Dennis Peron, operated openly in San Francisco for years, even before medical marijuana was legalized. Thousands of otherwise healthy and well-behaved local gay men had died, before scientists could be persuaded to begin researching their disease. Local police and politicians did not want to be seen arresting suffering AIDS patients, or denying them any medicine that could help them. This gay community activism led directly to the "Compassionate Use Act" medical marijuana initiative, California Proposition 215 (1996), which voters approved. Proposition 215 was a proposition in the state of California on the November 5, 1996 ballot. ...

Federal Drug Enforcement Administration agents regularly harass, steal from, and/or arrest medical marijuana growers and sellers. Close to 30 federal criminal cases about medical marijuana are pending. Several jurisdictions, including Oakland, California and San Mateo County, California have announced plans to distribute medical marijuana to patients. Ed Rosenthal, author of dozens of books on marijuana cultivation, grew small "starter" plants for patients on behalf of the city government of Oakland. He was convicted in federal court of manufacturing marijuana, by a jury which was never told that his marijuana was for medical patients. Shortly after the trial, eight of the fourteen jurors (and alternates) who convicted him called a press conference and denounced their verdict, arguing that the trial was not fair because the evidence that Rosenthal was growing marijuana for medical use, working on behalf of the city, and was told by DEA agents and city officials that he was immune to prosecution, was all suppressed by the judge as "irrelevant under federal law". The jury discovered the real facts, by reading newspapers, within hours after delivering their verdict. As a result of the intense public scrutiny, Rosenthal was given a sentence of only one day. He is appealing his felony conviction, and the federal government is appealing the short sentence; both appeals are on hold pending the Supreme Court's Raich decision. Since 1973, the DEA has enforced the drug laws in the United States. ... Aerial view looking west over downtown Oakland, Lake Merritt and the Port of Oakland. ... San Mateo County is a county located in the San Francisco Bay Area. ... Ed Rosenthal is a California horticulturalist, author, publisher, and cannabis grower. ...

Washington state Initiative 692, passed by the voters in 1998, also authorizes the medical use of marijuana. On November 2, 2004, the voters of Ann Arbor, Michigan passed a similar resolution with 75% approval. State nickname: The Evergreen State Other U.S. States Capital Olympia Largest city Seattle Governor Christine Gregoire Official languages None Area 184,824 km² (18th)  - Land 172,587 km²  - Water 12,237 km² (6. ... This is a list of all initiatives that have appeared before Washington state voters from 1914 to 2004, listed by number, subject, and result. ... 1998 is a common year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar, and was designated the International Year of the Ocean. ... November 2 is the 306th day of the year (307th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 59 days remaining. ... 2004 is a leap year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ... City nicknames: A-squared, Tree Town County Washtenaw County Mayor John Hieftje Area  - Total  - Water 71. ...

The official policy of the federal government in the United States is that medical marijuana is a myth, promulgated by activists who have the eventual goal of legalizing all drugs. The federal government has also applied considerable pressure to other nations so that they would enact and enforce laws against marijuana. It regularly threatens the government of Canada whenever Canada announces that it will relax restrictions on marijuana.

Citations of modern medical reports on marijuana

• Report on and index of marijuana medical studies by Todd Mikuriya, M.D.
• Janet E. Joy, Stanley J. Watson, Jr., and John A Benson, Jr., "Marijuana and Medicine: Assessing the Science Base," Division of Neuroscience and Behavioral Research, Institute of Medicine (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1999).
  • "The accumulated data indicate a potential therapeutic value for cannabinoid drugs, particularly for symptoms such as pain relief, control of nausea and vomiting, and appetite stimulation." and "At this point there are no convincing data to support (the concern that medical marijuana would lead to an increase in recreational use). The existing data are consistent with the idea that this would not be a problem if the medical use of marijuana were as closely regulated as other medications with abuse potential."
• Index of studies involving marijuana and multiple sclerosis
• Doblin et al., Marijuana as Antiemetic Medicine: A Survey of Oncologists' Experiences and Attitudes," Journal of Clinical Oncology, Vol. 9, No. 7, July 1991.
• [10] THC has been found to combat formation of arterial blockages
  • A random survey of oncologists found that 44% had illegally recommended marijuana for the control of vomiting and that 48% would do so if it were legal; 54% thought it should be available by prescription
• Vinciguerra et al., Inhalation Marijuana as an Antiemetic for Cancer Chemotherapy," The New York State Journal of Medicine, pgs., 525-527, October 1988
  • 56 patients who had achieved no success with other antiemetics; 72% found success -- the study also concluded that smoked marijuana was more effective than oral THC pills
• Chang et al., Delta-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol as an Antiemetic in Cancer Patients Receiving High Dose Methotrexate; Annals of Internal Medicine, Volume 91, Number 6, pg. 819-824, December 1979
  • A double-blind controlled study found a 72% reduction in nausea and vomiting; the study also concluded that smoked marijuana was more effective than oral THC
• Foltin, R.W., Brady, J.V. and Fischman, M.W. 1986. Behavioral analysis of marijuana effects on food intake in humans. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior. 25: 577-582; and Foltin, R.W. et al., 1988 Effects of Smoked Marijuana on Food Intake and Body Weight of Humans Living in a Residential Laboratory," Appetite 11:1-14; Greenberg, et al. 1976 Effects of Marijuana use on Body Weight and Caloric Intake in Humans; Psychopharmacology 49: 79-84.
  • These three studies concluded that marijuana increases appetite
• Sallan, S.E., Zinberg, N.E. and Frei, D., Antiemetic Effect of Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in Patients Receiving Cancer Chemotherapy; New England Journal of Medicine, 293(16): 795-797 (1975).
  • Study concluded that smoked marijuana was more beneficial than synthetic THC for some patients
• Donald P. Tashkin, MD, "Effects of Smoked Marijuana on the Lung and Its Immune Defenses: Implications for Medicinal Use in HIV-Infected Patients"; Journal of Cannabis Therapeutics, Vol. 1, No. 3/4, 2001, pp. 87-102
  • "Frequent marijuana use can cause airway injury, lung inflammation and impaired pulmonary defense against infection. The major potential pulmonary consequences of habitual marijuana use of particular relevance to patients with AIDS is superimposed pulmonary infection, which could be life threatening in the seriously immonocompromised patient. In view of the immonosuppressive effect of THC, the possibility that regular marijuana use could enhance progression of HIV infection itself needs to be considered, although this possibility remains unexplored to date."
• Guy A. Cabral, PhD, "Marijuana and Cannabinoids: Effects on Infections, Immunity, and AIDS"; Journal of Cannabis Therapeutics, Vol. 1, No. 3/4, 2001, pp. 61-85
  • "However, few controlled longitudinal epidemiological and immunological studies have been undertaken to correlate the immunosuppressive effects of marijuana smoke or cannabinoids on the incidence of infections or viral disease in humans. Clearly, additional investigation to resolve the long-term immunological consequences of cannabinoid and marijuana use as they relate to resistance to infections in humans is warranted."
• Ekert, H., et al. "Amelioration of Cancer Chemotherapy-Induced Nausea and Vomiting by Delta-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol." The Medical Journal of Australia. 1979.
• Sallan, Stephen E., et al. "Antiemetics in Patients Receiving Chemotherapy for Cancer." The New England Journal of Medicine. 1980. 302(3): 135-138.

Tetrahydrocannabinol, also known as THC, Δ9-THC, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol), Δ1-tetrahydrocannabinol (using an older numbering scheme), or dronabinol, is the main psychoactive substance found in the hemp plant Cannabis sativa. ...

See also

• Ed Rosenthal
• Tilden's Extract
• Sativex
• Victor Robinson

Ed Rosenthal is a California horticulturalist, author, publisher, and cannabis grower. ... Tildens Extract was a 19th century medicinal cannabis extract that the Laboratory of Tilden & Co. ... Sativex is a mouth spray for multiple sclerosis sufferers, who can use it to alleviate pain. ... Victor Robinson (1886–1947) was a physician and medical journalist. ...

References

• Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs 1961, International Narcotics Control Board.

External links

• Prescription Pot: details the secretive marijuana program administered by the U.S. Government
• National (Australian) Drug and Alcohol Research Centre Prepared for the National Task Force on Cannabis
• pharmacological information on Marinol
• History of medical marijuana
• United States Drug Enforcement Agency Judge Francis Young's conclusions
• American Public Health Administration report on medical marijuana
• Medical Marijuana Blog an HIV-positive man writes about the pros and cons of using medical marijuana in conjunction with AIDS medication
• National (US) Institute of Health report on medical marijuana
• the text of Hitzig v. Canada is available here; this court declared Canada's Medical Marijuana Access Regulations unconstitutional "in not allowing seriously ill Canadians to use marijuana because there is no legal source of supply of the drug."
• Overview of human studies on medical marijuana (note: this report was prepared for the National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws, an advocacy group)
• Overview of medical, physical and psychological effects by the Veterans Administration Medical Center and Stanford University School of Medicine, Palo Alto, California
• THC shrinks tumors, says 2000 Madrid study
• American Alliance for Medical Cannabis
• Americans for Safe Access
• Compassionate Coalition Medical Marijuana Information and Discussions
• Medical Marijuana Information for people with Multiple Sclerosis
• Synthetic marijuana analogue slows Alzheimer sufferer's decline
• War on Junk