Peasants threshing siligo, a type of wheat. Tacuinum Sanitatis, 15th century.

Medieval cuisine refers to the foods, eating habits, and cooking methods of various European cultures during the Middle Ages, a period roughly dating from the 5th to the 16th century. During this period, diets and cooking changed across Europe, and these changes helped lay the foundations for modern European cuisine. Image File history File links Tacuinum_Sanitatis-threshing. ... Image File history File links Tacuinum_Sanitatis-threshing. ... Threshing is the process of beating cereal plants in order to separate the seeds or grains from the straw. ... Species T. aestivum T. boeoticum T. dicoccoides T. dicoccon T. durum T. monococcum T. spelta T. sphaerococcum T. timopheevii References:   ITIS 42236 2002-09-22 Wheat Wheat For the indie rock group, see Wheat (band). ... The Tacuinum (sometimes Taccuinum) Sanitatis is a medieval handbook on wellness, based on the Taqwin al‑sihha (Tables of Health), an Arab medical treatise by Ibn Butlan; it exists in several variant Latin versions, the manuscripts of which are profusely illustrated. ... Cuisine (from French cuisine, cooking; culinary art; kitchen; ultimately from Latin coquere, to cook) is a specific set of cooking traditions and practices, often associated with a specific culture. ... Cooking is the act of preparing food. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... The Middle Ages formed the middle period in a traditional schematic division of European history into three ages: the classical civilization of Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and modern times, beginning with the Renaissance. ... Europe in 450 The 5th century is the period from 401 to 500 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian Era. ... (15th century - 16th century - 17th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 16th century was that century which lasted from 1501 to 1600. ... In nutrition, the diet is the sum of food consumed by a person or other organism. ... See the individual entries for: // Belarusian cuisine Bulgarian cuisine Czech cuisine Hungarian cuisine Jewish cuisine Polish cuisine Romanian cuisine Russian cuisine Slovak cuisine Slovenian cuisine Ukrainian cuisine British cuisine English cuisine Scottish cuisine Welsh cuisine Anglo-Indian cuisine Modern British cuisine Nordic cuisine Danish cuisine Finnish cuisine Icelandic cuisine Lappish...

Bread was the staple, followed by other foods made from cereals, such as porridge and pasta. Meat was more prestigious and more expensive than grain or vegetables. Common seasonings included verjuice, wine and vinegar. These, along with the widespread use of honey or sugar (among those who could afford it), gave many dishes a sweet-sour flavor. The most popular types of meat were pork and chicken, while beef, which required greater investment in land, was less common. Cod and herring were mainstays among the northern population, but a wide variety of other saltwater and freshwater fish were also eaten. Almonds, both sweet and bitter, were eaten whole as garnish, or more commonly ground up and used as a thickener in soups, stews, and sauces. Particularly popular was almond milk, which was a common substitute for animal milk during Lent and fasts. For other uses, see Bread (disambiguation). ... This article is about cereals in general. ... ‹ The template below is being considered for deletion. ... Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults. ... This article is about the food. ... A plate of vegetables Vegetable is a culinary term which generally refers to an edible part of a plant. ... Seasoning is the process of adding flavours, or enhancing natural flavour of any type of food. ... Verjuice (verjus in French) is a very acidic juice made by pressing unripe grapes. ... For other uses, see Wine (disambiguation). ... Vinegar is sometimes infused with spices or herbs—as here, with oregano. ... For other uses, see Honey (disambiguation). ... This article is about sugar as food and as an important and widely traded commodity. ... Sweet and sour sauce is a popular sauce used in Chinese cuisine. ... For other uses, see Pork (disambiguation). ... Roast Chicken Not including 32% bones. ... For other uses, see Beef (disambiguation). ... COD may refer to many different topics, including: Cash on delivery Completion of discharge, shipping College of DuPage, a public Junior College with campuses in the suburbs of Chicago Call of Duty (series), a series of computer games Canadian Oxford Dictionary Carrier onboard delivery Catastrophic optical damage, a failure mode... Species Clupea alba Clupea bentincki Clupea caspiopontica Clupea chrysotaenia Clupea elongata Clupea halec Clupea harengus Clupea inermis Clupea leachii Clupea lineolata Clupea minima Clupea mirabilis Clupea pallasii Clupea sardinacaroli Clupea sulcata Herrings are small oily fish of the genus Clupea found in the shallow, temperate waters of the North Atlantic... Fish as a food describes the edible parts of water-dwelling, cold-blooded vertebrates with gills, as well as certain other water-dwelling animals such as mollusks, crustaceans, and shellfish. ... Binomial name (Mill. ... Garnish is a substance used primarily as an embellishment or decoration to a prepared food or drink item. ... The introduction of this article does not provide enough context for readers unfamiliar with the subject. ... For other uses, see Soup (disambiguation). ... Beef Stew A stew is a common dish made of vegetables (particularly potatoes or beans), meat, poultry, or seafood cooked in some sort of broth or sauce. ... For other uses, see Sauce (disambiguation). ... Raw almonds Almond milk is a milky drink made from ground almonds. ... A glass of cows milk. ... It has been suggested that Cuaresma be merged into this article or section. ... Seafood is a popular staple of Catholics during Fridays of Lent. ...

Slow transportation and inefficient food preservation techniques prevented long-distance trade of many foods. For the most part, only the wealthy, especially the nobility, could afford imported ingredients such as spices, so their cuisine was more prone to foreign influence than the cuisine of poorer people. As each level of society imitated the one above it, innovations from international trade and foreign wars gradually disseminated through the upper middle class of medieval cities. Various preserved foods Food preservation is the process of treating and handling food in such a way as to stop or greatly slow down spoilage to prevent foodborne illness while maintaining nutritional value, density, texture and flavor. ... It has been suggested that Commerce be merged into this article or section. ... Nobility is a traditional hereditary status (see hereditary titles) that exists today in many countries (mainly present or former monarchies). ... For other uses, see Spice (disambiguation). ...

In a time when famine was commonplace and social hierarchies were often brutally enforced, food was an important marker of social status in a way that has no equivalent today in most developed countries. Aside from economic unavailability of luxuries such as spices, decrees outlawed consumption of certain foods among certain social classes, and sumptuary laws limited the conspicuous consumption among the nouveau riche who were not nobility. Social norms also dictated that the food of the working class be less refined, since it was believed there was a divine or natural resemblance between one's labor and one's food, so manual labor required coarser, cheaper food. <nowiki>Insert non-formatted text hereBold text</nowiki>A famine is a social and economic crisis that is commonly accompanied by widespread malnutrition, starvation, epidemic and increased mortality. ... Social hierarchy, a multi-tiered pyramid-like social or functional structure having an apex as the centralization of power. ... World map indicating Human Development Index (as of 2004). ... Sumptuary laws (from Latin sumptuariae leges) were laws that regulated and reinforced social hierarchies and morals through restrictions on clothing, food, and luxury expenditures. ... Conspicuous consumption is a term used to describe the lavish spending on goods and services that are acquired mainly for the purpose of displaying income or wealth. ... Nouveau riche (French for new rich), or new money refers to persons who acquire wealth within their generation. ... It has been suggested that Convention (norm) be merged into this article or section. ... The term working class is used to denote a social class. ...

Dietary norms

The cuisines of the cultures around the Mediterranean had since antiquity been based on cereals, particularly various types of wheat. Porridge and gruel, and later bread became the basic food that made up the majority of calorie intake for most of the population. The dependence on wheat remained as significant long into medieval era, and with the rise of Christianity spread northwards. The centrality of bread in religious rituals such as the Eucharist meant that it enjoyed an especially high prestige among foodstuffs. Only (olive) oil and wine had a comparable value, but remained so much more exclusive outside of the warmer wine and olive growing regions. The role of bread as symbolic of sustenance (and even substance) is illustrated in a sermon given by Saint Augustine: Species T. aestivum T. boeoticum T. dicoccoides T. dicoccon T. durum T. monococcum T. spelta T. sphaerococcum T. timopheevii References:   ITIS 42236 2002-09-22 Wheat Wheat For the indie rock group, see Wheat (band). ... For other uses, see Eucharist (disambiguation). ... “Augustinus” redirects here. ...

From the 8th to the 11th centuries, the proportion of various cereals rose from a mere 1/3 to around ¾ and bread remained the basic staple in most of Europe long into the modern era.^[1] Threshing is the process of beating cereal plants in order to separate the seeds or grains from the straw. ... Codex Manesse, fol. ...

During the Middle Ages it was believed that beaver tails were of such a fish-like nature that they could be eaten on fast days. Livre des simples médecines, ca. 1480.

The Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches and their calendars had great influence on eating habits; consumption of meat was forbidden for a full third of the year for most Christians, and all animal products, including eggs and dairy products (but not fish), were generally prohibited during Lent and fast. The church often made exceptions where non-animal alternatives were unavailable or simply unaffordable (e.g. the puffin being considered a fish for coastal fishermen in Norway). Exempt from fasting regulations were children, the old, pilgrims, workers and beggars, but not the poor as long as they had some sort of shelter. Additionally, it was customary for all citizens to fast prior to taking the Eucharist, and these fasts were occasionally for a full day and required total abstinence. Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Species C. canadensis C. fiber Beavers are semi-aquatic rodents native to North America and Europe. ... Catholic Church redirects here. ... Topics in Christianity Movements · Denominations Ecumenism · Preaching · Prayer Music · Liturgy · Calendar Symbols · Art · Criticism Important figures Apostle Paul · Church Fathers Constantine · Athanasius · Augustine Anselm · Aquinas · Palamas · Luther Calvin · Wesley Arius · Marcion of Sinope Coptic Orthodox Pope · Roman Catholic Pope Archbishop of Canterbury · Patriarch of Constantinople Christianity Portal This box:      Faith... Topics in Christianity Movements · Denominations · Other religions Ecumenism · Preaching · Prayer Music · Liturgy · Calendar Symbols · Art · Criticism Important figures Apostle Paul · Church Fathers Constantine · Athanasius · Augustine Anselm · Aquinas · Palamas · Luther Calvin · Wesley Arius · Marcion of Sinope Archbishop of Canterbury · Catholic Pope Coptic Pope · Ecumenical Patriarch Christianity Portal This box:      Church historian... An egg is a body consisting of an ovum surrounded by layers of membranes and an outer casing of some type, which acts to nourish and protect a developing embryo. ... Dairy products are generally defined as foodstuffs produced from milk. ... It has been suggested that Cuaresma be merged into this article or section. ... Fasting is primarily the act of willingly abstaining from some or all food, drink, or both, for a period of time. ... Species Fratercula arctica Fratercula corniculata Fratercula cirrhata For prehistoric species, see article text. ... Monument to pilgrims in Burgos, Spain This article is on religious pilgrims. ... For other uses, see Eucharist (disambiguation). ...

Medical science of the Middle Ages had a much greater influence on what was considered healthy and nutritious. One's lifestyle — including diet, exercise, appropriate social behavior, and approved medical remedies — was the way to good health, and all types of food were assigned certain properties that affected a person's health. All foodstuffs were also classified on scales ranging from hot to cold and moist to dry, according to the four bodily humors theory proposed by Galen that dominated Western medical science from late Antiquity until the 17th century. The four humours were four fluids that were thought to permeate the body and influence its health. ... For other uses, see Galen (disambiguation). ...

Fasting

Nuns dining in silence while listening to a Bible reading. Note the use of hand gestures for communicating. Scene from The Life of Blessed Saint Humility by Pietro Lorenzetti, 1341.

Apart from the regimen dictated by physicians, the medieval diet was heavily influenced by religious restrictions. Both the eastern and the western churches ordained that feast should be alternated with fast. In most of Europe, Wednesdays, Fridays, sometimes Saturdays and various other days on the calendar, including Lent and Advent, were fast days. Meat and animal products like milk, cheese, butter and eggs were not allowed, only fish. The fast was intended to mortify the body and invigorate the soul, to reinforce the medieval dogma that the flesh was inferior, and also to remind of Christ's sacrifice for humanity. The intention was not to portray certain foods as unclean, but rather that abstention was a spiritual lesson in self-restraint. During particularly severe fast days, the number of daily meals was also reduced to one. Even if most people respected these restrictions and usually made penance when they violated them, there were also numerous ways of circumventing the problem, a conflict of ideals and practice eloquently summarized by scholar Bridget Ann Henisch: Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (1576x2243, 363 KB) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Saint Humility Medieval cuisine ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (1576x2243, 363 KB) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Saint Humility Medieval cuisine ... Saint Humilitas (Humility; Umiltà) (ca. ... Beata Umilta Transports Bricks to the Monastery(c. ... It has been suggested that Cuaresma be merged into this article or section. ... Advent (from the Latin Adventus, implicitly coupled with Redemptoris, the coming of the Saviour) is a holy season of the Christian church, the period of expectant waiting and preparation for the celebration of the Nativity of Christ, also known as the season of Christmas. ... For other senses of this word, see dogma (disambiguation). ... This page is about the title, office or what is known in Christian theology as the Divine Person. ... For other uses, see Penance (disambiguation). ...

While animal products were to be avoided during times of penance, pragmatic compromises often prevailed. The definition of "fish" was often extended to marine and semi-aquatic animals such as whales, barnacle geese, puffins and even beavers. The choice of ingredients may have been limited, but that did not mean that meals were smaller. Neither were there any restrictions against (moderate) drinking or eating sweets. Banquets held on fish days could be splendid, and they were popular occasions for serving illusion food that imitated meat, cheese and eggs in various ingenious ways; fish could be molded to look like venison and fake eggs could made by stuffing empty egg shells with fish roe and almond milk and cooking it in coals. While Byzantine church officials took a hard-line approach, and discouraged any culinary refinement for the clergy, their western counterparts were far more lenient.^[3] There are many accounts of members of monastic orders who flouted fasting restrictions through clever interpretations of the Bible. Since the sick were exempt from fasting, there often evolved the notion that fasting restrictions only applied to the main dining area, and many friars would simply eat their fast day meals in what would later evolve into the misericord rather than the refectory. Newly assigned Catholic monastery officials sought to amend the problem of fast evasion not merely with moral condemnation, but by making sure that well-prepared non-meat dishes were available on fast days. There was also no lack of grumbling about the rigors of fast among the laity. During Lent, kings and schoolboys, commoners and nobility, all complained about being deprived of meat for the long, hard weeks of solemn contemplation of their sins. At Lent, owners of livestock were even warned to keep an eye out for hungry dogs frustrated by a "hard siege by Lent and fish bones".^[4] This article is about the animal. ... Binomial name Branta leucopsis (Bechstein, 1803) The Barnacle Goose (Branta leucopsis) belongs to the genus Branta of black geese, which contains species with largely black plumage, distinguishing them from the grey Anser species. ... Species C. canadensis C. fiber Beavers are semi-aquatic rodents native to North America and Europe. ... Leg of venison on apple sauce with dumplings and vegetables Venison is meat of the family Cervidae. ... This article is about fish eggs. ... Byzantine redirects here. ... The Order of Friars Minor is a major mendicant movement founded by Saint Francis of Assisi. ... This Gutenberg Bible is displayed by the United States Library. ... A friar is a member of a religious mendicant order of men. ... Misericords are small wooden shelves underneath folding seats in order to provide some level of comfort for those standing during long periods of prayer. ... A refectory is a dining room, especially in monasteries, boarding schools and academic institutions. ...

Medieval dietetics

Main article: Medieval medicine

Medieval scholars considered human digestion to be a process similar to cooking. The processing of food in the stomach was seen as a continuation of the preparation initiated by the cook. In order for the food to be properly "cooked" and for the nutrients to be properly absorbed, it was important that the stomach be filled in an appropriate manner. Easily digestible foods would be consumed first, followed by gradually heavier dishes. If this regimen was not respected it was believed that heavy foods would sink to the bottom of the stomach, thus blocking the digestion duct, so that food would digest very slowly and cause putrefaction of the body and draw bad humors into the stomach. It was also of vital importance that food of differing properties not be mixed.^[5] Astrology played an important part in Medieval medicine; most educated physicians were trained in at least the basics of astrology to use in their practice. ... For the industrial process, see anaerobic digestion. ... In anatomy, the stomach is a bean-shaped hollow muscular organ of the gastrointestinal tract involved in the second phase of digestion, following mastication. ...

Before a meal, the stomach would preferably be "opened" with an apéritif (from Latin aperire, "to open") that was preferably of a hot and dry nature: confections made from sugar- or honey-coated spices like ginger, caraway and seeds of anise, fennel or cumin, wine and sweetened fortified milk drinks. As the stomach had been opened, it should then be "closed" at the end of the meal with the help of a digestive, most commonly a dragée, which during the Middle Ages consisted of lumps of spiced sugar, or hypocras, a wine flavored with fragrant spices, along with aged cheese. Campari apéritif. ... For other uses, see Latin (disambiguation). ... The term confectionery refers to food items rich in sugar. ... This article is about sugar as food and as an important and widely traded commodity. ... For other uses, see Honey (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Ginger (disambiguation). ... Categories: | | | | ... This article is about the Pimpinella species, but the name anise is frequently applied to Fennel. ... Binomial name Foeniculum vulgare Mill. ... Geerah redirects here. ... A dragée (IPA: , from Greek tragêmata sweets ,treats) is a form of confectionery that is more decorative and symbolic than a substantial sweet. ... Hypocras (sometimes spelled Hippocras) is a drink made from wine, possibly heated, and mixed with spices, most notably cinnamon. ...

A meal would ideally begin with easily digestible fruit, such as apples. It would then be followed by vegetables such as lettuce, cabbage, purslane, herbs, moist fruits, light meats like chicken or goat kid with potages and broths. Later would be consumed heavy meats such as pork and beef, as well as vegetables and nuts like pears and chestnuts, both considered difficult to digest. It was popular (and recommended by medical expertise) to finish the meal with aged cheese and various digestives.^[6] Binomial name L. Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults. ... Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults. ... Binomial name Portulaca oleracea L. Purslane, also known as Little Hogweed or Pusley, is an annual succulent in the Portulacaceae family. ... For other uses of the term, see goat (disambiguation). ... Potage (also called Pottage) is a type of soup where meat and vegetables are boiled together with water until it forms into a thick soup. ... Broth is a liquid in which bones, meat, fish, cereal grains, or vegetables have been simmered and strained out. ... For other uses, see Pork (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Beef (disambiguation). ...

The most ideal food was that which most closely matched the humor of human beings, i.e. moderately warm and moist. Food should preferably also be finely chopped, ground, pounded and strained to achieve a true mixture of all the ingredients. White wine was believed to be cooler than red and the same distinction was applied to red and white vineagar. Milk was moderately warm and moist, but the milk of different animals was often believed to differ. Egg yolks were considered to be warm and moist while the whites were cold and moist. Skilled cooks were expected to conform to the regimen of humoral medicine. Even if this meant limitations in the combinations there was still plenty of room for artistic variation.^[7]

Regional variation

Main article regional cuisines of medieval Europe.

Geographical variation was the result of differences in climate, political administration local customs that varied across the continent. Though sweeping generalizations should be avoided, more or less distinct areas where certain foodstuffs dominated can be discerned. In the British Isles, northern France, the Low Countries, the northern German-speaking areas, Scandinavia and the Baltic the climate was generally too harsh for the cultivation of grapes and olives. In the south, wine was the common drink for both rich and poor alike (though the commoner usually had to settle for cheap second pressing wine) while beer was the commoner's drink in the north and wine an expensive import. Citrus fruits (though not the kinds most common today) and pomegranates were common around in the Mediterranean. Dried figs and dates occurred in the north, but were used rather sparingly in cooking.^[8] The regional cuisines of medieval Europe were the results of differences in climate, political administration and religious customs that varied across the continent. ... This article describes the archipelago in north-western Europe. ... It has been suggested that Regents: Low Countries be merged into this article or section. ... For other uses, see Scandinavia (disambiguation). ... Population density in the wider Baltic region. ... This article is about the fruits of the genus Vitis. ... Binomial name L. 19th century illustration The Olive (Olea europaea) is a species of small tree in the family Oleaceae, native to coastal areas of the eastern Mediterranean region, from Lebanon and the maritime parts of Asia Minor and northern Iran at the south end of the Caspian Sea. ... For other uses, see Beer (disambiguation). ... Binomial name L. For the color see: Pomegranate (color) The Pomegranate (Punica granatum) is a fruit-bearing deciduous shrub or small tree growing to 5–8 m tall. ... Species About 800, including: Ficus altissima Ficus americana Ficus aurea Ficus benghalensis- Indian Banyan Ficus benjamina- Weeping Fig Ficus broadwayi Ficus carica- Common Fig Ficus citrifolia Ficus coronata Ficus drupacea Ficus elastica Ficus godeffroyi Ficus grenadensis Ficus hartii Ficus lyrata Ficus macbrideii Ficus macrophylla- Moreton Bay Fig Ficus microcarpa- Chinese... Binomial name L. The Date Palm (Phoenix dactylifera) is a palm in the genus Phoenix, extensively cultivated for its edible fruit. ...

Olive oil was a ubiquitous ingredient around the Mediterranean, but remained an expensive import in the north where oil of poppy, walnut, hazel and filbert was the most affordable alternative. Butter and lard, especially after the terrible blood-letting of the population during the Black Death, was used in considerable quantities in the northern and northwestern regions, especially in the Low Countries. Almost universal in middle and upper class cooking all over Europe was the almond, which was in the ubiquitous and highly versatile almond milk, which was used as a substitute in dishes that otherwise required eggs or milk, though the bitter variety came along much later.^[9] For the Popeye character, see Olive Oyl. ... This article is about the plant. ... This article concerns the mid fourteenth century pandemic. ... It has been suggested that Regents: Low Countries be merged into this article or section. ... Binomial name (Mill. ... Raw almonds Almond milk is a milky drink made from ground almonds. ...

Meals

John, Duke of Berry enjoying a grand meal. The Duke is sitting at the high table under a luxurious baldaquin in front of the fireplace, tended to by several servants including a carver. On the table to the left of the Duke is a golden salt cellar, or nef, in the shape of a ship; illustration from Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry, ca 1410.

There were typically two meals a day: dinner at mid-day and a lighter supper in the evening. Moralists frowned on breaking the overnight fast too early, and members of the church and cultivated gentry avoided it. For practical reasons, breakfast was still eaten by most working men, and was tolerated for young children, women, the elderly and the sick. Because the church preached against gluttony and other weaknesses of the flesh, men tended to be ashamed of the weak practicality of breakfast. Lavish dinner banquets and late-night reresopers (from Occitan rèire-sopar, "late supper") with considerable amounts of alcoholic beverage were considered immoral. The latter were especially associated with the vices of gambling, crude language, drunkenness, and lewd behavior. Minor meals and snacks were common (although also disliked by the church), and working men commonly received an allowance from their employers in order to buy nuncheons, small morsels to be eaten during breaks.^[10] Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (1333x2062, 547 KB) Les Très Riches Heures One of the early illustrated pages (Folio 2r) from the Très Riches Heures, one of the most richly decorated and most famous Book of Hours to have survived. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (1333x2062, 547 KB) Les Très Riches Heures One of the early illustrated pages (Folio 2r) from the Très Riches Heures, one of the most richly decorated and most famous Book of Hours to have survived. ... John of Valois, the Magnificent, (November 30, 1340 – March 15, 1416) was Duke of Berry and Auvergne and Count of Poitiers and Montpensier. ... Arms of the ducs de Berry (after 1376) The title of Duke of Berry (Duc de Berry) in the French nobility was frequently created for junior members of the French royal family. ... The Grand Master of the Knights Hospitaller at Rhodes under a canopy of estate, on a dais: there is a cushion under his feet Margaret Beaufort, Queen Mother, at prayer, by an anonymous artist, about 1500 Engraving of the Gnadenaltar in the Vierzehnheiligen Basilica, Bad Staffelstein, Bavaria. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... A salt cellar is a small dish for holding salt. ... An illuminated page from the Très Riches Heures showing the day for exchanging gifts from the month of January The Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry (or simply the Très Riches Heures) is probably the most important illuminated manuscript of the 15th century, le roi des... An amount of formality may be present at a dinner Dinner is a meal eaten in the evening. ... Supper is the name for the evening meal in some dialects of English - ordinarily the last meal of the day, usually the meal that comes after dinner. ... Morality (from the Latin manner, character, proper behaviour) has three principal meanings. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Breakfast is the first meal of the day, typically eaten in the morning. ... Gluttony can also refer to a character named Gluttony - a homonculus from the anime series Full Metal Alchemist Gluttony is the over-indulgence and over-consumption of food, drink, or intoxicants to the point of waste. ... State Banquet. ... Occitan, or langue doc is a Romance language characterized by its richness, variability, and by the intelligibility of its dialects. ... Alcoholic beverages An alcoholic beverage (also known as booze in slang term) is a drink containing ethanol, commonly known as alcohol, although in chemistry the definition of alcohol includes many other compounds. ... Caravaggio, The Cardsharps, c. ... The Drunkenness of Noah by Giovanni Bellini Drunkenness is the state of being intoxicated by consumption of alcohol to a degree that mental and physical facilities are noticeably impaired. ... A snack food (commonly shortened to snack) is seen in Western culture as a type of food not meant to be eaten as a main meal of the day (breakfast, lunch, dinner) but one that is intended rather to assuage a persons hunger between these meals, providing a brief...

Etiquette

There was an increasing trend throughout the Middle Ages to escape the stern collectivism that permeated the entire period. Otherwise the medieval meal was a communal affair, like every other part of life. The entire household, including servants, would ideally dine together. To sneak off to enjoy private company was considered a haughty and inefficient egotism in a world where people depended very much on each other. In the 13th century, English bishop Robert Grosseteste advised the Countess of Lincoln: "forbid dinners and suppers out of hall, in secret and in private rooms, for from this arises waste and no honour to the lord and lady." He also recommended to watch that the servants not make off with leftovers to make merry at rere-suppers, rather than giving it as alms. Although there are descriptions of dining etiquette on special occasions, less is known about the details of day to day meals of the elite or about the table manners of the common people and the destitute. However, it can be assumed there were no such extravagant luxuries as multiple courses, luxurious spices or hand-washing in scented water.^[10] This article needs additional references or sources for verification. ... In philosophy, two different theories are labeled egoism: psychological egoism is the view that one is always motivated to act in ones own best interests, while ethical egoism is the view that one ought to always act that way. ... Arms of the Bishop of Lincoln The Bishop of Lincoln heads the Anglican Diocese of Lincoln in the Province of Canterbury. ... A 13th century portrait of Grosseteste. ... The title of Earl of Lincoln was probably created around 1143, but reverted several times back to the Crown. ... Alms Bag taken from some Tapestry in Orleans, Fifteenth Century. ... For the coarsely ground flour, see flour. ...

Things were different for the wealthy. Before the meal and between courses, shallow basins and linen towels were offered to guests so they could wash their hands, as cleanliness was emphasized. Social codes made it difficult for women to uphold the stereotype of being neat, delicate and immaculate while enjoying a sumptuous feast, so the wife of the host often dined in private with her entourage. She could then join dinner only after the potentially messy business of eating was done. Overall, fine dining was a predominantly male affair, and it was uncommon for anyone but the most honored of guests to bring his wife or her ladies-in-waiting. The hierarchical nature of society was reinforced by etiquette where the lower ranked were expected to help the higher, the younger to assist the elder, and men to spare women the risk of sullying dress and reputation by having to handle food in an unwomanly fashion. Shared drinking cups were common even at lavish banquets for all but those who sat at the high table, as was the standard etiquette of breaking bread and carving meat for one's fellow diners.^[11] A towel is a piece of absorbent fabric or paper used for drying or wiping. ... Lady in Waiting is an album by American southern rock band The Outlaws, released in 1976. ... It has been suggested that Office etiquette be merged into this article or section. ... Dais (French dais, estrade, Italian predella), originally a part of the floor at the end of a medieval hall, raised a step above the rest of the building. ...

Food was mostly served on plates or in stew pots, and diners would take their share from the dishes and place it on trenchers of stale bread, wood or pewter with the help of spoons or bare hands. In lower-class households it was common to eat food straight off the table. Knives were used at the table, but most people were expected to bring their own, and only highly favored guests would be given a personal knife. A knife was usually shared with at least one other dinner guest, unless one was of very high rank or well-acquainted with the host. Forks for eating were not in widespread usage in Europe until the early modern period, and early on were limited to Italy. Even there it was not until the 14th century that the fork became common among Italians of all social classes. The change in attitudes can be illustrated by the reactions to the table manners of the Byzantine princess Theodora Doukaina in the late 11th century. She was the future wife of the Doge of Venice, Domenico Selvo, and caused considerable dismay among upstanding Venetians. The foreign consort's insistence on having her food cut up by her eunuch servants and then eating the pieces with a golden fork shocked and upset the diners so much that the Bishop of Ostia later interpreted her refined foreign manners as pride and referred to her as "...the Venetian Doge's wife, whose body, after her excessive delicacy, entirely rotted away."^[12] A set of plates before being glazed at a pottery shop. ... Trencher table setting [Copyright C. Higgins] A trencher (from Old French tranchier; to cut) is a type of tableware, commonly used in medieval cuisine. ... Pewter plate Pewter is a metal alloy, traditionally between 85 and 99 percent tin, with the remainder consisting of 1-15 percent copper, acting as a hardener, with the addition of lead for the lower grades of pewter, which have a bluish tint. ... For other uses, see Spoon (disambiguation). ... This article is about the tool. ... Assorted forks. ... The early modern period is a term used by historians to refer to the period in Western Europe and its first colonies which spans the two centuries between the Middle Ages and the Industrial Revolution. ... Byzantine redirects here. ... Teodora Anna Dukaina Selvo (Greek: Θεοδώρα Άννα Δούκαινα, born Theodora Dukaina Komnena 1058-1083) was a Byzantine princess, the daughter of emperor Constantine X Dukas and his second wife Eudokia Makrembolitissa. ... Grand Procession of the Doge, 16th century For about a thousand years, the chief magistrate and leader of the Most Serene Republic of Venice was styled the Doge, a rare but not unique Italian title derived from the Latin Dux, as the major Italian parallel Duce and the English Duke. ... Domenico Selvo[1] (died 1087) was the 31st Doge of Venice, serving from 1071 to 1084. ... European illustration of a Eunuch (1749) Chief Eunuch of Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid II at the Imperial Palace, 1912. ... The Bishop of Ostia was the ecclesiastical head of the Italian Catholic diocese of Ostia. ... Pride is the name of an emotion which refers to a strong sense of self-respect, a refusal to be humiliated as well as joy in the accomplishments of oneself or a person, group, nation or object that one identifies with. ...

Food preparation

An illustration of the cook from Geoffrey Chaucer's Canterbury Tales. Note the long meat hook in his left hand, one of the most common cook's tools during the Middle Ages.

All types of cooking involved the direct use of fire. Stoves did not appear until the 18th century, and cooks had to know how to cook directly over an open fire. Ovens were used, but they were expensive to construct and only existed in fairly large households and bakeries. It was common for a community to have shared ownership of an oven to ensure that the bread baking essential to everyone was made communal rather than private. There were also portable ovens designed to be filled with food and then buried in hot coals, and even larger ones on wheels that were used to sell pies in the streets of medieval towns. But for most people, almost all cooking was done in simple stewpots, since this was the most efficient use of firewood and did not waste precious cooking juices, making potages and stews the most common dishes.^[13] Overall, most evidence suggests that medieval dishes had a fairly high fat content, or at least when fat could be afforded. This was considered less of a problem in a time of back-breaking toil, famine, and a greater acceptance - even desirability - of plumpness; only the poor or sick, and devout ascetics, were thin.^[14] Image File history File linksMetadata Size of this preview: 407 × 599 pixel Image in higher resolution (1392 × 2048 pixel, file size: 3. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Size of this preview: 407 × 599 pixel Image in higher resolution (1392 × 2048 pixel, file size: 3. ... Chaucer redirects here. ... For other uses, see The Canterbury Tales (disambiguation). ... A stove is a heat-producing device. ... Oven depicted in a painting by Millet An oven is an enclosed compartment for heating, baking or drying. ... A baker prepares fresh rolls A baker is someone who primarily bakes and sells bread. ... Defensive towers at San Gimignano, Tuscany, bear witness to the factional strife within communes. ... This article is about the baked good, for other uses see Pie (disambiguation). ... Potage (also called Pottage) is a type of soup where meat and vegetables are boiled together with water until it forms into a thick soup. ... Beef Stew A stew is a common dish made of vegetables (particularly potatoes or beans), meat, poultry, or seafood cooked in some sort of broth or sauce. ... For other uses, see FAT. Fats consist of a wide group of compounds that are generally soluble in organic solvents and largely insoluble in water. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ...

Fruit was readily combined with meat, fish and eggs. The recipe for Tart de brymlent, a fish pie from the recipe collection Forme of Cury, includes a mix of figs, raisins, apples and pears with fish (salmon, codling or haddock) and pitted damson plums under the top crust.^[15] It was more important to make sure that the dish agreed with contemporary standards of medicine and dietetics. This meant that food had to be "tempered" according to its nature by an appropriate combination of preparation and mixing certain ingredients, condiments and spices. For example, fish was considered to be quite cold and moist, and best cooked in a way that heated and dried it, such as frying or oven baking, and seasoned with hot and dry spices; beef was dry and hot and should therefore be boiled; pork was hot and moist and should therefore always be roasted.^[16] In some recipe collections, alternative ingredients were assigned with more consideration to the humoral nature than similarity in taste. In a recipe for quince pie, cabbage is given as working equally well, and in another turnips are considered to be the equivalent of pears.^[17] For other uses, see Fruit (disambiguation). ... An egg is a body consisting of an ovum surrounded by layers of membranes and an outer casing of some type, which acts to nourish and protect a developing embryo. ... Title page of the Forme of Cury The Forme of Cury was the name given by Samuel Pegge to a roll of cookery written by the Master Cooks of King Richard II of England. ... Species About 800, including: Ficus altissima Ficus americana Ficus aurea Ficus benghalensis- Indian Banyan Ficus benjamina- Weeping Fig Ficus broadwayi Ficus carica- Common Fig Ficus citrifolia Ficus coronata Ficus drupacea Ficus elastica Ficus godeffroyi Ficus grenadensis Ficus hartii Ficus lyrata Ficus macbrideii Ficus macrophylla- Moreton Bay Fig Ficus microcarpa- Chinese... Raisins Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults. ... This article is about the fruit. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... For other uses, see Salmon (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Haddock (disambiguation). ... Species See text. ... Astrology played an important part in Medieval medicine; most educated physicians were trained in at least the basics of astrology to use in their practice. ... A dietitian (sometimes spelled dietician) is an expert in food and nutrition. ... Salt, sugar and pepper are the most essential condiments in Western cuisine. ... Plantains frying in vegetable oil. ... For other uses, see Beef (disambiguation). ... Boiling, a type of phase transition, is the rapid vaporization of a liquid, which typically occurs when a liquid is heated to its boiling point, the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid is equal to the pressure exerted on the liquid by the surrounding atmospheric pressure. ... “Roast” redirects here. ... This article is about culinary recipes. ... The four humours were four fluids that were thought to permeate the body and influence its health. ... Binomial name Mill. ... Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults. ... Trinomial name Brassica rapa rapa L. For similar vegetables also called turnip, see Turnip (disambiguation). ...

The completely edible shortcrust pie did not appear in recipes until the 15th century. Before that the bread was primarily used as a cooking container. Extant recipe collections show that gastronomy in the Late Middle Ages developed significantly. New techniques, like the shortcrust pie and the clarification of jelly with egg whites began to appear in recipes in the late 14th century and recipes began to include detailed instructions instead of being mere memory aides.^[18] Gastronomy is the study of relationship between culture and food. ...

The medieval kitchen

Fowl roasting on a spit. Under the spit is a narrow, shallow basin to collect the drippings for use in sauces or for basting the meat; illustration from The Decameron, Flanders, 1432.

In most households, cooking was done on an open hearth in the middle of the main living area, to make efficient use of the heat. This was the most common arrangement, even in wealthy households, for most of the Middle Ages, where the kitchen was combined with the dining hall. Towards the Late Middle Ages a separate kitchen area began to evolve. The first step was to move the fireplaces towards the walls of the main hall, and later to build a separate building or wing that contained a dedicated kitchen area, often separated from the main building by a covered arcade. This way, the smoke, odors and bustle of the kitchen could be kept out of sight of guests, and the fire risk lessened. Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Basting involves cooking meat with either its own juices or some type of preparation such as a sauce or marinade. ... The Decameron is a collection of novellas that was finished by Giovanni Boccaccio in 1353. ... For other uses, see Flanders (disambiguation). ... In common historic and modern usage, a hearth (Har-th) is a brick- or stone-lined fireplace or oven used for cooking and/or heating. ... Dante by Michelino The Late Middle Ages is a term used by historians to describe European history in the period of the 14th to 16th centuries (AD 1300–1500). ... A kitchen is a room used for food preparation and sometimes entertainment. ... For other uses, see Arcade. ...

Many basic variations of cooking utensils available today, such as frying pans, pots, kettles, and waffle irons, already existed, even if they were often too expensive for poorer households. Other tools more specific to cooking over an open fire were spits of various sizes, and material for skewering anything from delicate quails to whole oxen. There were also cranes with adjustable hooks so that pots and cauldrons could easily be swung away from the fire to keep them from burning or boiling over. Utensils were often held directly over the fire or placed into embers on tripods. To assist the cook there were also assorted knives, stirring spoons, ladles and graters. In wealthy households one of the most common tools was the mortar and sieve cloth, since many medieval recipes called for food to be finely chopped, mashed, strained and seasoned either before or after cooking. This was based on a belief among physicians that the finer the consistency of food, the more effectively the body would absorb the nourishment. It also gave skilled cooks the opportunity to elaborately shape the results. Fine-textured food was also associated with wealth, for example finely-milled flour was more expensive, while the bread of commoners was typically brown and coarse. A typical procedure was to skin and dress an animal, grind up the meat and mix it with spices and other ingredients and return it into its own skin, or mold it into the shape of a completely different animal.^[13] “Skillet” redirects here. ... Cookware and bakeware are types of food preparation containers commonly found in the kitchen. ... A kettle is a kitchenware piece. ... A domestic Belgian waffle iron A waffle iron is a cooking appliance used to make waffles. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with rotisserie. ... Genera Coturnix Anurophasis Perdicula Ophrysia † See also Pheasant, Partridge, Grouse Quail is a collective name for several genera of mid-sized birds in the pheasant family Phasianidae, or in the family Odontophoridae. ... For general information about the genus, including other species of cattle, see Bos. ... Three-legged iron pots being used to cater for a school-leavers party in Botswana. ... Silver ladle - Hallmarked 1876-7 (on 5cm squares) Aluminium ladle (on 5cm squares) Melamine ladle (on 5cm squares) Steel ladle (on 5cm squares) A ladle is a type of spoon used to serve soup or other liquids. ... A typical cheese grater. ... A mortar and pestle is a tool used to crush, grind, and mix substances. ... Game is any animal hunted for food or not normally domesticated (such as venison). ...

The kitchen staff of huge noble or royal courts occasionally numbered in the hundreds: pantlers, bakers, waferers, sauciers, larderers, butchers, carvers, page boys, milk maids, butlers and countless scullions. While an average peasant household often made do with firewood collected from the surrounding woodlands, the major kitchens of households had to cope with the logistics of daily providing at least two meals for several hundred people. Guidelines on how to prepare for a two-day banquet can be found in the 15th-century cookbook Du fait de cuisine ("On cookery") by Chiquart, master chef of Amadeus VIII, Duke of Savoy. Chiquart recommends that the chief cook should have at hand at least 1,000 cartloads of "good, dry firewood" and a large barnful of coal.^[19] In a noble court or household, the office of panter or pantler originated with the person entrusted with the supply of bread and later involved oversight over the pantry. ... For semiconductor wafers, see wafer (electronics). ... A Larder is a cool area for storing food prior to use. ... Butcher shop in Valencia A butcher is someone who prepares various meats and other related goods for sale. ... Antipope Felix V, the last historical Antipope. ... The House of Savoy was a dynasty of nobles who traditionally had their domain in Savoy (a small region between Piedmont, Italy, and France). ...

Preservation

Food preservation methods were basically the same as had been used since antiquity, and did not change much until the invention of canning in the early 19th century. The most common and simplest method was to expose foodstuffs to heat or wind to remove moisture, thereby prolonging the durability if not the flavor of almost any type of food from cereals to meats; the drying of food worked by drastically reducing the activity of various water-dependent microorganisms that cause decay. In warm climates this was mostly achieved by leaving food out in the sun, and in the cooler northern climates by exposure to strong winds (especially common for the preparation of stockfish), or in warm ovens, cellars, attics, and at times even in living quarters. For other uses, see Canning (disambiguation). ... Alternative meaning: Nineteenth Century (periodical) (18th century &#8212; 19th century &#8212; 20th century &#8212; more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 19th century was that century which lasted from 1801-1900 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar. ... Dew on a spider web Moldy bread Moisture generally refers to the presence of water, often in trace amounts. ... A cluster of Escherichia coli bacteria magnified 10,000 times. ... Stockfish is air-dried cod. ...

Subjecting food to a number of chemical processes such as smoking, salting, brining, conserving or fermenting also made it keep longer. Most of these methods had the advantage of shorter preparation times and of introducing new flavors. Smoking or salting meat of livestock butchered in the fall was a common household strategy to avoid having to feed more animals than necessary during the lean winter months. Butter tended to be heavily salted (5–10%) in order not to spoil. Vegetables, eggs or fish were also often pickled in tightly packed jars, containing brine and acidic liquids (lemon juice, verjuice or vinegar). Another method was to create a seal around the food by cooking it in sugar or honey or fat, in which it was then stored. Bacterial modification was also encouraged, however, by a number of methods; grains, fruit and grapes were turned into alcoholic drinks that disinfected the beverage, and milk was fermented and cured into a multitude of cheeses or buttermilk.^[20] Wikibooks Cookbook has an article on Smoking Smoking is the process of flavoring, cooking, or preserving food by exposing it to the smoke from burning or smoldering plant materials, most often wood. ... Salting is the preparation of food with salt. ... In cooking, brining is a process similar to marination in which meat is soaked in a salt solution (the brine) before cooking. ... For other uses, see Fermentation. ... For other uses, see Butter (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Pickle. ... Verjuice (verjus in French) is a very acidic juice made by pressing unripe grapes. ... Vinegar is sometimes infused with spices or herbs—as here, with oregano. ... For other uses, see Honey (disambiguation). ... This article is about the fruits of the genus Vitis. ... In food preparation, curing refers to various preservation and flavoring processes, especially of meat or fish, by the addition of a combination of salt, sugar and either nitrate or nitrite. ... Cheese is a solid food made from the milk of cows, goats, sheep, and other mammals. ... Percentages are relative to US RDI values for adults. ...

Cereals

A baker caught trying to cheat customers is punished by being dragged around the community on a sleigh with the offending loaf of bread tied around his neck.

The phrase Our daily bread was a concrete reality during the Middle Ages. Food intake among all social classes consisted mainly of cereals, usually in the form of bread and, to a lesser extent, gruel, porridge, and pasta. Estimates of bread consumption all over Europe are fairly similar: around 1–1.5 kg (2–3 lb) of bread per person per day. The most common grains were rye, barley, buckwheat, millet, and oats. Rice remained a fairly expensive import for most of the Middle Ages and was grown in northern Italy only towards the end of the period. Wheat was common all over Europe and was considered to be the most nutritious of all grains, but was more prestigious and thus more expensive. The finely sifted white flour that modern Europeans are most familiar with was reserved for the bread of the upper classes, while those of lower status ate bread that became coarser, darker and of a higher bran content the lower one was on the social ladder. In times of grain shortages or outright famine, grains could be supplemented with cheaper and less desirable substitutes like chestnuts, dried legumes, acorns, ferns, and a wide variety of more or less nutritious vegetable matter. Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (2084x2052, 6331 KB) An illustration of the punishment dealt to bakers that had violated weight regulation on bread. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (2084x2052, 6331 KB) An illustration of the punishment dealt to bakers that had violated weight regulation on bread. ... The Sermon on the Mount by Carl Heinrich Bloch. ... This article is about cereals in general. ... For other uses, see Bread (disambiguation). ... ‹ The template below is being considered for deletion. ... Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults. ... “Kg” redirects here. ... The pound or pound-mass (abbreviations: lb, lbm, or sometimes in the United States, #) is a unit of mass (sometimes called weight in everyday parlance) in a number of different systems, including English units, Imperial units, and United States customary units. ... Binomial name Secale cereale M.Bieb. ... For other uses, see Barley (disambiguation). ... Binomial name Fagopyrum esculentum Moench Common buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum) is a plant in the genus Fagopyrum (sometimes merged into genus Polygonum) in the family Polygonaceae. ... For other uses, see Millet (disambiguation). ... Binomial name Avena sativa Carolus Linnaeus (1753) The Oat (Avena sativa) is a species of cereal grain, and the seeds of this plant. ... For other uses, see Rice (disambiguation). ... Species T. aestivum T. boeoticum T. dicoccoides T. dicoccon T. durum T. monococcum T. spelta T. sphaerococcum T. timopheevii References:   ITIS 42236 2002-09-22 Wheat Wheat For the indie rock group, see Wheat (band). ... The Nutrition Facts table indicates the amounts of nutrients which experts recommend you limit or consume in adequate amounts. ... For other uses, see Flour (disambiguation). ... // wheat bran Bran is the hard outer layer of and consists of combined aleurone and pericarp. ... Species Castanea alnifolia - Bush Chinkapin* Castanea crenata - Japanese Chestnut Castanea dentata - American Chestnut Castanea henryi - Henrys Chestnut Castanea mollissima - Chinese Chestnut Castanea ozarkensis - Ozark Chinkapin Castanea pumila - Allegheny Chinkapin Castanea sativa - Sweet Chestnut Castanea seguinii - Seguins Chestnut * treated as a synonym of by many authors Chestnut is a... This article is about the fruit of the plants also called legumes. For the plants themselves, see Fabaceae . ... For other uses, see Acorn (disambiguation). ... Classes Psilotopsida Equisetopsida Marattiopsida Pteridopsida (Polypodiopsida) this dnt make sense A fern is any one of a group of about 20,000 species of plants classified in the phylum or division Pteridophyta, also known as Filicophyta. ...

One of the most common constituents of a medieval meal, either as part of a banquet or as a small snack, were sops, pieces of bread with which a liquid like wine, soup, broth, or sauce could be soaked up and eaten. Another common sight at the medieval dinner table was the frumenty, a thick wheat porridge often boiled in a meat broth and seasoned with spices. Porridges were also made of every type of grain and could be served as desserts or dishes for the sick, if boiled in milk (or almond milk) and sweetened with sugar. Pies filled with meats, eggs, vegetables, or fruit were common throughout Europe, as were turnovers, fritters, doughnuts, and many similar pastries. By the Late Middle Ages biscuits (cookies in the U.S.) and especially wafers, eaten for dessert, had become high-prestige foods and came in many varieties. Grain, either as bread crumbs or flour, was also the most common thickener of soups and stews, alone or in combination with almond milk. A sop is a piece of bread soaked in a liquid food of some sort. ... For other uses, see Wine (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Soup (disambiguation). ... Broth is a liquid in which bones, meat, fish, cereal grains, or vegetables have been simmered and strained out. ... For other uses, see Sauce (disambiguation). ... Frumenty (sometimes furmity) was a popular food dish in the Middle Ages in Europe. ... Not to be confused with Desert. ... Raw almonds Almond milk is a milky drink made from ground almonds. ... This article is about the baked good, for other uses see Pie (disambiguation). ... A turnover is a kind of pastry made by placing jam or another kind of fruit filling on a square of pastry dough and folding it over. ... An apple fritter Malaysian roadside fritters A fritter is any kind of food coated in batter and deep fried. ... For other uses, see Doughnut (disambiguation). ... Basket of western-style pastries, for breakfast Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Pastries For the Pastry Distributed Hash Table, see Pastry (DHT). ... Dante by Michelino The Late Middle Ages is a term used by historians to describe European history in the period of the 14th to 16th centuries (AD 1300–1500). ... For other uses, see Biscuit (disambiguation). ... This article is about the food. ... For semiconductor wafers, see wafer (electronics). ...

A baker with his assistant. As seen in the illustration, round loaves were among the most common.

The importance of bread as a daily staple meant that bakers played a crucial role in any medieval community. Among the first town guilds to be organized were the bakers', and laws and regulations were passed to keep bread prices stable. The English Assize of Bread and Ale of 1266 listed extensive tables where the size, weight, and price of a loaf of bread was regulated in relation to grain prices. The baker's profit margin stipulated in the tables was later increased through successful lobbying from the London Baker's Company by adding the cost of everything from firewood and salt to the baker's wife, house, and dog. Since bread was such a central part of the medieval diet, swindling by those who were trusted with supplying the precious commodity to the community was considered a serious offense. Bakers who were caught tampering with weights or adulterating dough with less expensive ingredients could receive severe penalties. This gave rise to the "baker's dozen": a baker would give 13 for the price of 12, to be certain of not being known as a cheat.^[21] Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (2088x1292, 3700 KB) A medieval baker with his apprentice. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (2088x1292, 3700 KB) A medieval baker with his apprentice. ... A baker prepares fresh rolls A baker is someone who primarily bakes and sells bread. ... A guild is an association of craftspeople in a particular trade. ... In Old English law, the Assize of Bread and Ale (Latin: Assisa panis et cervisiæ) was a 13th-century statute that set standards of quality, measurement, and pricing for bakers and brewers. ... The Worshipful Company of Bakers is one of the Livery Companies of the City of London. ... Dough Dough is a paste made out of any cereals (grains) or leguminous crops by grinding with small amount of water. ... For other uses, see Bakers dozen (disambiguation). ...

Bread was used for more than just eating: though often of wood or metal (mostly pewter), trenchers that served as dinner plates in affluent households were made out of old bread made from unsifted flour far into the early modern era, and bread was used to wipe off knives when passing them to the next diner or before fishing out salt from the shared salt cellars. Even the seemingly carefree handling of hot metal serving plates could be achieved with slices of bread neatly tucked into the hands of servants, but still away from the unforgiving gaze of fussy, high-ranking diners.^[22] Pewter plate Pewter is a metal alloy, traditionally between 85 and 99 percent tin, with the remainder consisting of 1-15 percent copper, acting as a hardener, with the addition of lead for the lower grades of pewter, which have a bluish tint. ... Trencher table setting [Copyright C. Higgins] A trencher (from Old French tranchier; to cut) is a type of tableware, commonly used in medieval cuisine. ... A salt cellar is a small dish for holding salt. ...

Fruit and vegetables

Harvesting cabbage. Tacuinum Sanitatis, 15th century.

While grains were the primary constituent of most meals, vegetables such as cabbage, beets, onions, garlic and carrots were common foodstuffs. Many of these were eaten daily by peasants and workers, but were less prestigious than meat. The cookbooks, intended mostly for those who could afford such luxuries, which appeared in the late Middle Ages, only contained a small number of recipes using vegetables other than side dishes and the occasional potage. Carrots were available in many variants during the Middle Ages: among them a tastier reddish-purple variety and a less prestigious green-yellow type. Various legumes, like chickpeas, fava beans and peas were also common and important sources of protein. With the exception of peas, they were frowned on by contemporary dietetics, partly because of their tendency to cause flatulence. The importance of vegetables to the common people is illustrated by accounts from 16th-century Germany stating that many peasants ate sauerkraut three to four times a day.^[23] Image File history File links Tacuinum_Sanitatis-cabbage_harvest. ... Image File history File links Tacuinum_Sanitatis-cabbage_harvest. ... Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults. ... The Tacuinum (sometimes Taccuinum) Sanitatis is a medieval handbook on wellness, based on the Taqwin al‑sihha (Tables of Health), an Arab medical treatise by Ibn Butlan; it exists in several variant Latin versions, the manuscripts of which are profusely illustrated. ... Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults. ... Binomial name Carolus Linnaeus Beta vulgaris, commonly known as beet is a flowering plant species in the family Chenopodiaceae. ... For other uses, see Onion (disambiguation). ... Binomial name L. Allium sativum L., commonly known as garlic, is a species in the onion family Alliaceae. ... This article is about the cultivated vegetable. ... Potage (also called Pottage) is a type of soup where meat and vegetables are boiled together with water until it forms into a thick soup. ... This article is about the fruit of the plants also called legumes. For the plants themselves, see Fabaceae . ... Binomial name Cicer arietinum L. Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults. ... Binomial name L. Vicia faba, the broad bean, fava bean, faba bean, horse bean, field bean, tic bean, or foul is a species of bean (Fabaceae) native to north Africa and southwest Asia, and extensively cultivated elsewhere. ... Binomial name L. Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults. ... A representation of the 3D structure of myoglobin, showing coloured alpha helices. ... A dietitian (sometimes spelled dietician) is an expert in food and nutrition. ... Flatulence is the presence of a mixture of gases known as flatus in the digestive tract of mammals expelled from the rectum. ... Sauerkraut and sausage on a plate Pickled Eisbein, served with Sauerkraut Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults. ...

Fruit was popular and could be served fresh, dried, or preserved, and was a common ingredient in many meat dishes. Since sugar and honey were expensive, it was common to include many types of fruit in dishes that called for sweeteners of some sort. The fruits of choice in the south were lemons, citrons, bitter oranges (the sweet type was not introduced until several hundred years later), pomegranates, quinces, and, of course, grapes. Further north, apples, pears, plums, and strawberries were more common. Figs and dates were eaten all over Europe, but remained rather expensive imports in the north. This article is about the fruit. ... Binomial name L. For other uses, see Citron (disambiguation). ... Binomial name Citrus aurantium L. The bitter orange, refers to a citrus tree (Citrus aurantium) and its fruit. ... Binomial name L. For the color see: Pomegranate (color) The Pomegranate (Punica granatum) is a fruit-bearing deciduous shrub or small tree growing to 5–8 m tall. ... Binomial name Mill. ... This article is about the fruits of the genus Vitis. ... This article is about the fruit. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Species See text. ... For other uses, see Strawberry (disambiguation). ... Species About 800, including: Ficus altissima Ficus americana Ficus aurea Ficus benghalensis- Indian Banyan Ficus benjamina- Weeping Fig Ficus broadwayi Ficus carica- Common Fig Ficus citrifolia Ficus coronata Ficus drupacea Ficus elastica Ficus godeffroyi Ficus grenadensis Ficus hartii Ficus lyrata Ficus macbrideii Ficus macrophylla- Moreton Bay Fig Ficus microcarpa- Chinese... Binomial name L. The Date Palm (Phoenix dactylifera) is a palm in the genus Phoenix, extensively cultivated for its edible fruit. ...

Common and often basic ingredients in many modern European cuisines like potatoes, kidney beans, cacao, vanilla, tomatoes, chili peppers and maize were not available to Europeans until the late 15th century with the European contact with the Americas, and even then it often took a long time for the new foodstuffs to be accepted by society at large.^[24] For other uses, see Potato (disambiguation). ... Navy Bean redirects here. ... For the town in French Guiana, see Cacao, French Guiana. ... Vanilla pods Vanilla is a flavouring derived from orchids in the genus Vanilla native to Mexico. ... For other uses, see Tomato (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Chili. ... This article is about the maize plant. ...

Meats

Pig about to be slaughtered.

While all forms of wild game were popular among those who could obtain it, most meat came from domesticated animals. Beef was not as common as today because raising cattle was labor-intensive, requiring pastures and feed, and oxen and cows were much more valuable as draught animals and for producing milk. Animals slaughtered because they were no longer able to work were not particularly appetizing and were therefore less valued. Far more common was pork, as pigs required less attention and cheaper feed. Domestic pigs often ran freely even in towns and could be fed on just about any organic kitchen waste, and suckling pig was a sought-after delicacy. Mutton and lamb were fairly common, especially in areas with a sizeable wool industry, as was veal. Unlike most of the modern Western world, just about every part of the animal was eaten, including ears, snout, tail, tongue, and womb. Intestines, bladder and stomach could be used as casings for sausage or even illusion food such as giant eggs. Among the meats that today are rare or even considered inappropriate for human consumption were hedgehog and porcupine, occasionally mentioned in late medieval recipe collections.^[25] Both were considered lesser forms of pig, hence their names. Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (836x1398, 1488 KB) Killing a domestic pig for slaughter. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (836x1398, 1488 KB) Killing a domestic pig for slaughter. ... Game is any animal hunted for food or not normally domesticated (such as venison). ... For other uses, see Beef (disambiguation). ... For general information about the genus, including other species of cattle, see Bos. ... A working animal is an animal that is kept by humans and trained to perform tasks. ... For other uses, see Pork (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Pig (disambiguation). ... Sucking pig is a young pig that has only fed on its mothers milk. ... An unweaned lamb Legs of lamb in a supermarket cabinet The terms lamb, hoggett or mutton are culinary names for the meat of a domestic sheep. ... For other uses, see Wool (disambiguation). ... Veal is the meat of young calves (usually male) appreciated for its delicate taste and tender texture. ... This article includes a list of works cited or a list of external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks in-text citations. ... This article is about sausage casings. ... This article is about the prepared meat. ... Genera Atelerix Erinaceus Hemiechinus Mesechinus Paraechinus A hedgehog is any of the small spiny mammals of the subfamily Erinaceinae and the order Erinaceomorpha. ... This article is about the rodent mammal. ... Dante by Michelino The Late Middle Ages is a term used by historians to describe European history in the period of the 14th to 16th centuries (AD 1300–1500). ...

A wide range of birds was eaten, including swans, peafowl, quail, partridge, storks, cranes, larks and just about any wild bird that could be hunted. Swans and peafowl were often domesticated, but were only eaten by the social elite, and more praised for their fine appearance (often used to create stunning entremets) than for their meat. As today, geese and ducks had been domesticated but were not as popular as the chicken, the fowl equivalent of the pig. Curiously enough the barnacle goose was believed to reproduce not by laying eggs like other birds, but by growing in barnacles, and was hence considered acceptable food for fast and Lent.^[24] Species 6-7 living, see text. ... “Peacock” redirects here. ... Genera Coturnix Anurophasis Perdicula Ophrysia † See also Pheasant, Partridge, Grouse Quail is a collective name for several genera of mid-sized birds in the pheasant family Phasianidae, or in the family Odontophoridae. ... For other uses, see Partridge (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Stork (disambiguation). ... Genera Grus Anthropoides Balearica Bugeranus Cranes are large, long-legged and long-necked birds of the order Gruiformes, and family Gruidae. ... For other uses, see Lark (disambiguation). ... An entremet (or entremets, from Old French, literally meaning between servings) is today a small dish served between courses or simply a dessert. ... Geese redirects here. ... Subfamilies Dendrocygninae Oxyurinae Anatinae Aythyinae Merginae Duck is the common name for a number of species in the Anatidae family of birds. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... Binomial name Branta leucopsis (Bechstein, 1803) The Barnacle Goose (Branta leucopsis) belongs to the genus Branta of black geese, which contains species with largely black plumage, distinguishing them from the grey Anser species. ... Superorders Acrothoracica Thoracica Rhizocephala A barnacle is a type of arthropod belonging to infraclass Cirripedia in the subphylum Crustacea and is hence distantly related to crabs and lobsters. ... It has been suggested that Cuaresma be merged into this article or section. ...

Meats were more expensive than plant foods. Though rich in protein, the calorie-to-weight ratio of meat was less than that of plant food. Meat could be up to four times as expensive as bread. Fish was up to 16 times as costly, and was still expensive even for coastal populations. This meant that fasts could mean an especially meager diet for those who could not afford alternatives to meat and animal products like milk and eggs. It was only after the Black Death had eradicated up to half of the European population that meat became more common even for poorer people. The drastic reduction in many populated areas resulted in a labor shortage, meaning that wages shot up. It also left vast areas of farmland untended, making them available for pasture and putting more meat on the market.^[26] A representation of the 3D structure of myoglobin, showing coloured alpha helices. ... Etymology: French calorie, from Latin calor (heat), from calere (to be warm). ... This article concerns the mid fourteenth century pandemic. ... Pastureland Pasture is land with lush herbaceous vegetation cover used for grazing of ungulates as part of a farm or ranch. ...

Fish and seafood

Fishing lamprey in a stream. Tacuinum Sanitatis, 15th century.

Although less prestigious than other animal meats, and often seen as merely an alternative to meat on fast days, seafood was still the mainstay of many coastal populations. "Fish" to the medieval man was also a general name for anything not considered a proper land-living animal, including marine mammals such as whales and porpoises. Also included were the beaver, due to its scaly tail and considerable time spent in water, and barnacle geese, due to lack of knowledge of where they migrated. Such foods were also considered appropriate for fast days.^[27] Especially important was the fishing and trade in herring and cod in the Atlantic and the Baltic Sea. The herring was of unprecedented significance to the economy of much of Northern Europe, and it was one of the most common commodities traded by the Hanseatic League, a powerful north German alliance of trading guilds. Kippers made from herring caught in the North Sea could be found in markets as far away as Constantinople. While large quantities of fish were eaten fresh, a large proportion was salted, dried, and, to a lesser extent, smoked. Stockfish, cod that was split down the middle, fixed to a pole and dried, was very common, though preparation could be time-consuming, and meant beating the dried fish with a mallet before soaking it in water. A wide range of mollusks including oysters, mussels and scallops were eaten by coastal and river-dwelling populations, and freshwater crayfish were seen as a desirable alternative to meat during fish days. Compared to meat, fish was much more expensive for inland populations, especially in Central Europe, and therefore not an option for most. Freshwater fish such as pike, carp, bream, perch, lamprey, and trout were common.^[24] Image File history File links Tacuinum_Sanitatis-fishing_lamprey. ... Image File history File links Tacuinum_Sanitatis-fishing_lamprey. ... Subfamilies Geotriinae Mordaciinae Petromyzontinae A lamprey (sometimes also called lamprey eel) is a jawless fish with a toothed, funnel-like sucking mouth. ... The Tacuinum (sometimes Taccuinum) Sanitatis is a medieval handbook on wellness, based on the Taqwin al‑sihha (Tables of Health), an Arab medical treatise by Ibn Butlan; it exists in several variant Latin versions, the manuscripts of which are profusely illustrated. ... Spaghetti with seafood (Spaghetti allo scoglio). ... A Humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae), a member of Order Cetacea A Leopard seal (Hydrurga leptonyx), a member of infrafamily Pinnipedia A West Indian Manatee (Trichechus manatus), a member of Order Sirenia A pair of Sea Otters (Enhydra lutris), a member of family Mustelidae A Polar bear (Ursus maritimus), a member... This article is about the animal. ... Genera Neophocaena Phocoena - Harbor porpoise Phocoenoides - Dalls porpoise The porpoises are small cetaceans of the family Phocoenidae; they are related to whales and dolphins. ... Species C. canadensis C. fiber Beavers are semi-aquatic rodents native to North America and Europe. ... Binomial name Branta leucopsis (Bechstein, 1803) The Barnacle Goose (Branta leucopsis) belongs to the genus Branta of black geese, which contains species with largely black plumage, distinguishing them from the grey Anser species. ... Species Clupea alba Clupea bentincki Clupea caspiopontica Clupea chrysotaenia Clupea elongata Clupea halec Clupea harengus Clupea inermis Clupea leachii Clupea lineolata Clupea minima Clupea mirabilis Clupea pallasii Clupea sardinacaroli Clupea sulcata Herrings are small oily fish of the genus Clupea found in the shallow, temperate waters of the North Atlantic... COD may refer to many different topics, including: Cash on delivery Completion of discharge, shipping College of DuPage, a public Junior College with campuses in the suburbs of Chicago Call of Duty (series), a series of computer games Canadian Oxford Dictionary Carrier onboard delivery Catastrophic optical damage, a failure mode... The Atlantic Ocean, not including Arctic and Antarctic regions. ... The Baltic Sea is located in Northern Europe, from 53°N to 66°N latitude and from 20°E to 26°E longitude. ... Carta marina of the Baltic Sea region (1539). ... Look up Kipper in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... The North Sea is a sea of the Atlantic Ocean, located between the coasts of Norway and Denmark in the east, the coast of the British Isles in the west, and the German, Dutch, Belgian and French coasts in the south. ... This article is about the city before the Fall of Constantinople (1453). ... Stockfish is air-dried cod. ... Classes Caudofoveata Aplacophora Polyplacophora Monoplacophora Bivalvia Scaphopoda Gastropoda Cephalopoda † Rostroconchia † Helcionelloida † ?Bellerophontidae The molluscs (British spelling) or mollusks (American spelling) are members of the large and diverse phylum Mollusca, which includes a variety of familiar animals well-known for their decorative shells or as seafood. ... For other uses, see Oyster (disambiguation). ... Subclasses Pteriomorpha (marine mussels) Palaeoheterodonta (freshwater mussels) Heterodonta (zebra mussels) The term mussel is used for several families of bivalve molluscs inhabiting lakes, rivers, and creeks, as well as intertidal areas along coastlines worldwide. ... Genera See text. ... Families Astacoidea   Astacidae   Cambaridae Parastacoidea   Parastacidae Crayfish, often referred to as crawfish or crawdad, are freshwater crustaceans resembling small lobsters, to which they are closely related. ... weenie // “Pickerel” redirects here. ... For other uses, see Carp (disambiguation). ... Bream caught in the Volga River near Kashin, Russia. ... Species P. flavescens (Yellow perch) P. fluviatilis (European perch) P. schrenkii (Balkhash perch) For other meanings of the word perch, including fish not in the Perca genus, see Perch (disambiguation). ... Subfamilies Geotriinae Mordaciinae Petromyzontinae A lamprey (sometimes also called lamprey eel) is a jawless fish with a toothed, funnel-like sucking mouth. ... Rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss Biwa trout (or Biwa salmon), Oncorhynchus masou rhodurus Trout is the common name given to a number of species of freshwater fish belonging to the salmon family, Salmonidae. ...

Drink

A friar sneaking a drink of wine.

In modern times, water is seen as a common choice to drink with a meal. In the Middle Ages, however, concerns over purity, medical recommendations and its low prestige value made it less favored, and alcoholic beverages were always preferred. They were seen as more nutritious and beneficial to digestion than water, with the invaluable bonus of being less prone to putrefaction due to the alcohol content. Wine was consumed on a daily basis in most of France and all over the Western Mediterranean wherever grapes were cultivated. Further north it remained the preferred drink of the bourgeoisie and the nobility who could afford it, and far less common among peasants and workers. The drink of commoners in the northern parts of the continent was primarily beer or ale. Because of the difficulty of preserving this beverage for any time (especially before the introduction of hops), it was mostly consumed fresh; it was therefore cloudier and perhaps had a lower alcohol content than the typical modern equivalent. Plain milk was not consumed by adults except the poor or sick, being reserved for the very young or elderly, and then usually as buttermilk or whey. Fresh milk was overall less common than other dairy products because of the lack of technology to keep it from spoiling.^[28] Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (2080x2052, 5891 KB) A monk sneaking a drink of wine. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (2080x2052, 5891 KB) A monk sneaking a drink of wine. ... A friar is a member of a religious mendicant order of men. ... Impact from a water drop causes an upward rebound jet surrounded by circular capillary waves. ... Alcoholic beverages An alcoholic beverage (also known as booze in slang term) is a drink containing ethanol, commonly known as alcohol, although in chemistry the definition of alcohol includes many other compounds. ... For the industrial process, see anaerobic digestion. ... Putrefaction is the decomposition of proteins, especially by anaerobic microorganisms. ... For other uses, see Wine (disambiguation). ... This article is about the fruits of the genus Vitis. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... For other uses, see Beer (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Ale (disambiguation). ... Hop umbel (branched floral structure resembling nested-inverted umbrellas) in a Hallertau hop yard Hops are a flower used primarily as a flavouring and stability agent in beer, as well as in herbal medicine. ... A glass of cows milk. ... Percentages are relative to US RDI values for adults. ... Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults. ... A dairy farm near Oxford, New York in the United States. ...

Juices, as well as wines, of a multitude of fruits and berries had been known at least since Roman antiquity and were still consumed in the Middle Ages: pomegranate, mulberry and blackberry wines, perry, and cider which was especially popular in the north where both apples and pears were plentiful. Medieval drinks that have survived to this day include prunellé from wild plums (modern-day slivovitz), mulberry gin and blackberry wine. Many variants of mead have been found in medieval recipes, with or without alcoholic content. However, the honey-based drink became less common as a table beverage towards the end of the period and eventually wound up primarily as a sick-potion. Kumis, the fermented milk of mares or camels, was known in Europe, but as with mead was mostly something prescribed by physicians.^[29] Mead has often been presented as the common drink of the Slavs. This is partially true since mead bore great symbolic value at important occasions. When agreeing on treaties and other important affairs of state, mead was often presented as a ceremonial gift. It was also common at weddings and baptismal parties, though in limited quantity due to its high price. In medieval Poland, mead had a status equivalent to that of imported luxuries, such as spices and wines.^[30] For other uses, see Juice (disambiguation). ... Ancient Rome was a civilization that grew from a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula circa the 9th century BC to a massive empire straddling the Mediterranean Sea. ... Binomial name L. For the color see: Pomegranate (color) The Pomegranate (Punica granatum) is a fruit-bearing deciduous shrub or small tree growing to 5–8 m tall. ... For other uses, see Mulberry (disambiguation). ... This article is about the wireless e-mail device. ... For other uses, see Wine (disambiguation). ... This article is about is about the alcoholic beverage. ... Cider in a pint glass Cider (or cyder) is an alcoholic beverage made primarily from the juices of specially grown varieties of apples. ... Species See text. ... Note: This page or section contains IPA phonetic symbols in Unicode. ... Gin and tonic. ... Mead Mead is a fermented alcoholic beverage made of honey, water, and yeast. ... For other uses, see Honey (disambiguation). ... In the West, Kumis has been touted for its health benefits, as in this 1877 book also naming it Milk Champagne. Kumis (also spelled kumiss, koumiss, kymys; called airag in Mongolian cuisine) is a fermented milk drink traditionally made from the milk of horses. ... Binomial name Equus caballus Linnaeus, 1758 The horse (Equus caballus, sometimes seen as a subspecies of the Wild Horse, Equus ferus caballus) is a large odd-toed ungulate mammal, one of ten modern species of the genus Equus. ... For other uses, see Camel (disambiguation). ... Distribution of Slavic people by language The Slavic peoples are a linguistic and ethnic branch of Indo-European peoples, living mainly in Europe, where they constitute roughly a third of the population. ... This article is about the Christian religious act of Baptism. ...

Wine

Main article: History of wine

A matron demonstrates how to properly treat and conserve wine.

Wine was commonly drunk and was also regarded as the most prestigious and healthy choice. According to Galen's dietetics it was considered hot and dry (hence the modern use of "dry" in describing wine), but these qualities were moderated when wine was watered down. Unlike water or beer, which were considered cold and moist, consumption of wine in moderation (especially red wine) was, among other things, believed to aid digestion, generate good blood and brighten the mood. The quality of wine differed considerably according to vintage, the type of grape and more importantly, the number of grape pressings. The first pressing was made into the finest and most expensive wines which were reserved for the upper classes. The second and third pressings were subsequently of lower quality and alcohol content. Common folk usually had to settle for a cheap white or rosé from a second or even third pressing, meaning that it could be consumed in quite generous amounts without leading to heavy intoxication. For the poorest (or the most pious), watered-down vinegar would often be the only available choice. The history of wine spans thousands of years and is closely intertwined with the history of agriculture, cuisine, civilization and man himself. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (1288x1388, 2393 KB) A matron shows how to treat wine and conserve it properly. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (1288x1388, 2393 KB) A matron shows how to treat wine and conserve it properly. ... For other uses, see Galen (disambiguation). ... This article is about the beverage. ... Human blood smear: a - erythrocytes; b - neutrophil; c - eosinophil; d - lymphocyte. ... The Vintagers, after a miniature of the Dialogues de Saint Gregoire (thirteenth century)—manuscript of the Royal Library of Brussels. ... For the song by The Feeling, see Rosé (song). ... Vinegar is sometimes infused with spices or herbs—as here, with oregano. ...

The aging of high quality red wine required specialized knowledge as well as expensive storage and equipment, and resulted in an even more expensive end product. Judging from the advice given in many medieval documents on how to salvage wine that bore signs of going bad, preservation must have been a widespread problem. Even if vinegar was a common ingredient, there was only so much of it that could be used. In the 14th-century cookbook Le Viandier there are several methods for salvaging spoiling wine; making sure that the wine barrels are always topped up or adding a mixture of dried and boiled white grape seeds with the ash of dried and burnt lees of white wine were both effective bactericides, even if the chemical processes were not understood at the time. Spiced or mulled wine was not only popular among the affluent, but was also considered especially healthy by physicians. Wine was believed to act as a kind of vaporizer and conduit of other foodstuffs to every part of the body, and the addition of fragrant and exotic spices would make it even more wholesome. Spiced wines were usually made by mixing an ordinary (red) wine with an assortment of spices such as ginger, cardamom, pepper, grains of paradise, nutmeg, cloves and sugar. These would be contained in small bags which were either steeped in wine or had liquid poured over them to produce hypocras and claré. By the 14th century, bagged spice mixes could be bought ready-made from spice merchants.^[31] Le Viandier is a cookbook written by Taillevent (aka Guillaume Tirel). ... It has been suggested that Sur lie be merged into this article or section. ... A bacteriocide or bactericide is a substance that kills bacteria and, preferably, nothing else. ... It has been suggested that glogg be merged into this article or section. ... For other uses, see Ginger (disambiguation). ... This article is about the herbs. ... Species See text. ... Binomial name Aframomum melegueta K. Schum. ... It has been suggested that Legal drugs#Nutmeg be merged into this article or section. ... Binomial name (L.) Merrill & Perry A single dried clove flower bud Cloves (Syzygium aromaticum, syn. ... Steeping may mean: Soaking in liquid until saturated with a soluble ingredient, as in, for example, the steeping of tea. ... Hypocras (sometimes spelled Hippocras) is a drink made from wine, possibly heated, and mixed with spices, most notably cinnamon. ... Claret is a name used in English for red wine from the Bordeaux region of France, along the valleys of the rivers Gironde, Garonne and Dordogne, including Medoc, Graves and St Emilion. ...

Beer

Main article: History of beer

While wine was the most common table beverage in much of Europe, this was not the case in the northern regions where grapes were not cultivated. Those who could afford it drank imported wine, but even for nobility in these areas it was common to drink beer or ale, particularly towards the end of the Middle Ages. In England, the Low Countries, northern Germany, Poland and Scandinavia, beer was consumed on a daily basis by people of all social classes and age groups. However, the heavy influence from Arab and Mediterranean culture on medical science (particularly due to the Reconquista and the influx of Arabic texts) meant that beer was often heavily disfavored. For most medieval Europeans, it was a humble brew compared with common southern drinks and cooking ingredients, such as wine, lemons and olive oil. Even comparatively exotic products like camel's milk and gazelle meat generally received more positive attention in medical texts. Beer was just an acceptable alternative and was assigned various negative qualities. In 1256, the Sienese physician Aldobrandino described beer in the following way: Alulu Tablet - a receipt for best beer from 2050 BC in the ancient Kingdom of Ur Beer is one of the oldest beverages humans have produced, dating back to at least the 5th millennium BC and recorded in the written history of Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. ... For other uses, see Beer (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Ale (disambiguation). ... Mediæval Britain is a term used to suggest that there is a unity to the history of Great Britain from the 5th centurys withdrawal of Roman forces and Germanic invasions until the 16th century Reformations in Scotland and England. ... It has been suggested that Regents: Low Countries be merged into this article or section. ... The history of Scandinavia is the common history of the Scandinavian countries— Denmark, Norway Sweden and Finland. ... // Generosity and Bravery were the prominent virtues of and to the Arabs. ... Combatants Asturias Castile Galicia Portugal León Aragon Navarre Umayyad Caliphate Caliphate of Cordoba Almoravids For other senses of this word, see Reconquista (disambiguation). ... For the Popeye character, see Olive Oyl. ... For other uses, see Camel (disambiguation). ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Piazza del Campo Siena is a city in Tuscany, Italy. ...

The intoxicating effect of beer was believed to last longer than that of wine, but it was also admitted that it did not create the "false thirst" associated with wine. Though less prominent than in the north, beer was consumed in northern France and the Italian mainland. Perhaps as a consequence of the Norman conquest and the travelling of nobles between France and England, one French variant described in the 14th-century cookbook Le Menagier de Paris was called godale (most likely a direct borrowing from the English "good ale") and was made from barley and spelt, but without hops. In England there were also the variants poset ale, made from hot milk and cold ale, and brakot or braggot, a spiced ale prepared much like hypocras.^[32] Halitosis, oral malodor (scientific term), breath odor, foul breath, fetor oris, or most commonly bad breath are terms used to describe noticeably unpleasant odors exhaled in breathing – whether the smell is from an oral source or not. ... This article is about dental caries in humans. ... Manneken Pis of Brussels. ... The Bayeux Tapestry depicts the Battle of Hastings and the events leading to it. ... A cookbook is a book that contains information on cooking, and a list of recipes. ... The English language is a West Germanic language that originates in England. ... Look up Spelt in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Hop umbel (branched floral structure resembling nested-inverted umbrellas) in a Hallertau hop yard Hops are a flower used primarily as a flavouring and stability agent in beer, as well as in herbal medicine. ... A posset is a hot milk drink, popular in the Middle Ages for its supposed medicinal properties. ... Mead Mead is a fermented alcoholic beverage made of honey, water, and yeast. ... Hypocras (sometimes spelled Hippocras) is a drink made from wine, possibly heated, and mixed with spices, most notably cinnamon. ...

That hops could be used for flavoring beer had been known at least since Carolingian times, but was adopted gradually due to difficulties in establishing the appropriate proportions. Before the discovery of hops, gruit, a mix of various herbs, had been used. Gruit did not have the same preserving properties as hops, and the end result had to be consumed quickly to avoid the inevitable spoiling. Another flavoring method was to increase the alcohol content, but this was more expensive and lent the beer the undesired characteristic of being a quick and heavy intoxicant. In the Early Middle Ages beer was primarily brewed in monasteries, and on a smaller scale in individual households. By the High Middle Ages breweries in the fledgling medieval towns of northern Germany began to take over production. Though most of the breweries were small family businesses that employed at most eight to ten people, regular production allowed for investment in better equipment and increased experimentation with new recipes and brewing techniques. These operations later spread to Holland in the 14th century, then to Flanders and Brabant, and reached England by the 15th century. Hopped beer became very popular in the last decades of the Late Middle Ages. In England and the Low Countries, the per capita annual consumption was around 275–300 liters (60–66 gallons), and it was consumed with practically every meal: low alcohol-content beers for breakfast, and stronger ones later in the day. When perfected as an ingredient, hops could make beer keep for six months or more, and facilitated extensive exports.^[33] Also see: France in the Middle Ages. ... Gruit (or sometimes grut) is an old fashioned herb mixture used for bittering and flavouring beer, before the extensive use of hops. ... Herbs: basil Herbs (IPA: hÉ™()b, or É™b; see pronunciation differences) are seed-bearing plants without woody stems, which die down to the ground after flowering. ... Justinians wife Theodora and her retinue, in a 6th century mosaic from the Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna. ... Monastery of St. ... The cathedral Notre Dame de Paris, a significant architectural contribution of the High Middle Ages. ... Defensive towers at San Gimignano, Tuscany, bear witness to the factional strife within communes. ... This article is about a region in the Netherlands. ... For other uses, see Flanders (disambiguation). ... Brabant is a former duchy in the Low Countries, and a former province of Belgium. ... Dante by Michelino The Late Middle Ages is a term used by historians to describe European history in the period of the 14th to 16th centuries (AD 1300–1500). ... The litre or liter (see spelling differences) is a unit of volume. ... The gallon (abbreviation: gal) is a unit of volume. ...

Distillates

The ancient Greeks and Romans also knew of the technique, but it was not practiced on a major scale until some time around the 12th century, when Arabic innovations in the field combined with water-cooled glass alembics were introduced. Distillation was believed by medieval scholars to produce the essence of the liquid being purified, and the term aqua vitae ("water of life") was used as a generic term for all kinds of distillates into the 17th century. The early use of various distillates, alcoholic or not, was varied, but it was primarily culinary or medicinal; grape syrup mixed with sugar and spices was prescribed for a variety of ailments, and rose water was used as a perfume and cooking ingredient and for hand washing. Alcoholic distillates were also occasionally used to create dazzling, fire-breathing entremets (a type of entertainment dish served between courses) by soaking a piece of cotton in spirits. It would then be placed in the mouth of the stuffed, cooked and occasionally redressed animals, and lit just before presenting the creation. The term ancient Greece refers to the periods of Greek history in Classical Antiquity, lasting ca. ... Ancient Rome was a civilization that grew from a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula circa the 9th century BC to a massive empire straddling the Mediterranean Sea. ... An alembic is an alchemical still consisting of two retorts connected by a tube. ... Aqua vitae (L. water of life), is an archaic name for a concentrated aqueous solution of ethanol. ... A distilled beverage is a consumable liquid containing ethyl alcohol (ethanol) purified by distillation from a fermented substance such as fruit, vegetables, or grain. ... In cooking, a syrup (from Arabic شراب sharab, beverage, via Latin siropus) is a thick, viscous liquid, containing a large amount of dissolved sugars, but showing little tendency to deposit crystals. ... Rosewater or rose syrup (Persian: Golâb Turkish: Gül suyu) is the hydrosol portion of the distillate of rose petals. ... Perfume is a mixture of fragrant essential oils and aroma compounds, fixatives, and solvents used to give the human body, objects, and living spaces a pleasant smell. ... An entremet (or entremets, from Old French, literally meaning between servings) is today a small dish served between courses or simply a dessert. ... For other uses, see Cotton (disambiguation). ...

Aqua vitae in its alcoholic forms was highly praised by medieval physicians. In 1309 Arnaldus of Villanova wrote that "It prolongs good health, dissipates superfluous humours, reanimates the heart and maintains youth." In the Late Middle Ages, the production of moonshine started to pick up, especially in the German-speaking regions. By the 13th century, Hausbrand (literally "home-burnt" from gebrannter wein, brandwein; "burnt (distilled) wine") was commonplace, marking the origin of brandy. Towards the end of the Late Middle Ages, the consumption of spirits became so engrained even among the general population that restrictions on sales and production began to appear in the late 15th century. In 1496 the city of Nuremberg issued restrictions on the selling of aquavit on Sundays and official holidays.^[34] Arnaldus de Villa Nova or Arnaldus de Villanueva, Arnaldus Villanovanus, Arnaud de Ville-Neuve or Arnau de Vilanova, (ca. ... Revenue men at the site of moonshine stills, Kentucky, 1911 or earlier For other uses, see Moonshine (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Brandy (disambiguation). ... Nürnberg redirects here. ...

Herbs and spices

Harvesting pepper. Illustration from a French edition of The Travels of Marco Polo.

Spices were among the most luxurious products available in the Middle Ages, the most common being black pepper, cinnamon (and the cheaper alternative cassia), cumin, nutmeg, ginger and cloves. They all had to be imported from plantations in Asia and Africa, which made them extremely expensive. It has been estimated that around 1,000 tons of pepper and 1,000 tons of the other common spices were imported into Western Europe each year during the late Middle Ages. The value of these goods was the equivalent of a yearly supply of grain for 1.5 million people.^[35] While pepper was the most common spice, the most exclusive was saffron, used as much for its vivid yellow-red color as for its flavor. Spices that have now fallen into some obscurity include grains of paradise, a relative of cardamom which almost entirely replaced pepper in late medieval north French cooking, long pepper, mace, spikenard, galangal and cubeb. Sugar, unlike today, was considered to be a type of spice due to its high cost and humoral qualities. Image File history File links Le_livre_des_merveilles_de_Marco_Polo-pepper. ... Image File history File links Le_livre_des_merveilles_de_Marco_Polo-pepper. ... A page of The Travels of Marco Polo The Travels of Marco Polo is the usual English title of Marco Polos travel book, Il Milione. ... For other uses, see Spice (disambiguation). ... Binomial name L. Black pepper (Piper nigrum) is a flowering vine in the family Piperaceae, cultivated for its fruit, which is usually dried and used as a spice and seasoning. ... Binomial name J.Presl Cassia (Chinese cinnamon) is also commonly called (and sometimes sold as) cinnamon. ... Binomial name Cinnamomum aromaticum Nees Cassia (Cinnamomum aromaticum, synonym ), also called Chinese cinnamon, is an evergreen tree native to southern China and mainland Southeast Asia west to Myanmar. ... Geerah redirects here. ... It has been suggested that Legal drugs#Nutmeg be merged into this article or section. ... For other uses, see Ginger (disambiguation). ... Binomial name (L.) Merrill & Perry A single dried clove flower bud Cloves (Syzygium aromaticum, syn. ... For other uses, see Asia (disambiguation). ... A world map showing the continent of Africa Africa is the worlds second-largest and second most-populous continent, after Asia. ... Look up ton in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Binomial name Crocus sativus L. Saffron (IPA: ) is a spice derived from the flower of the saffron crocus (Crocus sativus), a species of crocus in the family Iridaceae. ... Binomial name Aframomum melegueta K. Schum. ... This article is about the herbs. ... Binomial name Piper longum L. Long pepper (Piper longum) is a flowering vine in the family Piperaceae, cultivated for its fruit, which is usually dried and used as a spice and seasoning. ... It has been suggested that Legal drugs#Nutmeg be merged into this article or section. ... Binomial name Nardostachys grandiflora DC. Spikenard (also nard and muskroot) is a flowering plant of the Valerian family that grows in the Himalayas of India and Nepal. ... Kaempferia galanga Galangal, Malay lengkuas, Mandarin (Traditional: 南薑/Simplified: 南姜, also termed as: T:高良薑/S:高良姜), Cantonese lam keong (藍薑, also known as blue ginger), is a rhizome with culinary and medicinal uses, best known in the west today for its appearance in Southeast Asia cuisine but also common in recipes from medieval Europe. ... Binomial name Piper cubeba L. Cubeb (Piper cubeba), or tailed pepper, is a plant in genus Piper, cultivated for its fruit and essential oil. ... This article is about sugar as food and as an important and widely traded commodity. ...

Common herbs such as sage, mustard, and especially parsley were grown and used in cooking all over Europe, as were caraway, mint, dill and fennel. Anise could be used to flavor fish and chicken dishes, and its seeds were served as sugar-coated comfits. Locally grown herbs were more affordable and were also used in upper-class food, but were then usually less prominent or included merely as coloring. A popular modern-day misconception is that medieval cooks used liberal amounts of spices, particularly black pepper, merely to disguise the taste of spoiled meat. However, a medieval feast was as much a culinary event as it was a display of the host's vast resources and generosity, and as most nobles had a wide selection of fresh or preserved meats, fish or seafood to choose from, the use of ruinously expensive spices on cheap, rotting meat would have made little sense.^[36] Binomial name L. Sage leaves - first variety Sage leaves - second variety Common sage (Salvia officinalis) is a small evergreen subshrub, with woody stems, grayish leaves, and blue to purplish flowers native to southern Europe and the Mediterranean region. ... Species See text. ... This article is about the herb. ... Categories: | | | | ... “Mint” redirects here. ... For other uses, see Dill (disambiguation). ... Binomial name Foeniculum vulgare Mill. ... This article is about the Pimpinella species, but the name anise is frequently applied to Fennel. ... Comfit(s) Comfits are spices, dried fruits, or nuts, coated with sugar candy, often passed round during festivities. ... Herbs: basil Herbs (IPA: hə()b, or əb; see pronunciation differences) are seed-bearing plants without woody stems, which die down to the ground after flowering. ...

Sweets and desserts

The term "dessert" comes from the Old French desservir, "to clear a table", literally "to un-serve", and originated during the Middle Ages. It would typically consist of dragées and mulled wine accompanied by aged cheese, and by the Late Middle Ages could also include fresh fruit covered in sugar, honey or syrup and boiled-down fruit pastes. There was a wide variety of fritters, crêpes with sugar, sweet custards and darioles, almond milk and eggs in a pastry shell that could also include fruit and sometimes even bone marrow or fish.^[37] German-speaking areas had a particular fondness for krapfen: fried pastries and dough with various sweet and savory fillings. Marzipan in many forms was well-known in Italy and southern France by the 1340s and is assumed to be of Arab origin.^[38] Anglo-Norman cookbooks are full of recipes for crap and savory custards, potages, sauces and tarts with strawberries, cherries, apples and plums. The English chefs also had a penchant for using flower petals of roses and elderberry. An early form of quiche can be found in Forme of Cury, a 14th-century recipe collection, as a Torte de Bry with a cheese and egg yolk filling.^[39] Not to be confused with Desert. ... Old French was the Romance dialect continuum spoken in territories corresponding roughly to the northern half of modern France and parts of modern Belgium and Switzerland from around 1000 to 1300. ... A dragée (IPA: , from Greek tragêmata sweets ,treats) is a form of confectionery that is more decorative and symbolic than a substantial sweet. ... Cheese is a solid food made from the milk of cows, goats, sheep, and other mammals. ... An apple fritter Malaysian roadside fritters A fritter is any kind of food coated in batter and deep fried. ... The base material for multiple crêpes A sweet crêpe opened up, with whipped cream and strawberry sauce on it A crêpe (pronounced IPA /kreɪp/, French /kʀɛp/) is a type of very thin raw fish usually made grown in the ocean or sea. ... This article focuses on egg-thickened custards. ... There are very few or no other articles that link to this one. ... Fruit shapes molded from marzipan Marzipan is a confection consisting primarily of sugar and ground almonds. ... Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Potage (also called Pottage) is a type of soup where meat and vegetables are boiled together with water until it forms into a thick soup. ... A tart is a pastry dish, usually sweet, that is a type of pie, with an open top that is not covered with pastry. ... For other uses, see Cherry (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Rose (disambiguation). ... Species See text Elder or Elderberry (Sambucus) is a genus of between 5–30 species of shrubs or small trees (two species herbaceous), formerly treated in the honeysuckle family Caprifoliaceae, but now shown by genetic evidence to be correctly classified in the moschatel family Adoxaceae. ... Mediterranean quiche In French cuisine, a quiche (IPA: ) is a baked dish that is made primarily of eggs and milk or cream in a pastry crust. ... Title page of the Forme of Cury The Forme of Cury was the name given by Samuel Pegge to a roll of cookery written by the Master Cooks of King Richard II of England. ...

In northern France, a wide assortment of waffles and wafers was eaten with cheese and hypocras or a sweet malmsey as issue de table ("departure from the table"). The ever-present candied ginger, coriander, aniseed and other spices were referred to as épices de chambre ("parlor spices") and were taken as digestables at the end of a meal to "close" the stomach.^[40] Like their Muslim counterparts in Spain, the Arab conquerors of Sicily introduced a wide variety of new sweets and desserts that eventually found their way to the rest of Europe. Just like Montpellier, Sicily was once famous for its comfits, nougat candy (torrone, or turrón in Spanish) and almond clusters (confetti). From the south, the Arabs also brought the art of ice cream making that produced sherbets and several examples of sweet cakes and pastries; cassata alla Siciliana (from Arabic qas'ah, the term for the terra cotta bowl with which it was shaped), made from marzipan, sponge cake and sweetened ricotta and cannoli alla Siciliana, originally cappelli di turchi ("Turkish hats"), fried, chilled pastry tubes with a sweet cheese filling.^[41] This article is about the food item. ... For semiconductor wafers, see wafer (electronics). ... Hypocras (sometimes spelled Hippocras) is a drink made from wine, possibly heated, and mixed with spices, most notably cinnamon. ... Malvasia (also known as Malvazia) is a group of wine grape varieties grown historically in the Mediterranean and the island of Madeira, but now grown in many of the winemaking regions of the world. ... For other uses, see Coriander (disambiguation). ... This article is about the Pimpinella species, but the name anise is frequently applied to Fennel. ... Sicily ( in Italian and Sicilian) is an autonomous region of Italy and the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, with an area of 25,708 km² (9,926 sq. ... Montpellier (Occitan Montpelhièr) is a city in the south of France. ... Comfit(s) Comfits are spices, dried fruits, or nuts, coated with sugar candy, often passed round during festivities. ... . ... Missing image Ice cream is often served on a stick Boxes of ice cream are often found in stores in a display freezer. ... Sherbet (in American English) is a frozen dessert made from iced sweetened fruit juice or puree. ... Arabic redirects here. ... Terra cotta is a hard semifired waterproof ceramic clay used in pottery and building construction. ... A slice of lemon sponge cake Sponge cake is a type of soft cake based on wheat flour, sugar, baking powder and eggs. ... Ricotta cheese is an Italian cheese made from the whey which results when making cheeses such as mozzarella or provolone. ...

See also

• Regional cuisines of medieval Europe
• Early modern European cuisine
• Guillaume Tirel
• Frumenty
• Sop
• Entremet
• Apicius

The regional cuisines of medieval Europe were the results of differences in climate, political administration and religious customs that varied across the continent. ... Beans were among the most important staples for the early modern Tuscans; The Beaneater by Annibale Caracci, 1580-90. ... Guillaume Tirel, alias Taillevent (Old French: slicewind) (1310-1395) was the cook of several French kings, including Philip VI, Charles V and Charles VI from around 1325. ... Frumenty (sometimes furmity) was a popular food dish in the Middle Ages in Europe. ... A sop is a piece of bread soaked in a liquid food of some sort. ... An entremet (or entremets, from Old French, literally meaning between servings) is today a small dish served between courses or simply a dessert. ... Apicius was a name applied to three celebrated Roman epicures, the first of whom lived during the Republic; the second of whom, Marcus Gavius (or Gabius) Apicius—the most famous in his own time—lived under the early Empire; a third lived in the late 4th or early 5th century. ...

Notes

Hieronymus Bock as depicted in a Herbal Hieronymus Bock or Jérôme Bock (1498 - Feb. ... The Holy Roman Emperor was, with some variation, the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire, the predecessor of modern Germany, during its existence from the 10th century until its collapse in 1806. ... Frederick II (December 26, 1194 – December 13, 1250), of the Hohenstaufen dynasty, was a pretender to the title of King of the Romans from 1212 and unopposed holder of that monarchy from 1215. ... This article concerns the mid fourteenth century pandemic. ...

References

• Adamson, Melitta Weiss (2004) Food in Medieval Times ISBN 0-313-32147-7
• Dembinska, Maria (1999) Food and drink in medieval Poland: rediscovering a cuisine of the past, translated by Magdalena Thomas, revised and adapted by William Woys Weaver ISBN 0-8122-3224-0
• The Fontana Economic History of Europe: The Middle Ages (1972); J.C Russel Population in Europe 500–1500 ISBN 0-00-632841-5
• Food in the Middle Ages: A Book of Essays (1995) edited by Melitta Weiss Adamson ISBN 0-8153-1345-4
• Henisch, Bridget Ann (1976), Fast and Feast: Food in Medieval Society ISBN 0-271-01230-7
• Hunt, Edwin S. & Murray, James H. (1999) A history of business in Medieval Europe, 1200-1550 0-521-49923-2
• Medieval science, technology, and medicine : an encyclopedia (2005) Thomas Glick, Steven J. Livesey, Faith Wallis, editors ISBN 0-415-96930-1
• Regional Cuisines of Medieval Europe: A Book of Essays (2002) edited by Melitta Weiss Adamson ISBN 0-415-92994-6
• Scully, Terence (1995) The Art of Cookery in the Middle Ages ISBN 0-85115-611-8

External links

• Le Viandier de Taillevent - An online translation of the 14th-century cookbook by James Prescott
• Medieval cookery books at the British Library - Learning resources on the medieval kitchen
• How to Cook Medieval - A guide on how to make medieval cuisine with modern ingredients
• The Forme of Cury - A late 14th-century English cookbook, available from Project Gutenberg
• Cariadoc's Miscellany - A collection of articles and recipes on medieval and Renaissance food
• MedievalCookery.com - Recipes, information, and notes about cooking in medieval Europe
• Olde Hansa - The medieval restaurant of Tallinn - contains also information about cooking, eating habit and culture during the hanseatic times
• Getting your bread in medieval societyPDF (86.9 KiB)
• Feeding the poor in medieval Catalonia
• Nutrition and the Early-Medieval Diet
• Dietary Requirements of the Medieval Peasant
• Making Medieval Sauces
• Pyes de ParesPDF (196 KiB) - An experiment with pies as a way of preserving meat