Astrology played an important part in Medieval medicine; most educated physicians were trained in at least the basics of astrology to use in their practice.

Medieval medicine was a mixture of existing ideas from antiquity, spiritual influences and what Claude Lévi-Strauss identifies as the "shamanistic complex" and "social consensus."^[1] In this era, there was no tradition of scientific medicine, and observations went hand-in-hand with spiritual influences. ImageMetadata File history File links Download high resolution version (1677x2179, 739 KB) File links The following pages link to this file: Human User:Scriberius/Projects ... ImageMetadata File history File links Download high resolution version (1677x2179, 739 KB) File links The following pages link to this file: Human User:Scriberius/Projects ... Hand-coloured version of the anonymous Flammarion woodcut (1888). ... Claude Lévi-Strauss Claude Lévi-Strauss (IPA pronunciation ); born November 28, 1908) is a Jewish-French anthropologist who developed structuralism as a method of understanding human society and culture. ... Spirituality, in a narrow sense, concerns itself with matters of the spirit. ...

In the early Middle Ages, following the fall of the Roman Empire, standard medical knowledge was based chiefly upon surviving Greek and Roman texts, preserved in monasteries and elsewhere. Ideas about the origin and cure of disease were not, however, purely secular, but were also based on a world view in which factors such as destiny, sin, and astral influences played as great a part as any physical cause. The efficacy of cures was similarly bound in the beliefs of patient and doctor rather than empirical evidence, so that remedia physicalia (physical remedies) were often subordinate to spiritual intervention. The Middle Ages formed the middle period in a traditional schematic division of European history into three ages: the classical civilization of Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and modern times, beginning with the Renaissance. ... The Roman Empire is not the Holy Roman Empire (843-1806). ... The term disease refers to an abnormal condition of an organism that impairs function. ... This article concerns secularity, that is, being secular, in various senses. ... A world view (or worldview) is a term calqued from the German word Weltanschauung (pronounced ) Welt is the German word for world, and Anschauung is the German word for view or outlook. It implies a concept fundamental to German philosophy and epistemology and refers to a wide world perception. ... For other uses of Fate, see Fate Destiny refers to a predetermined course of events. ... Sin is a term used mainly in a religious context to describe an act that violates a moral rule, or the state of having committed such a violation. ... Hand-coloured version of the anonymous Flammarion woodcut (1888). ...

Influences

In the early period there was no single, organized, strand of medieval medicine. Instead someone struck down by injury or disease could turn to folk medicine, prayer, astrology, spells, mysticism, or to an established physician if such were available to him. The boundaries between each profession were loose and movable. Classical medical texts, such as those by Galen, were widely used on the basis of authority rather than experimental confirmation. Injury is damage or harm caused to the structure or function of the body caused by an outside agent or force, which may be physical or chemical. ... A traditional healer in Côte dIvoire Folk medicine refers collectively to procedures traditionally used for treatment of illness and injury, aid to childbirth, and maintenance of wellness. ... Mary Magdalene in prayer. ... Hand-coloured version of the anonymous Flammarion woodcut (1888). ... The spell is a magical act intended to cause an effect on reality using supernatural means of liturgical or ritual nature. ... Mysticism (from the Greek μυστικός (mystikos) an initiate (of the Eleusinian Mysteries, μυστήρια (mysteria) meaning initiation[1])) is the pursuit of achieving communion or identity with, or conscious awareness of, ultimate reality, the divine, spiritual truth, or God through direct experience, intuition, or insight; and the belief that such experience is one... The Doctor by Luke Fildes This article is about the term physician, one type of doctor; for other uses of the word doctor see Doctor. ... Galen. ...

As Christianity grew in influence, a tension developed between the church and folk-medicine, since much in folk medicine was magical, or mystical, and had its basis in sources that were not compatible with Christian faith. Spells and incantations were used in conjunction with herbs and other remedies. Such spells had to be separated from the physical remedies, or replaced with Christian prayers or devotions. Similarly, the dependence upon the power of herbs or gems needed to be explained through Christianity. Christianity percentage by country, purple is highest, orange is lowest Topics in Christianity Movements · Denominations Ecumenism · Preaching · Prayer Music · Liturgy · Calendar Symbols · Art · Criticism Important figures Apostle Paul · Church Fathers Constantine · Athanasius · Augustine Anselm · Aquinas · Palamas · Wycliffe Tyndale · Luther · Calvin · Wesley Arius · Marcion of Sinope Pope · Archbishop of Canterbury Patriarch... Mysticism (from the Greek μυστικός (mystikos) an initiate (of the Eleusinian Mysteries, μυστήρια (mysteria) meaning initiation[1])) is the pursuit of achieving communion or identity with, or conscious awareness of, ultimate reality, the divine, spiritual truth, or God through direct experience, intuition, or insight; and the belief that such experience is one... The spell is a magical act intended to cause an effect on reality using supernatural means of liturgical or ritual nature. ...

The church taught that God sometimes sent illness as a punishment, and that in these cases, repentance could lead to a recovery. This led to the practice of penance and pilgrimage as a means of curing illness.

The medieval system

A dentist with silver forceps and a necklace of large teeth, extracting the tooth of a seated man. England - London; 1360-1375.

Starting in the areas least affected by the disruption of the fall of the western empire, a unified theory of medicine began to develop, based largely on the writings of the Greek physicians such as Hippocrates, 460 BC - 377 BC, and Galen, born in 130. Hippocrates wrote about diseases, surgery, and bone fractures as well as human anatomy. Galen wrote more than 500 treatises on physiology, hygiene, dietetics, pathology, and pharmacology, and is credited with the discovery of how the spinal cord controls various muscles. From his dissections, he described the heart valves and determined the purpose of the bladder and kidneys. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (656x764, 125 KB) Summary Miniature on a initial D with a scene representing teeth (dentes). A dentist with silver forceps and a necklace of large teeth, extracting the tooth of a seated man. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (656x764, 125 KB) Summary Miniature on a initial D with a scene representing teeth (dentes). A dentist with silver forceps and a necklace of large teeth, extracting the tooth of a seated man. ... Hippocrates of Cos II or Hippokrates of Kos (ca. ... Centuries: 4th century BC - 5th century BC - 6th century BC Decades: 500s BC 490s BC 480s BC 470s BC 460s BC - 450s BC - 440s BC 430s BC 420s BC 410s BC 400s BC Years: 465 BC 464 BC 463 BC 462 BC 461 BC - 460 BC - 459 BC 458 BC... Events The Second Athenian Empire, a maritime self-defense league, is founded. ... Galen. ... For other uses, see number 130. ... The term disease refers to an abnormal condition of an organism that impairs function. ... “Surgeon” redirects here. ... List of bones of the human skeleton Human anatomy is primarily the scientific study of the morphology of the adult human body. ... Hygiene refers to practices associated with ensuring good health and cleanliness. ... Dietitians are experts in food and nutrition. ... Pathology (from Greek pathos, feeling, pain, suffering; and logos, study of; see also -ology) is the study of the processes underlying disease and other forms of illness, harmful abnormality, or dysfunction. ... Pharmacology (in Greek: pharmakos (φάρμακον) meaning drug, and logos (λόγος) meaning science) is the study of how substances interact with living organisms to produce a change in function. ... The Spinal cord nested in the vertebral column. ... A top-down view of skeletal muscle Muscle (from Latin musculus little mouse [1]) is contractile tissue of the body and is derived from the mesodermal layer of embryonic germ cells. ... The heart and lungs, from an older edition of Grays Anatomy. ... In anatomy, the urinary bladder is a hollow, muscular, and distensible (or elastic) organ that sits on the pelvic floor in mammals. ... The kidneys are organs that filter wastes (such as urea) from the blood and excrete them, along with water, as urine. ...

Anglo-Saxon translations of classical works like Dioscorides Herbal survive from the 10th Century, showing the persistence of elements of classical medical knowledge. Compendiums like Bald's Leechbook (circa 900), include citations from a variety of classical works alongside local folk remedies. Note: This page contains phonetic information presented in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) using Unicode. ... Pedanius Dioscorides (ca. ... Persian sfuckentist, Rhazes, distinguished smallpox from measles in the course of his writings. ...

Although in the Byzantine Empire the organized practice of medicine never ceased, (see Byzantine medicine,) the revival of methodical medical instruction from standard texts in the west can be traced to the church-run Schola Medica Salernitana in Southern Italy in the Eleventh Century. At Salerno medical texts from Byzantium and the Arab world were readily available, translated from the Greek and Arabic at the nearby monastic centre of Monte Cassino. The Salernitan masters gradually established a canon of writings, known as the ars medicinae (art of medicine) or articella (little art), which became the basis of European medical education for several centuries. Byzantine Empire at its greatest extent c. ... A gallery of birds from the Vienna Dioscurides Byzantine manuscript. ... The neutrality of this article is disputed. ... (10th century - 11th century - 12th century - other centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 11th century was that century which lasted from 1001 to 1100. ... The restored Abbey. ... The Articella is a collection of medical treatises bounded together in one volume that was used mainly as textbook and reference manual between the thirteenth and the sixteenth centuries. ...

From the founding of the Universities of Paris (1110)), Bologna (1158), Oxford, (1167), Montpelier, (1181) and Padua (1222), the initial work of Salerno was extended across Europe, and by the Thirteenth Century medical leadership had passed to these newer institutions. To qualify as a Doctor of Medicine took ten years including original Arts training, and so the numbers of such fully qualified physicians remained comparatively small. (12th century - 13th century - 14th century - other centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 13th century was that century which lasted from 1201 to 1300. ...

By the Thirteenth Century many European towns were demanding that physicians have several years of study or training before they could practice. Surgery had a lower status than pure medicine, beginning as a craft tradition until Roger Frugardi of Parma composed his treatise on Surgery around about 1180. This led to a stream of Italian works of greater scope over the next hundred years, later spreading to the rest of Europe. “Surgeon” redirects here. ... Detail from Rogerius treatise (Amiens, ca. ... Parma is a city in the Italian region of Emilia-Romagna, famous for its architecture and the fine countryside around it. ... Events April 13 - Frederick Barbarossa issues the Gelnhausen Charter November 18 - France Emperor Antoku succeds Emperor Takakura as emperor of Japan Afonso I of Portugal is taken prisoner by Ferdinand II of Leon Artois is annexed by France Prince Mochihito amasses a large army and instigates the Genpei War between...

During the Crusades European medicine began to be influenced by Islamic medicine. Islamic commentators often saw European medical practises as barbaric and superstitious; Usamah ibn Munqidh for example visited sick or injured European pilgrims who eventually died due to their own doctors' practises. The Siege of Antioch, from a medieval miniature painting, during the First Crusade. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... Usamah ibn Murshid ibn Munqidh (1095-1188, also Osama, Usama, Ussama, or Usmah; Arabic: ﺃﺳﺎﻣﺔ ﺑﻦ ﻣﻨﻘﺬ), an Arab historian, politician, and diplomat, was one of the most important contemporary Arab chroniclers during the time of the Crusades. ...

The great crisis in European medicine came with the Black Death epidemic in the 14th century. Prevailing medical theories focused on religious rather than scientific explanations - all to no avail since about a third of the population of Europe was wiped out. It has been suggested that Plague doctor be merged into this article or section. ...

Theories of medicine

13th century illustration showing the veins.

Main article: Four humours

The underlying principle of medieval medicine was the theory of humours. This was derived from the ancient medical works, and dominated all western medicine up until the 19th century. The theory stated that within every individual there were four humours, or principal fluids - black bile, yellow bile, phlegm, and blood, these were produced by various organs in the body, and they had to be in balance for a person to remain healthy. Too much phlegm in the body, for example, caused lung problems; and the body tried to cough up the phlegm to restore a balance. The balance of humours in humans could be achieved by diet, medicines, and by blood-letting, using leeches. The four humours were also ascosiated with the four seasons, black bile-autumn, yellow bile-summer, phlegm-winter and blood-spring. Medieval Europe was a place unable to maintain the aqueducts et al built by the romans, so it became a place where medical practice was in places regressing rather than progressing. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (863x1277, 958 KB) See also the original picture Summary Anatomical illustration showing the veins. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (863x1277, 958 KB) See also the original picture Summary Anatomical illustration showing the veins. ... This article does not cite its references or sources. ... This article does not cite its references or sources. ... Alternative meaning: Nineteenth Century (periodical) (18th century — 19th century — 20th century — more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 19th century was that century which lasted from 1801-1900 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar. ...

The astrological signs of the zodiac were also thought to be associated with certain humours. Even now, some still use words "choleric", "sanguine", "phlegmatic" and "melancholy" to describe personalities. Bile (or gall) is a bitter, yellow or green alkaline fluid secreted by hepatocytes from the liver of most vertebrates. ... Melancholia (Greek μελαγχολια) was described as a distinct disease as early as the fifth and fourth centuries BC in the Hippocratic writings. ... The spleen is an organ located the abdomen, where it functions in the destruction of old white blood cells and holding a reservoir of blood. ... Phlegm (pronounced ) is sticky fluid secreted by the typhoid membranes of animals. ... Phlegmatic is a temperament in the theory of the four humours. ... The heart and lungs (from an older edition of Grays Anatomy) The lung is an organ belonging to the respiratory system and interfacing to the circulatory system of air-breathing vertebrates. ... Human blood smear: a - erythrocytes; b - neutrophil; c - eosinophil; d - lymphocyte. ... Sanguine can refer to: Sanguine personality - optimistic, cheerful, even-tempered, confident, rational, popular, fun-loving Sanguine is the temperament of blood - one of the four humours Sanguine is a tincture in heraldry, otherwise one of the staynard colours (stains). ... “Human Head” redirects here. ... Bile (or gall) is a bitter, yellow or green alkaline fluid secreted by hepatocytes from the liver of most vertebrates. ... Choleric is a temperament in the ancient medical theory of the four humours. ... The gallbladder (or cholecyst) is a pear-shaped organ that stores bile (or gall) until the body needs it for digestion. ... Hand-coloured version of the anonymous Flammarion woodcut (1888). ... The term zodiac denotes an annual cycle of twelve stations along the ecliptic, the apparent path of the sun across the heavens through constellations that divide the ecliptic into twelve equal zones of celestial longitude. ...

The use of herbs dovetailed naturally with this system, the success of herbal remedies being ascribed to their action upon the humours within the body. The use of herbs also drew upon the medieval Christian doctrine of signatures which stated that God had provided some form of alleviation for every ill, and that these things, be they animal, vegetable or mineral, carried a mark or a signature upon them that gave an indication of their usefulness. For example, the seeds of skullcap (used as a headache remedy) can appear to look like miniature skulls; and the white spotted leaves of Lungwort (used for tuberculosis) bear a similarity to the lungs of a diseased patient. A large number of such resemblances are believed to exist. The doctrine of signatures refers to two separate concepts. ... Species See text. ...

Most monasteries developed herb gardens for use in the production of herbal cures, and these remained a part of folk medicine, as well as being used by some professional physicians. Books of herbal remedies were produced, one of the most famous being the Welsh, Red Book of Hergest, dating from around 1400. Monastery of St. ... Events Henry IV quells baron rebellion and executes The Earls of Kent, Huntingdon and Salisbury for their attempt to have Richard II of England restored as King Jean Froissart writes the Chronicles Medici family becomes powerful in Florence, Italy Births December 25 - John Sutton, 1st Baron Dudley, Lord Lieutenant of...

The healers

A distinctive feature of this period is the variety of healers. Unlike other professions there was no controlling elite, indeed almost no profession—as there was no consensus as to standards or methods, many practitioners were part-timers, and all integrated a number of roles into their work-lives rather than that of just 'doctor'. Those offering healing encompassed both sexes, all religions, and people at every level of society from serf to the most educated and wealthy academics. To many practitioners—nurses, dentists (dubbedent or adubedent), apothecaries, midwives, etc.—their work was a trade. Not until the 16th century did various bodies begin to be granted a legally enforced dominance over medical practices. It is attractive to categorize these medical practitioners into two rough categories, noting the vague and porous nature of the boundaries. The major split is between the clerical and elite university-educated personnel ("physicians"^[2]) and tradespeople.

The ordinary practitioner sold medical assistance and potions. They worked either as guild members, with a license from local authorities, or attached to a major household or perhaps monastery. They were paid either for their services on a case-by-case basis or with an annuity, payments were often in kind—food or clothing—rather than cash.

Clerical medicine, often called monastic medicine, was provided as part of a religious duty, with payments and income made via a church rather than directly. The Rule of St Benedict states that "before and above all things, care must be taken of the sick, that they be served in very truth as Christ is served."^[3] Virtually every monastery had an infirmary for the monks or nuns, and this led to provision being made for the care of secular patients. Almost a half of the hospitals in medieval Europe were directly affiliated with monasteries, priories or other religious institutions. Many of the rest imitated religious communities, formulated precise rules of conduct, required a uniform type of dress, and integrated worship services into their daily routine. St. ... A physician visiting the sick in a hospital. ... For the record label, see Hospital Records. ...

Physicians, who studied the works of the Greek masters at Universities, were the self-proclaimed elite of the medical profession. It was an uncommon role, in a study of 13th century Worcester there were just three physicians amidst 10,000 other taxpayers,^[4] and few people other than the well-off or the nobility had regular access to these. Physicians diagnosed their patients by close examination of their blood, urine and stools, and determined their complexion or balance of humours. They could prescribe medicines, or bloodletting from various parts of the body to rectify the balance of humours. Physicians could also attempt surprisingly complex operations like trepanation of the skull, to relieve pressure on the brain, or the removal of eye cataracts. Worcester (pronounced ) is a city in the West Midlands of England, and is the county town of Worcestershire. ... 18th century French illustration of trepanation Trepanation (also known as trepanning, trephination, trephining or burr hole) is a form of surgery in which a hole is drilled or scraped into the skull, thus exposing the dura mater in order to treat health problems related to intracranial diseases, though in the...

Folk Healers passed on their knowledge from master to apprentice, and were more accessible to the peasant or labourer than physicians. Unregulated, but knowledgeable on herbs and folk-remedies, they were gradually excluded from the medical system.

Hospitals The term hospital encompassed hostels for travellers, dispensaries for poor relief, clinics and surgeries for the injured, and homes for the blind, lame, elderly, and mentally ill. Monastic hospitals developed many treatments, both therapeutic and spiritual. Patients were supposed to help each other through prayer and calm, perhaps benefiting as much from this as from any physical treatment offered. Some hospitals had as few as ten beds, but others were far larger. St Leonard's in York is recorded as catering for 225 sick and poor in 1287. And in Florence there were over thirty hospitals by 1400, one of which, the hospital of Santa Maria Nuova had, by 1500, a staff of ten doctors, a pharmacist and several others, including female surgeons. York is a city in North Yorkshire, England, at the confluence of the rivers Ouse and Foss. ... Florence (Italian: ) is the capital city of the region of Tuscany, Italy. ... Events Henry IV quells baron rebellion and executes The Earls of Kent, Huntingdon and Salisbury for their attempt to have Richard II of England restored as King Jean Froissart writes the Chronicles Medici family becomes powerful in Florence, Italy Births December 25 - John Sutton, 1st Baron Dudley, Lord Lieutenant of... 1500 was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ...

The 12th century saw the establishment of the Knights Hospitaller, a unique mixture of monastic, military, and medical life. The Hospitallers ran hospitals in Jerusalem and elsewhere in the Crusader states, and their order eventually spread to the rest of Europe as well. (11th century - 12th century - 13th century - other centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 12th century was that century which lasted from 1101 to 1200. ... Baron Vassiliev, a 19th-century Knight Commander The Knights Hospitaller (also known as the Sovereign Order of Saint John of Jerusalem of Rhodes and of Malta, the Knights of Malta, the Knights of Rhodes, and the Chevaliers of Malta) was an organization that began as an Amalfitan hospital founded in... For other uses, see Jerusalem (disambiguation). ... The Crusader states, c. ...

Saints Saints were also used to heal the sick. Although healing by saints (miracles) would not be considered medicine today, in medieval times, this method was just as valid as any other form of healing. Approximately 2/3 of the people who went to saints for healing were peasants (as defined by R.C Finucane). Saints were often called upon when other remedies would not be found in time (for instance, accidental death). They were rarely called upon for longtime illnesses, such as birth defects. In these cases, saints were often used when all else had failed. Once canonization was established, the church would only recognize canonized saints as legitimate miracle makers, however, this did not always stop people from going to non-canonized "saints". Icon of St. ...

Female physician: women practised all branches of medicine during the Middle Ages.

Women During the early Middle Ages, it is probable that there were as many women involved in the practice of medicine as men. However, the professionalisation of medicine in the later medieval period, and the development of university faculties of medicine excluded women from the profession. Abbess Hildegard of Bingen wrote the Liber simplicis medicinae (Simple Book of Medicine) around 1160. Another famous woman physician was the Italian Trotula of Salerno, whose works on women's ailments spread across Europe, her name being Anglicised in England to Dame Trot. A Sister Ann is described as a medica at St Leonard's Hospital, York, in 1276. Image File history File links Medieval_female_physician. ... Image File history File links Medieval_female_physician. ... Illumination from the Liber Scivias showing Hildegard receiving a vision and dictating to her scribe Hildegard of Bingen (German: Hildegard von Bingen; Latin: Hildegardis Bingensis; 1098 – 17 September 1179), also known as Blessed Hildegard and Saint Hildegard, was a German magistra and later, abbess[1]. Hildegard of Bingen was an... Events Eric IX of Sweden is succeeded by Karl Sverkersson. ... Trotula of Salerno (ca. ...

Even after the fourteenth century women continued to function as midwives. A midwife generally learned her trade apprenticed to a more experienced midwife, or else was taught by a father or husband who was a physician. The only qualification needed was a statement from a parish priest declaring that she was of good character. Midwifery is a blanket term used to describe a number of different types of health practitioners, other than doctors, who provide prenatal care to expecting mothers, attend the birth of the infant and provide postnatal care to the mother and infant. ...

Women also served as nurses in the monastic orders, although there were also some secular nurses, caring for the physical needs of patients.

Later developments

During the period of the Renaissance from the mid 1450s onward, there were many advances in medical practice. The Italian Girolamo Fracastoro, 1478 - 1553, was the first to propose that epidemic diseases might be caused by objects outside the body that could be transmitted by direct or indirect contact. He also discovered new treatments for diseases such as syphilis. The Renaissance (French for rebirth, or Rinascimento in Italian), was a cultural movement in Italy (and in Europe in general) that began in the late Middle Ages, and spanned roughly the 14th through the 17th century. ... Events and Trends Fall of Constantinople on May 29, 1453. ... Girolamo Fracastoro (Fracastorius) (1478‑1553) was an Italian physician, scholar and poet. ... Events February 18 - George, Duke of Clarence, convicted of treason against his older brother Edward IV of England, is privately executed in the Tower of London. ... // Events June 26 - Christs Hospital in London gets a Royal Charter July 6 - Edward VI of England dies July 10 - Lady Jane Grey is proclaimed Queen of England - for the next nine days July 18 - Lord Mayor of London proclaims Queen Mary as the rightful Queen - Lady Jane Grey... With regard to living things, a body is the integral physical material of an individual. ... Syphilis is a sexually transmitted disease caused by Treponema pallidum. ...

In 1543 the Flemish Scholar Andreas Vesalius wrote the first complete textbook on human anatomy: "De Humani Corporis Fabrica", meaning "On the Fabric of the Human Body". Much later, in 1628, William Harvey explained the circulation of blood through the body in veins and arteries. It was previously thought that blood was the product of food and was absorbed by muscle tissue. // Events February 21 - Battle of Wayna Daga - A combined army of Ethiopian and Portuguese troops defeat the armies of Adal led by Ahmed Gragn. ... Andreas Vesalius or Andreas Vesal (1514 - Belgian anatomist and the author of the first complete textbook on human anatomy: De Humanis Corporis Fabrica (On the workings of the Human Body) (Basel, 1543). ... Human heart and lungs, from an older edition of Grays Anatomy. ... 1628 was a leap year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar (or a leap year starting on Tuesday of the 10-day slower Julian calendar). ... William Harvey William Harvey (April 1, 1578 – June 3, 1657) was an English medical doctor, who is credited with being the first to correctly describe, in exact detail, the properties of blood being pumped around the body by the heart. ... Circulation refers to the movement of the blood through the heart and blood vessels. ...

During the 1500's, Paracelsus, like Girolamo, discovered that illness was caused by agents outside the body such as bacteria, not by imbalances within the body. 1500 was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Paracelsus (11 November or 17 December 1493 in Einsiedeln, Switzerland - 24 September 1541) was an alchemist, physician, astrologer, and general occultist. ... Girolamo Fracastoro (Fracastorius) (1478‑1553) was an Italian physician, scholar and poet. ... Phyla/Divisions Actinobacteria Aquificae Bacteroidetes/Chlorobi Chlamydiae/Verrucomicrobia Chloroflexi Chrysiogenetes Cyanobacteria Deferribacteres Deinococcus-Thermus Dictyoglomi Fibrobacteres/Acidobacteria Firmicutes Fusobacteria Gemmatimonadetes Nitrospirae Omnibacteria Planctomycetes Proteobacteria Spirochaetes Thermodesulfobacteria Thermomicrobia Thermotogae Bacteria (singular, bacterium) are a major group of living organisms. ...

Leonardo Da Vinci also had a large impact on medical advances during the Renaissance. Born on April 15th, 1452, Da Vinci's approach to science was based on detailed observation. He participated in several autopsies and created many detailed anatomical drawings, planning a major work of comparative human anatomy. Until the 16th century human dissection was restricted because the church felt that it was disrespectful to God. Once these restrictions were lifted anatomy became an essential part of a doctor’s training. The Mona Lisa Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci (April 15, 1452 – May 2, 1519) was an Italian polymath: scientist, mathematician, engineer, inventor, anatomist, painter, sculptor, architect, musician, and writer. ... is the 105th day of the year (106th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Events October - English troops under John Talbot, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury, land in Guyenne, France, and retake most of the province without a fight. ... Post-mortem, postmortem and post mortem redirect here. ... (15th century - 16th century - 17th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 16th century was that century which lasted from 1501 to 1600. ... This article discusses the term God in the context of monotheism and henotheism. ... Human heart and lungs, from an older edition of Grays Anatomy. ...

The French army doctor Ambroise Paré, born in 1510, revived the ancient Greek method of tying off blood vessels. After amputation the common procedure was to cauterize the open end of the amputated appendage to stop the haemorrhaging. This was done by heating oil, water, or metal and touching it to the wound to seal off the blood vessels. Pare also believed in dressing wounds with clean bandages and ointments, including one he made himself composed of eggs, oil of roses, and turpentine. He was the first to design artificial hands and limbs for amputation patients. On one of the artificial hands, the two pairs of fingers could be moved for simple grabbing and releasing tasks and the hand look perfectly natural underneath a glove. Ambroise Paré. Ambroise Paré (1510 – December 20, 1590) was a French surgeon, the official royal surgeon for kings Henry II, Francis II, Charles IX and Henry III, is considered by some as one of the Fathers of Surgery. ... Year 1510 (MDX) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. ... Synthetic motor oil An oil is any substance that is in a viscous liquid state (oily) at ambient temperatures or slightly warmer, and is both hydrophobic (immiscible with water, literally water fearing) and lipophilic (miscible with other oils, literally fat loving). This general definition includes compound classes with otherwise unrelated... Impact from a water drop causes an upward rebound jet surrounded by circular capillary waves. ... Hot metal work from a blacksmith In chemistry, a metal (Greek: Metallon) is an element that readily loses electrons to form positive ions (cations) and has metallic bonds between metal atoms. ... An egg is a body consisting of an ovum surrounded by layers of membranes and an outer casing of some type, which acts to nourish and protect a developing embryo. ... This article needs additional references or sources for verification. ... For the band, see Turpentine (band). ... The hands (med. ... Look up Limb in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

Medical catastrophes were more common in the Renaissance than they are today. During the Renaissance, trade routes were the perfect means of transportation for disease. Before the Spanish came to America and Mexico, the deadly germs of smallpox, measles, and influenza were unheard of. The Native Americans did not have the immunities the Europeans developed through long contact with the diseases. Christopher Columbus ended the Americas' isolation in 1492 while sailing under the flag of Castile, Spain. Deadly epidemics swept across the Caribbean. Smallpox wiped out villages in a matter of months. The island of Hispaniola had a population of 250,000 Native Americans. 20 years later, the population had dramatically dropped to 6,000. 50 years later, it was estimated that approximately 500 Native Americans were left. Smallpox then spread to Mexico where it then helped destroy the Aztec Empire. In the first century of Spanish rule in Mexico, 1500-1600, Central and South Americans died by the millions. By 1650, the majority of Mexico's population had perished. A trade route is the sequence of pathways and stopping places used for the commercial transport of cargo. ... Motto: (Out Of Many, One) (traditional) In God We Trust (1956 to date) Anthem: The Star-Spangled Banner Capital Washington D.C. Largest city New York City None at federal level (English de facto) Government Federal constitutional republic  - President George Walker Bush (R)  - Vice President Dick Cheney (R) Independence from... Smallpox (also known by the Latin names Variola or Variola vera) is a highly contagious disease unique to humans. ... Influenza, commonly known as flu, is an infectious disease of birds and mammals caused by an RNA virus of the family Orthomyxoviridae (the influenza viruses). ... An independent origin and development of writing is counted among the many achievements and innovations of pre-Columbian American cultures. ... World map showing Europe Political map Europe is one of the seven traditional continents of Earth; the term continent here referring to a cultural and political distinction, rather than a physiographic one, thus leading to various perspectives about Europes precise borders. ... Christopher Columbus (1451 – May 20, 1506) was a navigator and maritime explorer credited as the discoverer of the Americas. ... Not to be confused with 1492: Conquest of Paradise. ... The starting point of Crown of Castile can be considered when the union of the Kingdoms of Castile and Leon in 1230 or the later fusion of their Cortes (their Parlaments). ... In epidemiology, an epidemic (from [[Latin language] epi- upon + demos people) is a disease that appears as new cases in a given human population, during a given period, at a rate that substantially exceeds what is expected, based on recent experience (the number of new cases in the population during... “West Indian” redirects here. ... Masouleh village, Gilan Province, Iran. ... Look up Month in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Early map of Hispaniola The island of Hispaniola (from Spanish, La Española) is the second-largest island of the Antilles, lying between the islands of Cuba to the west, and Puerto Rico to the east. ... A year (from Old English gÄ“r) is the time between two recurrences of an event related to the orbit of the Earth around the Sun. ... The word Aztec is usually used as a historical term, although some contemporary Nahuatl speakers would consider themselves Aztecs. ... 1500 was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... 1600 was a leap year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar (or a leap year starting on Tuesday of the 10-day slower Julian calendar). ... South America South America is a continent crossed by the equator, with most of its area in the Southern Hemisphere. ... Year 1650 (MDCL) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Tuesday of the 10-day slower Julian calendar). ...

References:

• The Greatest Benefit to Mankind. A medical history of humanity from antiquity to the present. Roy Porter. HaperCollins 1997
• Medicine in the English Middle Ages. Faye Getz, Princeton University Press, 1998. ISBN 0-691-08522-6

Roy Porter (31 December 1946 to 3 March 2002) was a British historian noted for his work on the history of medicine. ...

See also

• Byzantine medicine
• Islamic medicine

A gallery of birds from the Vienna Dioscurides Byzantine manuscript. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ...

External link

• "Index of Medieval Medical Images" UCLA Special Collections (accessed 2 September 2006).
• "The Wise Woman" An overview of common ailments and their treatments from the Middle Ages presented in a slightly humorous light.