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History of Arizona
European Colonization
Spanish Period
Mexican Period
Territorial Period
The Depression and World Wars

In 1821, Mexico won its independence from Spain after a decade of war. The revolution had destroyed the colonial silver mining industry and had bankrupted the national treasury. Along the northern frontier, funds that had supported missions, presidios and trading routes were reduced. As missions began to wither without military protection, Mexico began auctioning off more land (land grants). The revolution also impacted the relationship between the Europeans, Pueblos and non-pueblo natives such as the Apache and Navajo. Image File history File links Flag_of_Arizona. ... The first Native Americans arrived in Arizona between 16,000 BC and 10,000 BCE, while the history of Arizona as recorded by Europeans began when Marcos de Niza, a Franciscan, explored the area in 1539. ... Modern colonization of Arizona starts with the arrivals of Europeans in 1528. ... Although the Spanish did not yet have towns for themselves, in the late 1600s colonists began steadily entering the region, attracted by the recent discovery of deposits of silver around the Arizonac mining camp. ... For the Confederate States of America territory, see Arizona Territory (CSA). ... yousuckbuttIn 1912, women in Arizona gained the right to vote, and in 1917, World War I brought an economic boom to Arizona. ... For other uses, see Revolution (disambiguation). ... The term treasury was first used in classical times to describe the votive buildings erected to house gifts to the gods, such as the Siphnian Treasury in Delphi or the many buildings put up in Olympia, Greece by competing city-states, to impress each other during the Ancient Olympic Games. ...

The Mexican period came to a close with the influx of Americans. In 1846, the annexation of Texas led to the Mexican-American War, ultimately resulting in the Mexican Cession, in which the United States acquired the region of Arizona north of the Gila River in 1848. The California gold rush brought more Americans through Arizona. The Mexican period closed with the Gadsden Purchase in 1854 and the last of the Mexican army leaving Tucson in 1856. Republic of Texas The Texas Annexation of 1845 was the annexation of Texas by the United States of America as the 28th state. ... Combatants United States Mexico Commanders Zachary Taylor Winfield Scott Stephen W. Kearney Antonio López de Santa Anna Mariano Arista Pedro de Ampudia José Mariá Flores Strength 78,790 soldiers 25,000–40,000 soldiers Casualties KIA: 1733 Total dead: 13,271 Wounded: 4,152 AWOL: 9,200+ 25,000... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. ... The Gila River, a tributary of the Colorado, is shown highlighted on a map of the United States The Gila River (Oodham [Pima]: Hila Akimel) is a tributary of the Colorado River, 630 mile (1,014 km) long, in the southwestern United States. ... The Gadsden Purchase (shown with present-day state boundaries and cities) The Gadsden Purchase (known as Venta de La Mesilla in Mexico) is a 45,535 mi² (76,770 km²) region of what is today southern Arizona and New Mexico that was purchased by the United States from Mexico in...

Mexican-Indian relations

During the 1830s and early 1840s, some Apache groups threatened the Mexican settlers of Arizona. For example in 1824, Apaches began running off horse herds from Tumacacori and other Santa Cruz communities. Around this time to the south, a Yaqui leader named Juan Banderas envisioned a pan-Indian nation taking shape in northwestern Mexico and launched a series of revolts in Sonora. Antuna, chief of Tucson's Apache Mansos group, warned that the Yaquis were planning to attack Tucson with Tohono O'odham, Yumas, and Western Apaches, and though the assault never materialized. These were typical events of the late colonial period. The Yoeme or Yaqui are a border Native American people who live in the Sonoran Desert region, comprising part of the northern Mexican state of Sonora and the southwestern U.S. state of Arizona. ...

During the following decades, the Republic of Mexico plunged into bankruptcy and civil war. The first to collapse was the provincias internas, which had centralized political and military power in the north under the authority of a comandante general. In 1824, Mexico dismembered the system and partitioned itself into states, which frequently acted independently of one another even in military affairs. In April 1835, for example, Chihuahuan authorities negotiated a peace treaty with Chihuahua Apaches (so-called Mimbreños, Gileños, and Mogolloneros) led by "General" Juan José Compá and sixteen other chiefs at the mining community of Santa Rita del Cobre in southwestern New Mexico. That left the Chiricahuas free to raid Sonoran communities like Sahuaripa on the western slopes of the Sierra Madre. Sonoran officials protested the treaty and mounted a counterattack against the Chiricahuas, but Chihuahuan forces did not join their countrymen. Mexican authority became almost as diffuse as authority among the Apaches. Notice of closure stuck on the door of a computer store the day after its parent company, Granville Technology Group Ltd, declared bankruptcy (strictly, put into administration—see text) in the United Kingdom. ... A peace treaty is an agreement (a peace treaty) between two hostile parties, usually countries or governments, that formally ends a war or armed conflict. ... This article is about authority as a concept. ...

Struggles for power within the Mexican states compounded disunion among the states themselves. In Sonora, a series of military strongmen dominated politics during the nineteenth century. These strongmen, including José de Urrea and Manuel Mariá Gándera, who owned a hacienda at the old mission of Calabasas, manipulated factions among the Yaquis, Opata, and Apaches to advance their own ends. They also drew presidial forces into their interminable civil wars, leaving the northern frontier exposed and defenseless for months at a time. In 1832, many families had to abandon Tubac because its garrison had been reduced to the captain, his aide, and three retired soldiers. The Tubaqueños probably sought refuge with their Tucson neighbors, hoping that strength of numbers would keep the Apaches at bay. Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this exact name. ... For other uses, see Politics (disambiguation). ... Hacienda is a Spanish word describing a vast ranch, common in the Pampa. ... In Egyptian mythology, Month is an alternate spelling for Menthu. ... For other uses, see Captain (disambiguation). ...

The biggest blow to Arizona was the dismantling of the Apache rationing system in 1831. Ethnohistorian William Griffen estimated that 2,496 Apaches received weekly supplies of beef, corn, sugar, and other foodstuffs from presidial commanders in Chihuahua, Sonora, and New Mexico in 1825. Such rations had been an important part of the economy of many Apache groups since the 1790s. Their abrupt withdrawal forced Apaches to leave their camps near the European settlements and return to raiding.

One particularly brutal incident occurred on April 22, 1837 when a group led by John Johnson, an Anglo living in Sonora, pursued an Apache raiding party that had stolen Sonoran cattle. Johnson's party followed the cattle tracks into the Animas Mountains in southwestern New Mexico, where it encountered the camp of Juan José Compá, the same Apache who had made peace with the Chihuahuans the year before. For two days Johnson and the Apaches talked, and then Juan José and other chiefs relaxed enough to gather around some brown sugar and parched corn Johnson offered. When they did, Johnson turned what may have been a swivel gun upon them and cut down at least twenty Apaches including Juan José. is the 112th day of the year (113th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Queen Victoria, Queen of the United Kingdom (1837 - 1901) 1837 (MDCCCXXXVII) was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... Brown sugar typical of that bought in Western supermarkets Brown sugar is a sucrose sugar product with a distinctive brown color due to the presence of molasses. ... The Swivel Gun is a mounted ships cannon, able to turn and pivot. ...

The cycle of attack and counterattack accelerated during the 1830s and reached its peak the following decade. The attacks were particularly devastating because of the Anglo American gunrunners in New Mexico. With the opening of the Santa Fe Trail in 1821, Anglo American traders began exchanging firearms and ammunition for horses and mules. Comanches received the weapons first, followed by Navajos, Apaches, and Utes. While Mexico reeled from one coup to another, Indian access to firearms transformed the balance of power in the Southwest. Apache groups lost the battle against the Commanches for control of the Southern Plains, but other groups held their grounds in the mountains of Arizona and New Mexico long after the Apachería became part of the United States. Trail logo The Santa Fe Trail was an historic 19th century transportation route across southwestern North America connecting Missouri with Santa Fe, New Mexico. ... Ammunition, often referred to as ammo, is a generic term meaning (the assembly of) a projectile and its propellant. ... A coup détat, or simply a coup, is the sudden overthrow of a government, usually done by a small group that just replaces the top power figures. ...

Not all Mexican-Apache alliances broke down during the 1830s. When Apaches from most peace camps rose in revolt, many Apache Mansos in Tucson under the leadership of Chief Antuna resisted the call to arms. At a parley with the Pinal Apaches, a band who lived near modern Globe, violence erupted when the Tucson contingent refused to join their kinsmen. One Manso and one Pimal were killed. Thereafter, Antuna and his people served as scouts for the Tucsonese, extending the effective range of the Tucson presidio far beyond the valley of the Santa Cruz. For other uses, see Violence (disambiguation). ... Fljótsdalur in East Iceland, a rather flat valley In geology, a valley (also called a vale or dale) is a depression with predominant extent in one direction. ...

Tucson in the 1830s was as much an Apache as a Mexican community. Sonoran census of 1831 listed only 465 Mexican inhabitants, whereas Tucson's Apache Manso community in 1835 was said to include 486 individuals. Many lived north of the presidio along the east bank of the Santa Cruz. Some cultivated their own fields or occasionally worked for Mexican farmers, and they also moved freely back and forth between Tucson and the surrounding mountains, hunting deer and bighorn sheep, gathering cactus fruit, and roasting agave. During the first half of the nineteenth century, their way of life remained Apachean despite the fact that they were allies, not enemies, of the Mexicans living along the Santa Cruz. Binomial name Shaw, 1804 Synonyms Desmarest Cuvier[1] Bighorn Sheep (Ovis canadensis)[2] is one of three species of mountain sheep in North America and Siberia; the other two species being Ovis dalli, that includes Dall Sheep and Stones Sheep, and the Siberian Snow sheep Ovis nivicola. ...

Relations between the Mexicans and the Pimas steadily declined. Hispanic settlers had been moving onto O'odham lands across the Santa Cruz River since the eighteenth century. Following Mexican independence, the pressure grew more intense, especially after the Franciscan missions began to wither and decay. By 1843, the fields at Calabasas, Guevavi, and Sonoita were completely deserted. At San Xavier only about one-eighth of the land previously cultivated for mission purposes lay under the plow. Throughout the colonial period, missions served as a buffer between Indians and Hispanic settlers in the Pimería Alta. When the mission system crumbled, O'odham land tenure disintegrated as well. For the constellation known as The Plough see Ursa Major. ... Land tenure is the name given, particularly in common law systems, to the legal regime in which land is owned by an individual, who is said to hold the land. ...

Land grants

Before Mexico won its independence from Spain in 1821, the Spanish government had made a few small grants of land in southern Arizona. In 1789, Toribio de Otero petitioned for a lot from the Tubac presidio in return for military service. The land remained in the Otero family until 1938. In 1807, the O'odham of the Tumacacori mission received title to a long strip along the Santa Cruz River south of Tubac encompassing the former mission lands of Tumacacori, Calabasas, and Guevavi. Part of this grant was the land auctioned off in Guaymas in 1846. In 1812, Agustín Ortiz purchased the site of Arivaca, an important mining and ranching center since the mid eighteenth century, at public auction. Charles Poston purchased that hacienda from Ignacio Ortiz in 1856 for $10,000. Guaymas is a port city in Sonora, Mexico. ... An auctioneer and her assistants scan the crowd for bidders An auction is a process of buying and selling goods by offering them up for bid, taking bids, and then selling the item to the winning bidder. ... This article is about the type of currency, for the U.S. Dollar see United States dollar. ...

However, most grants in Arizona were made after Mexico gained independence. In 1821, Tomás and Ignacio Ortiz received a total of about 17,000 acres (69 km²) of land known as San Ignacio de la Canoa and located between Tubac and modern Sahuarita. The following year, the ranch of San Bernardino east of modern Douglas became the property of Lieutenant Ignacio Pérez. It totaled more than 73,000 acres (300 km²) in Arizona and northeastern Sonora. León Herreros acquired San José de Sanoita in 1825, while "Ramón Romero and other shareholders, their children, heirs, and successors received title to San Rafael de la Zanja in the San Rafael Valley the same year. The Mexican government issued five more grants, including Buenavista, San Rafael del Valle, San Juan de las Boquillas y Nogales, Tres Alamos, and the Babocómari ranch, between 1826 and 1831. This article is about the unit of measure known as the acre. ... Sahuarita is a town in Pima County, Arizona, United States. ... Douglas is a city in Cochise County, Arizona, USA. Douglas has a border crossing with Mexico and a history of mining. ... Sonora is a state in northwestern Mexico, bordering the states of Chihuahua to the east, Sinaloa to the south, and Baja California to the northwest. ... A shareholder or stockholder is an individual or company (including a corporation), that legally owns one or more shares of stock in a joint stock company. ... For other uses, see inheritance (disambiguation). ... Buenavista may refer to: Buenavista is a city in Michoacan, Mexico Buenavista is a city in Guimaras, Philipines Buenavista is a city in Colombia This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ...

During the 1820s and 1830s, Sonoran ranchers strove to colonize the grasslands of southeastern Arizona. Their legal tool was the land grant and their instrument of occupation was the mixed-breed longhorn cow. These longhorn, or their descendants, roamed the range as feral survivors long after their masters were gone. A land grant is a gift of land made by the government for projects such as roads, railroads, or especially academic institutions. ... For other uses, see Longhorn. ...

Hispanic Arizona was again making an effort to roll back the borders of the Apachería. The land grants established Mexican title to much of the Santa Cruz and San Pedro valleys. They also extended Mexican domain over the plains south of the Chiricahua Mountains. Most of the cattle country ended up in the hands of the Elías-González family or their relatives. During the colonial period, the Spanish government supported the mission and the presidial systems in order to insure royal control over the northern frontier. By the 1820s, however, private capital had become the usual method of colonization, and most of that capital belonged to a network of elite families who dominated northern Sonora at the time. They provided the livestock and took the risks. Title is a legal term for an owners interest in a piece of property. ... The Chiricahua Mountains are a mountain range in western North America. ... Capital has a number of related meanings in economics, finance and accounting. ...

If the Elías-Gonzálezes and their neighbors had received the land grant twenty years earlier, when they would have been protected by the presidios and the Apache peace program, they might have succeeded, but beginning in the 1820s, the Apaches began to burn their buildings and kill their cowboys, run off their horses, and slaughter their beef. By 1840 most of the grants had been abandoned. Even though the U.S. Court of Private Land Claims eventually confirmed eight of the Spanish and Mexican land grants in the early twentieth century, none of the descendants of the original grantees managed to hold on to their titles. John Slaughter owned the San Bernardino Ranch north of the U.S.-Mexico border, and Colin Cameron's San Rafael Cattle Company had acquired the San Rafael de la Zanja grant. Largescale ranching did not return to the area until the 1880s after most of the Apaches had been confined to reservations. When it did, American land-and-cattle companies, not the Mexican elite, held them. Old Executive Office Building, Washington D.C. Bank of China Tower, Hong Kong, China In architecture, construction, engineering and real estate development the word building may refer to one of the following: Any man-made structure used or intended for supporting or sheltering any use or continuous occupancy, or An... The classic vision of the American cowboy, as portrayed by Frederic Remington A cowboy (Spanish vaquero) tends cattle and horses on cattle ranches in North and South America. ... Map of the San Miguel del Bado Grant in central New Mexico, from the United States Court of Private Land Claims, Julian Sandoval Case 25 (1894-1902). ... (19th century - 20th century - 21st century - more centuries) Decades: 1900s 1910s 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s The 20th century lasted from 1901 to 2000 in the Gregorian calendar (often from (1900 to 1999 in common usage). ... John Horton Slaughter (or Texas John Slaughter), (October 2, 1841-February 16, 1922) was an American lawman, Civil War soldier and gambler. ... The international border between Mexico and the United States runs a total of 3,141 km (1,951 miles) from San Diego, California, and Tijuana, Baja California, in the west to Matamoros, Tamaulipas, and Brownsville, Texas, in the east. ... This article is about Native Americans. ...

The most blatant land grab occurred in 1844. Far to the south, in the port of the Guaymas, the Mexican government declared that the mission lands of Tumacacori had been abandoned and auctioned them off for five hundred pesos to Francisco Alejandro Aguilar. The few Pimas who had not been driven away by Apache depredations neither knew about nor consented to the sale. Aguilar was the brother-in-law of Manuel Mariá Gándara, one of the most powerful military strongmen in Sonora. He turned Calabasas into his own private hacienda, and by the late 1840s Pima dispossession along the Santa Cruz was nearly complete. Guaymas is a port city in Sonora, Mexico. ... ISO 4217 Code MXN User(s) Mexico Inflation 3. ... Sales are the activities involved in providing products or services in return for money or other compensation. ... The Akimel Oodham or Pima are a group of Native Americans living in an area consisting of what is now central and southern Arizona (USA) and Sonora (Mexico). ...

Some presidial soldiers became so poor that they had to sell their weapons to feed their families. In 1840 and 1841 the Mexican government campaigned against the Tohono O'odham of the western deserts, their former allies. The colony reached its nadir at midcentury. In 1843 the Apaches killed at least thirty shareholders of the San Rafael de la Zanja grant at La Boca de Noria near modern Lochiel. Ranching ceased in the San Rafael Valley. Five years later, at least fifteen Tucsonenses, including nine presidial soldiers, rode into ambush in the Whetstone Mountains. By the time the bodies could be recovered, they were so decomposed that the remains had to be carried back to the presidio of Santa Cruz in sacks. Tubac itself was abandoned once again after an Apache assault in January 1849. A weapon is a tool used to kill or incapacitate a person or animal, or destroy a military target. ...

American trapping

In early November 1826, Ignacio Pacheco, the mayor of Tucson, reported that "the Gila Pimas, represented by a village governor and two of his men, arrived at this presidio with news of sixteen foreigners bearing arms along the banks of their river. The Gila governor demanded papers of identification...their leader replied that they came only to visit the Indians along the Gila in order to obtain mules and horses from them and to find out where there might be other rivers abounding in beaver." The bed of this stream is made up of rocks, some very rounded (having had a longer life in the stream) and some not. ... In its common modern meaning, a mule is the offspring of a male donkey and a female horse. ... For other uses, see Beaver (disambiguation). ...

The foreigners Pacheco referred to were a group of Anglo American trappers led by Ceran St. Vrain and William Sherley Williams, better known to his fellow mountain men as Old Bill. The movement of American trappers and traders blazing the Santa Fe trail soon became a torrent. Ten years after Pacheco warned about foreigners in Arizona, Anglo rebels took Texas from Mexican hands, and, in 1848, Mexico ceded more than half its territory to the United States, including Arizona north of the Gila River. By 1853 the United States expanded past Tucson. In Pacheco's time, Arizona was already a part of the American frontier. The human activity of trapping consists of hunting for animals to obtain their furs, which are then used for clothes and other artifacts, or sold / bartered (see fur trade). ... Ceran St. ... Liver-Eating Johnson Mountain men were trappers and explorers that roamed the Rocky Mountains from about 1810 to the early 1840s. ... The term Trader can refer to: In economics, a merchant, a retail business or one who attempts to generally buy wholesale and sell later at a profit In finance, someone who buys and sells financial instruments such as stocks, bonds and derivatives - see stock trader In marketing, Trader Classified Media... Nickname: Location in Santa Fe County, New Mexico Coordinates: , Country State County Santa Fe Founded ca. ...

Despite their romanticizations by later generations, the first American frontiersmen in Arizona were adventurers and businessmen rather than mountain men. They entered Arizona from their headquarters in Taos, New Mexico, to hunt the beavers between the upper Gila River and the Colorado delta. Independent trappers like Old Bill flourished in the Southwest until people in the eastern United States began to wear hats made from silk rather than beaver felt. Romantics redirects here. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Taos (IPA: ) is a city in Taos County in the north-central region of New Mexico. ... The Colorado River from the bottom of Marble Canyon, in the Upper Grand Canyon Colorado River in the Grand Canyon from Desert View The Colorado River from Laughlin Horseshoe Bend is a horseshoe-shaped meander of the Colorado River located near the town of Page, Arizona The Colorado River is... Nile River delta, as seen from Earth orbit. ... For other uses of this word, see Silk (disambiguation). ... A selection of 4 different felt cloths. ...

The first American trappers to set foot on Arizona soil were Sylvester Pattie and his son James, who spent the winter of 1825-1826 trapping along the San Francisco, Gila, and San Pedro rivers. James left an account of his travels that described encounters with bears, "panthers," Indians, and "wild hogs," or javelina. Pattie was the first Anglo to describe Arizona and the first of many to exaggerate the ferocity of its human and animal inhabitants. For the river in Brazil, see Rio São Francisco The San Francisco River is a river in the southwest United States, the largest tributary to the Gila River. ... Species Dicotyles tajacu Tyassu pecari Catagonus wagneri A peccary (also known by its Spanish name, Javelina) is a medium-sized mammal of the family Tayassuidae. ...

Despite its embellishments, Pattie's narrative constitutes the most extensive firsthand account of early trappings in the Southwest, which was much different from trapping in the North, where Indians participated in the trade and formed close relationships with many non-Indian trappers. During the winter of 1826-1827, Pattie returned to Arizona with a group of French trappers led by Miguel Robidoux, one of six brothers who had grown up trapping and trading along the Missouri River. After visiting a village of Spanish-speaking Pimas who cultivated corn, wheat, and cotton along the south bank of the Gila, Robidoux and his companions made their way to a "Papawar" settlement about a mile up the Salt River. The Indians were likely Yuman-speaking Maricopas, allies of the Pimas who had engaged in extensive warfare with their Mohave and Quechan enemies for centuries. That evening they killed all of the trappers except for Pattie, Robidoux, and another Frenchman. After fleeing, the three men met another group of trappers led by Ewing Young, and returned to exact their revenge. Pattie claimed that 110 Indians were killed in the incident. Similar hostilities broke out whenever trappers traveled through the Apachería or trapped beaver in Mohave territory along the Colorado. Regional definitions vary from source to source. ... The Missouri River is a tributary of the Mississippi River in the United States. ... Masouleh village, Gilan Province, Iran. ... For other uses, see Cotton (disambiguation). ... For the county in Arizona, see Maricopa County, Arizona The Maricopa, or Pipaash, are a Native American ethnic group that consisted of small groups of people situated on the banks of the Colorado River that came together in the 19th century. ... Two Mohave men dressed in loincloths, western Arizona Judith, a young Mohave woman about eighteen years of age The Mohave are a Native American tribe, many of whom live on or near the Colorado River Indian Tribes, Chemehuevi and Fort Mojave Indian Reservations on the Colorado River in California and... The French Republic or France (French: République française or France) is a country whose metropolitan territory is located in western Europe, and which is further made up of a collection of overseas islands and territories located in other continents. ... Ewing Young expeditions to American West Ewing Young (1799 - February 9, 1841) was an American trapper from Tennessee who traveled the western United States before settling in Oregon Country. ...

Trappers continued to explore Arizona and travel to California, where they sold the furs to ships trading with the Mexican settlements of the Pacific Coast. By the time the Southwestern fur trade had declined in 1833, most of the famous mountain men in Western history had passed through Arizona. Because they exported their furs through northern New Mexico and California, they had little reason to visit Tucson and Tubac, causing them to avoid confrontations with the Mexicans along the Santa Cruz. The mountain men had little effect on Arizona's economy and ecology. Beaver populations had recovered by the next decade. For alternative meanings, see Fur (disambiguation). ... For online phenomenon of shipping, see Shipping (fandom). ... HIStory – Past, Present and Future, Book I is a double album by American singer Michael Jackson released in June 1995 and remains Jacksons most conflicting and controversial release. ... For the journal, see Ecology (journal). ...

The Mexican-American War

The Spaniards had long feared that other European powers were planning to invade their sparsely populated northern frontier. They sparred with the French and English in the Mississippi Valley and watched the Russians expand down the Pacific coast, but after Mexico won its independence from Spain, it was the growth of the United States that proved most significant. The process began with Texas in 1836. Six years later, Mexico's secretary of state, Lucás Alamán, warned, "Where others send invading armies...[the Americans] send their colonists." Desperate to fill empty spaces, Mexico invited Americans and other foreign colonists to settle in Texas in 1824. By 1830 there were already more than twice as many Anglos as Mexicans there (7,000 to 3,000). By 1836 the ratio had risen ten to one. When Sam Houston led his rebels to victory at San Jacinto, Texas remained an independent republic until 1845. Mexicans of Texas soon became a minority in their native land. This article is about the English as an ethnic group and nation. ... In several countries, Secretary of State is a senior government position. ... For other persons named Sam Houston, see Sam Houston (disambiguation). ... Combatants Mexico Republic of Texas Commanders Antonio López de Santa Anna{POW} Manuel Fernandez Castrillon† Juan Almonte{POW} Sam Houston{wounded} Strength about 1,400 800 Casualties 630 killed, 208 wounded, 730 captured 9 killed, 26 wounded For other battles of the same name, see San Jacinto. ... The definition of a minority group can vary, depending on specific context, but generally refers to either a sociological sub-group that does not form either a majority or a plurality of the total population, or a group that, while not necessarily a numerical minority, is disadvantaged or otherwise has...

Many citizens of the United States felt they had a God-given mandate to extend their "area of freedom" across North America. On December 27, 1845, John L. O'Sullivan, editor of the New York Morning News, wrote that it was "our manifest destiny to overspread and to possess the whole of the continent which Providence has given us for the development of the great experiment of liberty and federated self-government entrusted to us." Mexico had already broken off relations with the United States in March 1845 after the annexation of Texas. Six months later, President James Polk sent John Slidell to Mexico City to buy California and New Mexico. When the Mexican government refused to negotiate, Polk ordered General Zachary Taylor to occupy disputed territory between the Nueces River and the Rio Grande. A Mexican attack on U.S. troops preceded a U.S. declaration of war on Mexico in May 1846. December 27 is the 361st day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (362nd in leap years). ... 1845 was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ... John L. OSullivan as he appeared on the cover of Harpers Weekly in November 1874. ... This article is about the history and influence of the concept. ... In theology, Divine Providence, or simply Providence, is the sovereignty, superintendence, or agency of God over events in peoples lives and throughout history. ... For other uses, see Liberty (disambiguation). ... Republic of Texas The Texas Annexation of 1845 was the annexation of Texas by the United States of America as the 28th state. ... James Knox Polk (November 2, 1795–June 15, 1849) was an American politician and the eleventh U.S. President, serving from March 4, 1845 to March 4, 1849. ... John Slidell (1793 – July 26, 1871), a native of New York City, moved to Louisiana and became a U.S. representative and a U.S. senator from that state in the mid-nineteenth century. ... This article is about the twelfth President of the United States. ... Map of the Nueces River and associated watershed The Nueces River is a river in the U.S. state of Texas, approximately 315 mi (507 km) long. ...

A primary U.S. objective in the war was the acquisition of California. Most American pioneers and politicians considered Arizona a wasteland, a desert, and an Indian-infested obstacle between Santa Fe and San Diego. Although several U.S. military expeditions passed through the area on their way to the west, they did so as quickly as possible, and none of them stayed. San Diego redirects here. ...

General Stephen Watts Kearny, commander of the Army of the West, led the first group of soldiers. Following his conquest of New Mexico, Kearny and a detachment of "wilderness-worn dragoons" left Santa Fe on September 25, 1846. They were guided by Kit Carson, who had been impressed into service along the way. Under Carson's direction, Kearny and his men descended the Gila and spent the next two months following the river's passage to the Colorado. The expedition marched through the villages of the Gila Pimas, but completely bypassed Tubac and Tucson. It therefore avoided any confrontation with Mexican troops, but it first introduced American soldiers to the Arizona desert. Stephen Watts Kearny (August 30, 1794–October 31, 1848) was a United States Army officer, noted for action during the Mexican American War. ... is the 268th day of the year (269th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1846 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... Kit Carson Christopher Houston Kit Carson (December 24, 1809 – May 23, 1868) was an American frontiersman. ... A troop is a military unit. ...

A map showing the Gadsden Purchase and the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo.

The next expedition swung farther south and went through Tucson on its way to California. This was the Mormon Battalion, a company of Latter Day Saints from the Midwest who volunteered for duty in order to prove their patriotism and diffuse the religious hatred of their neighbors. The main purpose of their journey was to blaze a wagon trail across the southern Great Plains and the Southwest. When they reached Santa Fe, Lieutenant Colonel Philip St. George Cooke took command and led the battalion to San Diego. The Mormons left Santa Fe in October 1846. They had to double-team their wagons to get over the Sacramento Mountains in south central New Mexico and lower them by rope down Guadalupe Pass in the northern Sierra Madre. While their encounters with the Indians were generally peaceful, the wild bulls of southeastern Arizona charged their caravan and gorged their mules. Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... The Gadsden Purchase (shown with present-day state boundaries and cities) The Gadsden Purchase (known as Venta de La Mesilla in Mexico) is a 45,535 mi² (76,770 km²) region of what is today southern Arizona and New Mexico that was purchased by the United States from Mexico in... The Mexican Cession (red) and the Gadsden Purchase (orange) The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was the treaty that ended the Mexican-American War. ... The Mormon Battalion was the only religious unit in American military history serving from July 1846 to July 1847 during the Mexican-American War. ... A Latter Day Saint (LDS) is a person who identifies with the Latter Day Saint movement and is a follower of Mormonism. ... The Midwest is a common name for a region of the United States of America. ... Defence of the fatherland is a commonplace of patriotism: The statue in the courtyard of École polytechnique, Paris, commemorating the students involvement in defending France against the 1814 invasion of the Coalition. ... Philip St. ...

Because of Cooke's firmness, wild bulls were the only antagonists the battalion had to face. The Mormons were the first representatives of the U.S. government to meet the Mexican population of Arizona. The initial encounter took place at a mescal distillery between the San Pedro and Santa Cruz valleys. There the teetotaling Mormons met a sergeant and several soldiers from the Tucson presidio. The sergeant politely requested that Cooke and his men make a detour around Tucson. Cooke politely declined. Mezcal is a Mexican distilled spirit made from the agave plant. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... For other uses, see Sergeant (disambiguation). ...

Several days of sparring followed as Tucson's veteran commander, Antonio Camadurán, attempted to persuade the battalion not to enter the community. When all threats and pleas for an armistice failed, Comadurán withdrew his outnumbered garrison to San Xavier. The result was a peaceful day of trading between the Mormons and the Mexican inhabitants of Tucson. The battalion lumbered into town on December 17. The Tucsonenses offered the soldiers food and water, and the soldiers responded by bartering clothing for the beans and flour they needed. Symbol of the Austrian 14th Armoured Battalion in NATO military graphic symbols This article is about the military unit. ... December 17 is the 351st day of the year (352nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

By the time Cooke and his troops had left the next morning, the only shots that had been fired came from one of the battalion's pickets, who mistook the returning civilians for Mexican soldiers during the night. No one was injured and no one died. Cooke sent a note apologizing to Comodurán for the inconvenience. With it he enclosed a letter to the governor of Sonora. The letter assured the governor that Cooke had not come "as an enemy of the people whom you represent; they have received only kindness at my hands." A civilian is a person who is not a member of a military. ...

After General Winfield Scott seized Mexico City in September 1847 following bloody hand-to-hand combat, Nicholas Trist sat down with Mexican authorities and helped to write the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo, which Congress ratified the following March. In return for $18,250,000 in cash payments and claims assumed by the U.S. government, the United States won confirmation of its title to Texas. It also annexed California and New Mexico, which included Arizona north of the Gila River. For other uses of Winfield Scott, see Winfield Scott (disambiguation). ... This article or section contains information that has not been verified and thus might not be reliable. ... The Mexican Cession (red) and the Gadsden Purchase (orange) The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was the treaty that ended the Mexican-American War. ... Congress in Joint Session. ...

The Gold Rush of 1849

The following year, commerce united people in both countries for a time. The Gold Rush of 1849 ignited the largest mining rush in American history. Since Coronado's expedition, Spaniards had dreamed of Quivara and the Seven Cities of Cíbola, but when gold was found at Sutter's Mill along the American River, Alta California belonged to the United States. The gold rush drew thousands of Americans and Mexicans, leaving many towns in Sonora nearly depopulated. Gold-seekers overwhelmed the little communities of southern Arizona. By the time the rush was over, 50,000 people had gone through the region on their way to the California goldfields. Gold rush handbill The California Gold Rush was the 1848-1858 gold rush, a type of mass hysteria, sparked by the discovery of gold near Sacramento, California. ... Sutters Mill in 1850. ... The American River, located in the US state of California, has a prominent place in American history for being the site of Sutters Mill, where gold was found in 1848, leading to the California Gold Rush. ... Alta California (Upper California) was formed in 1804 when the province of California, then a part of the Spanish colony of New Spain, was divided in two along the line separating the Franciscan missions in the north from the Dominican missions in the south. ... For other meanings, see Gold rush (disambiguation) A gold rush is a period of feverish migration of workers into the area of a dramatic discovery of commercial quantities of gold. ...

The Gila Trail leading to the California mines crossed the Sierra Madre at Guadalupe Pass and swung down the Santa Cruz Valley through Tumacacori, Tubac, and Tucson. From there it followed Cooke's wagon road north to the Pima villages and west to the junction of the Gila and Colorado. Ninety-two miles of the trail were without water, and another was across the Mojave Desert west of the Colorado. As perilous as it was, however, the Gila Trail became the main path connecting Arizona to the United States. For the indigenous American tribe, see Mohave. ...

Miners also provided valuable information about Arizona's Native Americans. Though they were impressed with the Gila Pimas, who gave them wheat and corn, they viewed the Quechans of the Colorado River with suspicion. Apaches left the Anglo Americans alone, viewing them as potential allies in their continuous war against the Mexicans. After one inconsequential skirmish near Guadalupe Pass, the Chiricahua war chief Mangas Coloradas even told a group of Americans that he loved them.

Despite their hatred of Mexicans, the Apaches depended upon Mexican livestock for food and to see them through hard times. At about 9:00 A.M. of December 16, 1850, a large number of Apaches, perhaps as many as 361, came out of the Catalina Mountains and caught Tucson by surprise. The Tucsonenses fled to the presidio or to the large adobe convent on the west bank of the Santa Cruz River. The Apaches rounded up their animals, killed four of their neighbors, and took two Mexican boys and Apache Manson women captive. Suddenly afterward the Apaches offered to make peace. A treaty might have been secured if the O'odham had not ridden in from San Xavier and descended upon the Apaches, driving them away. Apaches often made truces with one Mexican community in order to raid another, and livestock stolen in Sonora was often bartered in Chihuahua and New Mexico. The 12-hour clock is a timekeeping convention in which the 24 hours of the day are divided into two periods called ante meridiem (a. ... is the 350th day of the year (351st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... For the game, see: 1850 (board game) 1850 (MDCCCL) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Sunday [1] of the 12-day-slower Julian calendar). ... Renewal of the surface coating of an adobe wall in Chamisal, New Mexico Adobe is a natural building material composed of sand, sandy clay and straw or other organic materials, which is shaped into bricks using wooden frames and dried in the sun. ...

A cholera epidemic broke out in 1851. The establishment of "military colonies" in Tucson and Tubac by Americans aggravated the situation of Anglo American invasion. To prevent the loss of any more territory, the Mexican government decided to grant each recruit a plot of land in return for a six-year tour of duty. In Tucson, military officials confiscated land already being cultivated by civilians or retired presidio soldiers, turning farmers against the soldiers who were supposed to protect them. Distribution of cholera Cholera, sometimes known as Asiatic cholera or epidemic cholera, is an infectious gastroenteritis caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae. ...

The Gadsden Purchase

The Gadsden Purchase (shown with present-day state boundaries and cities)

Many residents of Mexican Arizona greeted the Treaty of Mesilla with relief. In 1853, President James Buchanan dispatched James Gadsden, a railroad speculator from North Carolina, to present Mexican president Santa Anna with five different plans to purchase more of northern Mexico. The most ambitious offered $50 million for Baja California and much of Sonora, Chihuahua, and Coahuila. The least extensive sought Arizona south of the Gila River and the Mesilla Valley of New Mexico. That was the one Santa Anna accepted. In return for $10,000,000, the United States received nearly 30,000 square miles (80,000 km²) of deserts and mountains. With it came Tucson, Tubac, and Tumacacori. Lieutenant James Gadsden James Gadsden (May 15, 1788 - December 25, 1858). ... Official language(s) English Demonym North Carolinian Capital Raleigh Largest city Charlotte Largest metro area Charlotte metro area Area  Ranked 28th in the US  - Total 53,865 sq mi (139,509 km²)  - Width 150 miles (340 km)  - Length 560[1] miles (900 km)  - % water 9. ... Antonio de Padua María Severino López de Santa Anna y Pérez de Lebrón (February 21, 1794 – June 21, 1876), often known as Santa Anna, was a Mexican political leader who greatly influenced early Mexican and Spanish politics and government, first fighting against the independence from Spain...

When the House of Representatives ratified the Gadsden Purchase on June 29, 1854, Mexican Arizona became a part of the United States. Most inhabitants of the region welcomed the change. Mexican Arizona fell under U.S. law, and presumably, U.S. protection. There were possibilities of new markets for beef and flour, and of the Apaches finally being kept at bay. Mexican troops remained in Tucson until March 1856, but when they headed south, only a few civilians went with them. U.S. troops rode into southern Arizona in late 1856 to take possession of the region, and Mexican as well as Anglo immigrants began to trickle into the area. Type Bicameral Speaker of the House of Representatives House Majority Leader Nancy Pelosi, (D) since January 4, 2007 Steny Hoyer, (D) since January 4, 2007 House Minority Leader John Boehner, (R) since January 4, 2007 Members 435 plus 4 Delegates and 1 Resident Commissioner Political groups Democratic Party Republican Party... The Gadsden Purchase (shown with present-day state boundaries and cities) The Gadsden Purchase (known as Venta de La Mesilla in Mexico) is a 45,535 mi² (76,770 km²) region of what is today southern Arizona and New Mexico that was purchased by the United States from Mexico in... is the 180th day of the year (181st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1854 (MDCCCLIV) was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... Look up Region in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Immigration is the act of moving to or settling in another country or region, temporarily or permanently. ...

References

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v • d • e   State of Arizona Phoenix (capital) Topics Climate | Culture | Economy | Education | Geography | History | People | Transportation Image File history File links Question_book-3. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Arizona. ... Federal courts Supreme Court Circuit Courts of Appeal District Courts Elections Presidential elections Midterm elections Political Parties Democratic Republican Third parties State & Local government Governors Legislatures (List) State Courts Local Government Other countries Atlas  US Government Portal      A U.S. state is any one of the fifty subnational entities of... Official language(s) English Spoken language(s) English 74. ... Nickname: Location in Maricopa County and the state of Arizona Coordinates: , Country State County Maricopa Incorporated February 25, 1881 Government  - Type Council-Manager  - Mayor Phil Gordon (D) Area  - City  515. ... Independence Hall in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, site of first U.S. capital. ... This is a list of articles that have something substantive to do with the state of Arizona. ... The first Native Americans arrived in Arizona between 16,000 BC and 10,000 BCE, while the history of Arizona as recorded by Europeans began when Marcos de Niza, a Franciscan, explored the area in 1539. ... Regions Arizona Strip | Coconino Plateau | Colorado Plateau | Grand Canyon | Kaibab Plateau | Mogollon Plateau | Mogollon Rim | Mojave Desert | Monument Valley | North Central Arizona | Northeast Arizona | Northern Arizona | Oak Creek Canyon | Phoenix Metropolitan Area | San Francisco Volcanic Field | Sonoran Desert | Southern Arizona | Verde Valley | White Mountains Present-day Regions of Arizona. ... The Arizona Strip is that part of the US state of Arizona lying north of the Colorado River and south of the state of Utah. ... The Coconino Plateau is found north and northwest of Flagstaff, Arizona, in the United States. ... The Colorado Plateau, also called the Colorado Plateaus Province, is a physiographic region of the Intermontane Plateaus, roughly centered on the Four Corners region of the southwestern United States. ... This article is about the canyon in the southwestern United States. ... The Kaibab Plateau is located in northern Arizona in the United States. ... The Mogollon Plateau (also Mogollon Mesa) is a pine-covered southern plateau section of the larger Colorado Plateau in east-central Arizona. ... The Mogollon Rim is a topographical and geological feature running across Arizona, extending approximately 400 miles (650 km) from northern Yavapai County eastward to the Mogollon Mountains in southwest New Mexico. ... For the indigenous American tribe, see Mohave. ... Monument Valley from the valley floor. ... North Central Arizona is a geographical region of Arizona. ... Northeast Arizona, sometimes referred to by local people as The Rez, is a region of the U.S. state of Arizona commonly including Apache County and Navajo County. ... Northern Arizona is dominated by the Colorado Plateau, the southern border of which in Arizona is called the Mogollon Rim. ... Oak Creek Canyon is a 1000-2000 foot deep gorge in northern Arizona located between the cities of Flagstaff and Sedona. ... The Phoenix metropolitan area, also known as the Valley of the Sun, is a metropolitan area that includes the City of Phoenix, much of the rest of Maricopa County, a large section of Pinal County, and small parts of southern Yavapai County. ... SP Crater in the field is a cinder cone with a basalt lava flow that extends for 4 miles (6 km) The San Francisco volcanic field is an area of volcanoes in northern Arizona, USA. The field covers 1800 square miles (4700 km2) the southern boundary of the Colorado Plateau. ... Map of the Mojave and Sonoran deserts. ... Southern Arizona is a region of the United States. ... Verde Valley is a valley in central Arizona in the United States of America. ... The White Mountains of Arizona are a small mountain range in the eastern part of the state, near the border with New Mexico. ... Counties Apache | Cochise | Coconino | Gila | Graham | Greenlee | La Paz | Maricopa | Mohave | Navajo | Pima | Pinal | Santa Cruz | Yavapai | Yuma List of the 15 counties in the U.S. state of Arizona: Arizona county map Apache County formed in 1879 from part of Yavapai County. ... Apache County includes the Arizona section of the Four Corners Monument. ... Cochise County is located in the southeastern corner of the U.S. state of Arizona. ... Coconino County is located in the north central part of the U.S. state of Arizona. ... Location in the state of Arizona Formed 1881 Seat Globe Area  - Total  - Water 12,421 km² (4,796 mi²) 73 km² (28 mi²) 0. ... Graham County is located in the southeastern part of the U.S. state of Arizona. ... Greenlee County is located in the southeastern part of the U.S. state of Arizona. ... La Paz County is located in the western part of the U.S. state of Arizona. ... Maricopa County is located in the central part of the U.S. state of Arizona. ... Mohave County is located in the northwestern corner of the U.S. state of Arizona. ... Navajo County is located in the northern part of the U.S. state of Arizona. ... Pima County is located in the south central part of the U.S. state of Arizona. ... Pinal County is located in the central part of the U.S. state of Arizona. ... Santa Cruz County is located in the south of the U.S. state of Arizona. ... Yavapai County is located in the center of the U.S. state of Arizona. ... Yuma County is located in the southwestern corner of the U.S. state of Arizona. ... Cities Chandler | Flagstaff | Gilbert | Glendale | Lake Havasu City | Mesa | Peoria | Phoenix | Prescott | Scottsdale | Sierra Vista | Tempe | Tucson | Yuma A list of cities in Arizona (by population*) is below. ... Location in Maricopa County and the state of Arizona Coordinates: , Country United States State Arizona Counties Maricopa Government  - Mayor Boyd W. Dunn (R) Area  - City  58. ... Nickname: Location in Coconino County the state of Arizona Coordinates: , Country State County Coconino County Government  - Mayor Joseph C. Donaldson Area  - City  98. ... Location in Maricopa County and the state of Arizona Coordinates: , Country State County Maricopa Government  - Mayor Steven M. Berman Area  - Total 43. ... Location in Maricopa County and the state of Arizona Coordinates: , Country State Counties Maricopa Government  - Mayor Elaine Scruggs (R) Area  - City  55. ... Lake Havasu City is a city in Mohave County, Arizona, USA. As of the 2000 census, the city had a total population of 41,938. ... Location in Maricopa County and the state of Arizona Coordinates: , Country State County Maricopa Government  - Mayor Keno Hawker (R) Area  - City  125. ... Peoria is a city located in Maricopa County, Arizona. ... Nickname: Location in Maricopa County and the state of Arizona Coordinates: , Country State County Maricopa Incorporated February 25, 1881 Government  - Type Council-Manager  - Mayor Phil Gordon (D) Area  - City  515. ... Prescott (pronounced by some locals as press-kit instead of press-cot) is a city in Yavapai County, Arizona, USA. According to 2005 Census Bureau estimates, the population of the city is 40,360. ... For other uses, see Scottsdale . ... Location in Cochise County and the state of Arizona Coordinates: , Country State County Cochise Incorporated 1956 Government  - Mayor Bob Strain Area  - Total 153. ... Location in Maricopa County and the state of Arizona Coordinates: Country United States State Arizona Counties Maricopa Incorporated November 29, 1894 Government  - Mayor Hugh Hallman Area  - City  39. ... Tucson (pronounced ) is the seat of Pima County, Arizona, United States, located 118 miles (188 km) southeast of Phoenix and 60 miles (98 km) north of the U.S.-Mexico border. ... Yuma is a city in and the county seatGR6 of Yuma County, Arizona, United States. ...