NationMaster - Encyclopedia: Mikhail Bakunin

Mikhail Alexandrovich Bakunin (Russian: Михаил Александрович Бакунин, Michel Bakunin on the grave in Bern), (May 18 (30 N.S.), 1814 – June 19 (July 1 N.S.), 1876) was a well-known Russian revolutionary, and often considered one of the “fathers of modern anarchism". Ancient unreadable gravestones mark the position of graves in the parish churchyard at Bourton-on-the-Water, Gloucestershire, England A grave is a place where the body of a dead animal, generally human, is buried, often after a funeral. ... Location within Switzerland The city of Bern, English traditionally Berne (Bernese German BÃ¤rn , German Bern , French Berne , Italian Berna , Romansh Berna ), is the Bundesstadt (administrative capital) of Switzerland, and is the fourth most populous Swiss city (after ZÃ¼rich, Geneva and Basel). ... is the 138th day of the year (139th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 150th day of the year (151st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Old Style or O.S. is a designation indicating that a date conforms to the Julian calendar, formerly in use in many countries, rather than the Gregorian calendar, currently in use in most countries. ... Year 1814 (MDCCCXIV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar). ... is the 170th day of the year (171st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 182nd day of the year (183rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Old Style or O.S. is a designation indicating that a date conforms to the Julian calendar, formerly in use in many countries, rather than the Gregorian calendar, currently in use in most countries. ... Year 1876 Pick up Sticks(MDCCCLXXVI) was a leap year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian Calendar (or a leap year starting on Thursday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... Revolutionary, when used as a noun, is a person who either advocates or actively engages in some kind of revolution. ... Anarchism is a political philosophy or group of philosophies and attitudes which reject any form of compulsory government[1] (cf. ...

Born in the Russian Empire to a family of Russian nobles, Bakunin spent his youth as a Junior Officer in the Russian army but resigned his commission in 1835. He went to school in Moscow to study philosophy and began to frequent radical circles where he was greatly influenced by Alexander Herzen. Bakunin left Russia in 1842 for Dresden, and eventually Paris where he met George Sand, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon and Karl Marx. The subject of this article was previously also known as Russia. ... Aleksandr Ivanovich Herzen (ÐÐ»ÐµÐºÑÐ°ÌÐ½Ð´Ñ€ Ð˜Ð²Ð°ÌÐ½Ð¾Ð²Ð¸Ñ‡ Ð“ÐµÌÑ€Ñ†ÐµÐ½) (April 6 [O.S. 25 March] 1812 in Moscow - January 21 [O.S. 9 January] 1870 in Paris) was a major Russian pro-Western writer and thinker known as the father of Russian socialism. He is held responsible for creating a political climate leading to the emancipation... George Sand sewing, portrait by EugÃ¨ne Delacroix (1838). ... Pierre Joseph Proudhon. ... Karl Heinrich Marx (May 5, 1818 â€“ March 14, 1883) was a 19th century philosopher, political economist, and revolutionary. ...

He was ordered back to Russia in 1844 by Emperor Nicholas I, but he refused. As a result, his noble status was revoked and he was sentenced, in absentia, to hard labor in Siberia. He was eventually deported from France for speaking against Russia's oppression of Poland. In 1849 he was apprehended in Dresden for his participation in the Czech rebellion of 1848. He was turned over to Russia where he was imprisoned in Peter-Paul Fortress in Saint Petersburg. He remained there until 1857, when he was exiled to a work camp in Siberia. Nicholas I (Russian: ÐÐ¸ÐºÐ¾Ð»Ð°Ð¹ I ÐŸÐ°Ð²Ð»Ð¾Ð²Ð¸Ñ‡, Nikolai I Pavlovich), July 6 (June 25, Old Style), 1796â€“March 2 (18 February Old Style), 1855), was the Emperor of Russia from 1825 until 1855, known as one of the most reactionary of the Russian monarchs. ... Saint Petersburg (Russian: Санкт-Петербу́рг, English transliteration: Sankt-Peterburg), colloquially known as Питер (transliterated Piter), formerly known as Leningrad (Ленингра́д, 1924–1991) and...

He was able to escape via Japan and the USA, and ended up in London for a short time where he worked with Alexander Herzen on the radical journal, The Bell. He ultimately left in 1863 to join the insurrection in Poland. He, however, failed to reach his destination and spent some time in Switzerland and Italy. Despite his criminal status, Bakunin gained great influence with radical youth in Russia, and all of Europe. In 1870, Bakunin was involved in the insurrection in Lyon, which foreshadowed the Paris Commune. Le PÃ¨re Duchesne looking at the statue of Napoleon I on top of the Vendome column: Eh ben ! bougre de canaille, on va donc te foutre en bas comme ta crapule de neveu !â€¦ (Well now! buggering rascal, we will knock you the fuck off just like your crook of...

In 1868, Bakunin joined the International Working Men's Association, also known as the First Internationale, a federation of radical and trade union organizations with sections in most European countries. The 1872 Congress was dominated by a fight between a faction around Marx who argued for participation in parliamentary elections and a faction around Bakunin who opposed such participation. The faction around Bakunin lost the vote on this issue but at the end of the congress Bakunin and several others of that faction were expelled for supposedly maintaining a secret organisation within the international. The anarchists insisted the congress was rigged and so held their own conference of the International at Saint-Imer in Switzerland in 1872. Bakunin continued to be very active in this and the European socialist movement. In the years between 1870 and 1876 he wrote much of his seminal work such as Statism and Anarchy and God and the State. Despite his declining health he attempted to take part in an insurrection in Bologna, but was forced to return to Switzerland in disguise and settled in Lugano. Bakunin remained active in the Radical movement of Europe until further health problems cause him to be moved to a hospital in Berne, Switzerland, where he died in 1876. The International Workingmens Association, sometimes called the First International, was an international organization which aimed at uniting a variety of different left-wing political groups and trade union organizations which were based on the working class. ... God and the State is the most well-known literary work of Russian Anarchist, Mikhail Bakunin. ...

Biography

Early years

In the spring of 1814, Mikhail Alexandrovich Bakunin was born to an aristocratic family in the village of Pryamukhino (Прямухино) between Torzhok (Торжок) and Kuvshinovo (Кувшиново), in Tver guberniya, northwest of Moscow. At the age of 14 he left for St. Petersburg, receiving military training at the Artillery University. He completed his studies in 1832, and in 1834 was commissioned a junior officer in the Russian Imperial Guard and sent to Minsk and Gardinas in Lithuania (now Belarus). That summer, Bakunin became embroiled in a family row, taking his sister’s side in rebellion to an unhappy marriage. Though his father wished him to continue in either the military or the civil service, Bakunin abandoned both in 1835, and made his way to Moscow, hoping to study philosophy. Year 1814 (MDCCCXIV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar). ... Forms of government Part of the Politics series Politics Portal This box: The term aristocracy refers to a form of government where power is held by a small number of individuals from an elite or from noble families. ... General view of the town in the 1910s. ... Kuvshinovo (Russian: ) is a town in Tver Oblast, Russia, located on the Osuga River, 133 km away from Tver. ... Tvers coat of arms depicts grand ducal crown placed on a throne. ... Guberniya (Russian: ) (also gubernia, guberniia, gubernya) was a major administrative subdivision of the Imperial Russia, usually translated as governorate or province. ... Position of Moscow in Europe Coordinates: , Country District Subdivision Russia Central Federal District Federal City Government - Mayor Yuriy Luzhkov Area - City 1,081 kmÂ² (417. ... Saint Petersburg (Russian: Санкт-Петербу́рг, English transliteration: Sankt-Peterburg), colloquially known as Питер (transliterated Piter), formerly known as Leningrad (Ленингра́д, 1924–1991) and... Year 1832 (MDCCCXXXII) was a leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian Calendar (or a leap year starting on Friday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... Year 1834 (MDCCCXXXIV) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian Calendar (or a common year starting on Monday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... The term Leib Guard (Russian: , from German leib, meaning body) collectively distinguished military units serving as personal guards of the Emperor of Russia. ... Location of Minsk, shown within the Minsk Voblast Coordinates: Country Subdivision Belarus Minsk Founded 1067 Government - Mayor Mikhail Pavlov Area - City 305. ... Hrodna City emblem Hrodna (Belarusian: ; Russian: ; Polish: ; Lithuanian: ; Yiddish: Grodne; German: ) is a city in Belarus. ... | Come and take it, slogan of the Texas Revolution 1835 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... The philosopher Socrates about to take poison hemlock as ordered by the court. ...

Interest in Philosophy

In Moscow, Bakunin soon became friends with a group of former university students, and engaged in the systematic study of Idealist philosophy, grouped around the poet Nikolay Stankevich, “the bold pioneer who opened to Russian thought the vast and fertile continent of German metaphysics” (E. H. Carr). The philosophy of Kant initially was central to their study, but then progressed to Schelling, Fichte, and Hegel. By autumn of 1835, Bakunin had conceived of forming a philosophical circle in his home town of Pryamukhino; a passionate environment for the young people involved. For example, Vissarion Belinsky fell in love with one of Bakunin’s sisters. Moreover, by early 1836, Bakunin was back in Moscow, where he published translations of Fichte’s Some Lectures Concerning the Scholar's Vocation and The Way to a Blessed Life, which became his favorite book. With Stankevich he also read Goethe, Schiller, Jean Paul Sartre, and E.T.A. Hoffmann. In philosophy, idealism is any theory positing the primacy of spirit, mind, or language over matter. ... Nikolai Vladimirovich Stankevich (Russian: ÐÐ¸ÐºÐ¾Ð»Ð°Ð¹ Ð’Ð»Ð°Ð´Ð¸Ð¼Ð¸Ñ€Ð¾Ð²Ð¸Ñ‡ Ð¡Ñ‚Ð°Ð½ÐºÐµÐ²Ð¸Ñ‡) (October 9 (O.S. September 27), 1813, Voronezh guberniya - July 7 (O.S. June 25), 1840, Italy) was a Russian public figure, philosopher, and poet. ... Edward Hallett Carr (28 June 1892 â€“ 5 November 1982) was a British historian, journalist and international relations theorist, and fierce opponent of empiricism within historiography. ... Immanuel Kant Immanuel Kant (April 22, 1724 – February 12, 1804) was a Prussian philosopher, generally regarded as one of Europes most influential thinkers and the last major philosopher of the Enlightenment. ... Notable people with the last name of Schelling include: Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, German philosopher Thomas Schelling, American economist and Nobel laureate Category: ... Johann Gottlieb Fichte Johann Gottlieb Fichte (May 19, 1762 - January 27, 1814) has significance in the history of Western philosophy as one of the progenitors of German idealism and as a follower of Kant. ... Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (August 27, 1770 - November 14, 1831) was a German philosopher born in Stuttgart, Württemberg, in present-day southwest Germany. ... | Come and take it, slogan of the Texas Revolution 1835 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... Vissarion Grigorievich Belinskii (Ð’Ð¸ÑÑÐ°Ñ€Ð¸Ð¾ÌÐ½ Ð“Ñ€Ð¸Ð³Ð¾ÌÑ€ÑŒÐµÐ²Ð¸Ñ‡ Ð‘ÐµÐ»Ð¸ÌÐ½ÑÐºÐ¸Ð¹) (1811 - 1848) was Russian writer, literary critic, philosopher and revolutionary activist (a Westernizer). ... Year 1836 (MDCCCXXXVI) was a leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian Calendar (or a leap year starting on Wednesday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... Johann Wolfgang von Goethe Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (pronounced [gø tə]) (August 28, 1749–March 22, 1832) was a German writer, politician, humanist, scientist, and philosopher. ... Johann Christoph Friedrich von Schiller (November 10, 1759 - May 9, 1805), usually known as Friedrich Schiller, was a German poet, philosopher, historian, and dramatist. ... Jean Paul Sartre Jean-Paul Sartre (June 21, 1905–April 15, 1980) was a French existentialist philosopher, dramatist, novelist and critic. ... ETA Hoffman Ernst Theodor Amadeus Hoffmann (January 24, 1776 - June 25, 1822), was a German romantic and fantasy author and composer. ...

At this time he embraced a religious but extra-ecclesiastical immanentism: Immanence, derived from the Latin in manere to remain within, refers to philosophical and metaphysical theories of the divine as existing and acting within the mind or the world. ...

He became increasingly influenced by Hegel and provided the first Russian translation of his work. During this period he met the socialists Alexander Herzen and Nikolay Ogarev, and the slavophiles Konstantin Aksakov and Piotr Tschaadaev. In this period he began to develop his panslavic views. After long wrangles with his father, Bakunin went to Berlin in 1840. His stated plan at the time was still to become a university professor (a “priest of truth,” as he and his friends imagined it), but he soon encountered and joined radical students of the so-called “Hegelian Left,” and joined the socialist movement in Berlin. In his 1842 essay The Reaction in Germany, he argued in favor of the revolutionary role of negation, summed up in the phrase Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (August 27, 1770 - November 14, 1831) was a German philosopher born in Stuttgart, Württemberg, in present-day southwest Germany. ... Aleksandr Ivanovich Herzen (ÐÐ»ÐµÐºÑÐ°ÌÐ½Ð´Ñ€ Ð˜Ð²Ð°ÌÐ½Ð¾Ð²Ð¸Ñ‡ Ð“ÐµÌÑ€Ñ†ÐµÐ½) (April 6 [O.S. 25 March] 1812 in Moscow - January 21 [O.S. 9 January] 1870 in Paris) was a major Russian pro-Western writer and thinker known as the father of Russian socialism. He is held responsible for creating a political climate leading to the emancipation... Nikolay Platonovich Ogarev (Russian: ÐÐ¸ÐºÐ¾Ð»Ð°Ð¹ ÐŸÐ»Ð°Ñ‚Ð¾Ð½Ð¾Ð²Ð¸Ñ‡ ÐžÐ³Ð°Ñ€ÐµÐ²) (1813 - 1877) was a Russian poet, historian and a supporter of socialism . ... A Slavophile was an advocate of the supremacy of Slavic culture over that of others, especially Western European culture. ... Konstantin Sergeyevich Aksakov (1817 - 1860) was a Russian critic and writer, one of the earliest and most notable Slavophiles. ... Pyotr Chaadaev Pyotr Yakovlevich Chaadaev or Petr Yakovlevich Chaadaev (Russian: ÐŸÑ‘Ñ‚Ñ€ Ð¯ÐºÐ¾Ð²Ð»ÐµÐ²Ð¸Ñ‡ Ð§Ð°Ð°Ð´Ð°ÐµÐ²) ( 1794-1856 ) was a Russian philosopher, who published his Philosophical letters about Russia in French in 1829, which circulated in Russia as manuscript for many years. ... Pan-Slavism was a movement in the mid 19th century aimed at unity of all the Slavic people. ... This article is about the capital of Germany. ... 1840 is a leap year starting on Wednesday (link will take you to calendar). ... Socialism refers to a broad array of ideologies and movements which aim to improve society through collective and egalitarian action; and to a socio-economic system in which property and the distribution of wealth are subject to control by the community. ... This article is about the capital of Germany. ... 1842 was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ...

After three semesters in Berlin Bakunin went to Dresden where he became friends with Arnold Ruge. Here he also read Lorenz von Stein's Der Sozialismus und Kommunismus des heutigen Frankreich and developed a passion for socialism. He abandoned his interest in an academic career, devoting more and more of his time to promoting revolution.The Russian government, becoming aware of his radicalism, ordered him to return to Russia. On his refusal his property was confiscated. Instead he went with Georg Herwegh to Zürich, Switzerland. Dresden (Sorbian: DrjeÅ¾dÅºany; etymologically from Old Sorbian DreÅ¾Äany, meaning people of the riverside forest, Czech: ) is the capital city of the German Federal Free State of Saxony. ... Arnold Ruge (13 September 1802 _ 31 December 1880) was a German philosopher and political writer. ... Lorenz von Stein Lorenz von Stein (18 November 1815 â€“ 1890) was a German economist, sociologist, and public administration scholar. ... Socialism refers to a broad array of ideologies and movements which aim to improve society through collective and egalitarian action; and to a socio-economic system in which property and the distribution of wealth are subject to control by the community. ... The storming of the Bastille, 14 July 1789 during the French Revolution. ... Georg Herwegh Georg Herwegh (1817 - 1875), son of an innkeeper, was born in Stuttgart. ... For other uses of Zurich, see Zurich (disambiguation). ...

Switzerland, Brussels and Paris

During his six month stay in Zürich, he became closely associated with German communist Wilhelm Weitling. Until 1848 he remained on friendly terms with the German communists, occasionally calling himself a communist and writing articles on communism in the Schweitzerische Republikaner. He moved to Geneva in western Switzerland shortly before Weitling's arrest. His name had appeared frequently in Weitling's correspondence seized by the police. This led to reports being circulated to the imperial police. The Russian ambassador in Berne ordered Bakunin to return to Russia, but instead he went to Brussels, where he met many leading Polish nationalists, such as Joachim Lelewel. However he clashed with them over their demand for a historic Poland based on the borders of 1776 as he defended the right of autonomy for the non-Polish peoples in these territories. He also did not support their clericalism and they did not support his calls for the emancipation of the peasantry. This article is about communism as a form of society and as a political movement. ... Weitling, Wilhelm [vait-], 1808â€“1871 was the first German communist or socialist of importance. ... Year 1848 (MDCCCXLVIII) was a leap year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian Calendar (or a leap year starting on Monday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... Geneva (pronunciation //; French: GenÃ¨ve //, German: //, Italian: Ginevra //, Romansh: Genevra) is the second most populous city in Switzerland (after ZÃ¼rich), and is the most populous city of Romandy (the French-speaking part of Switzerland). ... Nickname: Map showing the location of Brussels in Belgium Coordinates: , Country Belgium Region Brussels-Capital Region Founded 979 Founded (Region) June 18, 1989 Government - Mayor (Municipality) Freddy Thielemans Area - Region 162 kmÂ² (62. ... Joachim Lelewel (Warsaw, March 22, 1786- May 29, 1861), was a Polish historian and politician, from a naturalized Polish family of Prussian background. ... Year 1776 (MDCCLXXVI) was a leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a leap year starting on Thursday of the 11-day slower Julian calendar). ... Clericalism is the application of the formal, church-based, leadership or opinion of ordained clergy in matters of either the church or broader political and sociocultural import. ... Categories: 1911 Britannica | Historical stubs | Feudalism ...

In 1844 Bakunin went to Paris, then a centre for European radicalism. He established contacts with Karl Marx and the Anarchist Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, who greatly impressed him and with whom he formed a personal bond. In December 1844, Emperor Nicholas issued a decree stripping Bakunin of his privileges as a noble, denying him civil rights, confiscating his land in Russia, and condemning him to life long exile in Siberia should the Russian authorities ever get their hands on him. He responded with a long letter to La Réforme, denouncing the Emperor as a despot and calling for democracy in Russia and Poland (Carr, p.139). In March 1846 in another letter to the Constitutionel he defended Poland, following the repression of Catholics there. Some Polish refugees from Kraków, following the defeat of the uprising there, invited him to speak^[2] at the meeting in November 1847 commemorating the Polish November Uprising of 1830. Jan. ... Karl Heinrich Marx (May 5, 1818 â€“ March 14, 1883) was a 19th century philosopher, political economist, and revolutionary. ... Pierre Joseph Proudhon. ... Nobility is a traditional hereditary status (see hereditary titles) that exists today in many countries (mainly present or former monarchies). ... â€œSiberianâ€ redirects here. ... 1846 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... Motto: Ex navicula navis (From a boat, a ship) Coordinates: , Country Poland Voivodeship Lesser Poland Powiat city county Gmina KrakÃ³w City Rights June 5th, 1257 Government - Mayor Jacek Majchrowski Area - City 326. ... The KrakÃ³w Uprising of February 1846 was an attempt to incite an all-Polish fight for home-rule but was in fact limited only to the Free City of KrakÃ³w. ... Look up November in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... 1847 was a common year starting on Friday (see link for calendar). ... Coat-of-arms of the November Uprising. ... Liberty Leading the People by EugÃ¨ne Delacroix commemorates the July Revolution 1830 (MDCCCXXX) was a common year starting on Friday (see link for calendar). ...

In his speech, Bakunin called for an alliance between the Polish and Russian peoples against the Emperor, and looked forward to "the definitive collapse of despotism in Russia." As a result, he was expelled from France and went to Brussels. Bakunin's attempt to draw Alexander Herzen and Vissarion Belinsky into conspiratorial action for revolution in Russia fell on deaf ears. In Brussels, Bakunin renewed his contacts with revolutionary Poles and Karl Marx. He spoke at a meeting organised by Lelewel in February 1848 about a great future for the slavs, whose destiny was to rejuvenate the Western world. Around this time the Russian embassy circulated rumours that Bakunin was a Russian agent who had exceeded his orders. Aleksandr Ivanovich Herzen (ÐÐ»ÐµÐºÑÐ°ÌÐ½Ð´Ñ€ Ð˜Ð²Ð°ÌÐ½Ð¾Ð²Ð¸Ñ‡ Ð“ÐµÌÑ€Ñ†ÐµÐ½) (April 6 [O.S. 25 March] 1812 in Moscow - January 21 [O.S. 9 January] 1870 in Paris) was a major Russian pro-Western writer and thinker known as the father of Russian socialism. He is held responsible for creating a political climate leading to the emancipation... Vissarion Grigorievich Belinskii (Ð’Ð¸ÑÑÐ°Ñ€Ð¸Ð¾ÌÐ½ Ð“Ñ€Ð¸Ð³Ð¾ÌÑ€ÑŒÐµÐ²Ð¸Ñ‡ Ð‘ÐµÐ»Ð¸ÌÐ½ÑÐºÐ¸Ð¹) (1811 - 1848) was Russian writer, literary critic, philosopher and revolutionary activist (a Westernizer). ... Year 1848 (MDCCCXLVIII) was a leap year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian Calendar (or a leap year starting on Monday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... A compass rose with west highlighted This article refers to the cardinal direction; for other uses see West (disambiguation). ...

As the revolutionary movement of 1848 broke out, Bakunin was ecstatic, despite disappointment that little was happening in Russia. Bakunin obtained funding from some socialists in the Provisional Government, Ferdinand Flocon, Louis Blanc, Alexandre Auguste Ledru-Rollin and Albert L'Ouvrier, for a project for a Slav federation liberating those under the rule of Prussia, Austro-Hungary and Turkey. He left for Germany travelling through Baden to Frankfurt and Köln. The European Revolutions of 1848, known in some countries as the Spring of Nations or the Year of Revolution, were a revolutionary wave which erupted in Sicily and then, further triggered by the revolutions of 1848 in France, soon spread to the rest of Europe and as far afield as... Louis Jean Joseph Charles Blanc (October 29, 1811 - December 6, 1882), was a French politician and historian. ... Alexandre Auguste Ledru-Rollin (February 2, 1807 - December 31, 1874), was a French politician. ... Albert lOuvrier (Albert the Worker), born Alexandre Martin (27 April 1815 â€“ 28 May 1895), was a French socialist statesman of the French Second Republic. ... Motto Suum cuique Latin: To each his own Prussia at its peak, as leading state of the German Empire Capital KÃ¶nigsberg, later Berlin Government Duke1 - 1525â€“68 Albert I (first) - 1688â€“1701 Frederick III (last) King1 - 1701â€“13 Frederick I (first) - 1888â€“1918 William II (last) Prime Minister1,2... Austria-Hungary, also known as the Dual monarchy (or: the k. ... Baden is a historical state in the southwest of Germany, on the right bank of the Rhine. ... For other uses, see Frankfurt (disambiguation). ... KÃ¶ln may refer to: Cologne (German: KÃ¶ln), the fourth largest city in Germany and largest city of the North Rhine-Westphalia state German Cruiser KÃ¶ln that served from 1930-1945 mostly for the Kriegsmarine German Frigate KÃ¶ln (1961-1982), a F120 KÃ¶ln class frigate of...

Bakunin supported the German Democratic Legion led by Herwegh in an abortive attempt to join Friedrich Hecker's insurrection in Baden. He broke with Marx over the latter's criticism of Herwegh. Much later in 1871 – Bakunin was to write: “I must openly admit that in this controversy Marx and Engels were in the right. With characteristic insolence, they attacked Herwegh personally when he was not there to defend himself. In a face-to-face confrontation with them, I heatedly defended Herwegh, and our mutual dislike began then.”^[3] Friedrich Franz Karl Hecker (September 28, 1811 - March 24, 1881), German revolutionary, was born at Eichtersheim in the Palatinate, his father being a revenue official. ... Baden is a historical state in the southwest of Germany, on the right bank of the Rhine. ... 1871 (MDCCCLXXI) was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ...

Bakunin went on to Berlin, but was stopped from going to Posen by the police, which was part of Prussian occupied Poland where a nationalist insurrection was taking place. Instead Bakunin went to Leipzig and Breslau, then to Prague where he participated in the First Pan Slav Congress. The Congress was followed by an abortive insurrection that Bakunin had sought to promote and intensify but which was violently suppressed. He returned to Breslau, where Marx republished the allegation that Bakunin was an imperial agent, claiming that George Sand had proof. Marx retracted the statement after George Sand came to Bakunin's defense. Posen (Polish: Poznań): is the German name of the city of Poznań, Poland. ... Greater Poland Uprising of 1848 (Polish: ) was a military insurrection of the Polish people in the Grand Duchy of PoznaÅ„ (or the Greater Poland region) against the occupying Prussian forces, during the Spring of Nations period. ... Leipzig ( ; Sorbian/Lusatian: Lipsk from the Sorbian word for Tilia) is, with a population of over 506,000, the largest city in the federal state of Saxony, Germany. ... Wrocław. ... Nickname: Motto: Praga Caput Rei publicae Location within the Czech Republic Coordinates: , Country Czech Republic Region Capital City of Prague Founded 9th century Government - Mayor Pavel BÃ©m Area - City 496 kmÂ² (191. ... May Conspiracy (in Czech MÃ¡jovÃ© spiknutÃ) was an unsuccessful attempt of radical democrats in the Czech lands to overthrow the government of Austrian Empire in 1849. ... George Sand sewing, portrait by EugÃ¨ne Delacroix (1838). ...

Bakunin published his Appeal to the Slavs^[4] in the fall of 1848, in which he proposed that Slav revolutionaries unite with Hungarian, Italian and German revolutionaries to overthrow the three major European autocracies, the Russian Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and the Kingdom of Prussia.

Bakunin played a leading role in the May Uprising in Dresden in 1849, helping to organize the defense of the barricades against Prussian troops with Richard Wagner and Wilhelm Heine. He was captured in Chemnitz and held for thirteen months before being condemned to death by the government of Saxony. As the governments of Russia and Austria were also after him, his sentence was commuted to life. In June 1850, he was handed over to the Austrian authorities. Eleven months later he received a further death sentence, but this too was commuted to life imprisonment. Finally, in May 1851, Bakunin was handed over to the Russian authorities. Combatants Dresden revolutionaries Kingdom of Saxony Commanders Samuel Tzschirner Karl Gotthelf Todt Otto Heubner Alexander Heinze Strength 3,000 5,000 Casualties 200 killed ~1,200 captured 31 killed The May Uprising took place in Dresden, Germany in 1849; it was one of the last of the series of events... 1849 was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar). ... Richard Wagner Wilhelm Richard Wagner (22 May 1813 â€“ 13 February 1883) was a German composer, conductor, music theorist, and essayist, primarily known for his operas (or music dramas as he later came to call them). ... Wilhelm (or William)Heine (January 30, 1827 in Dresden - October 5, 1885 in LÃ¶ÃŸnitz bei Dresden) was a German painter and traveller. ... Chemnitz (Sorbian/Lusatian Kamjenica, 1953-1990 called Karl-Marx-Stadt; Czech: SaskÃ¡ Kamenice) is a city in the Free State of Saxony, Germany. ... Location Time zone CET/CEST (UTC+1/+2) Administration Country NUTS Region DED Capital Dresden Minister-President Georg Milbradt (CDU) Governing parties CDU / SPD Votes in Bundesrat 4 (from 69) Basic statistics Area 18,416 kmÂ² (7,110 sq mi) Population 4,252,000 (11/2006)[1] - Density 231 /km...

Imprisonment, Confession, and Exile

Bakunin was taken to the notorious Peter and Paul Fortress. At the beginning of his captivity, Count Orlov, an emissary of the Emperor, visited Bakunin and told him that the Emperor requested a written confession^[5] hoping that the confession would place Bakunin spiritually as well as physically in the power of the Russian state. Since all his acts were known, he had no secrets to reveal, and so he decided to write to the Emperor: The Peter and Paul Fortress (ÐŸÐµÑ‚Ñ€Ð¾Ð¿Ð°Ð²Ð»Ð¾Ð²ÑÐºÐ°Ñ ÐºÑ€ÐµÐ¿Ð¾ÑÑ‚ÑŒ) is in St. ... Count Grigory Orlov Orlov (ÐžÑ€Ð»Ð¾Ð²) is the name of a Russian noble family which produced several distinguished statesmen, diplomatists and soldiers. ...

On reading the letter, Emperor Nicholas I, remarked, "He is a good lad, full of spirit, but he is a dangerous man and we must never cease watching him." This Confession, which was only published following its discovery in the imperial archives, has proved to be quite controversial, and is sometimes analysed within the context of a specifically Russian literary form. Modern confessional in the Church of the Holy Name, Dunedin, New Zealand. ... Literary criticism is the study, discussion, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. ...

After three years in the underground dungeons of the Fortress of St Peter and St Paul, he spent another four years in the castle of Shlisselburg. It was here that he suffered from scurvy and all his teeth fell out as a result of the appalling diet. He later recounted that he found some relief in mentally re-enacting the legend of Prometheus. His continuing imprisonment in these awful conditions led him to entreat his brother to supply him with poison. Shlisselburg (Russian: ) is a town in western Russia (Kirovsky District, Leningrad Oblast) located at the head of the Neva River on Lake Ladoga, 45 km east of Saint Petersburg, which lies at the mouth of the Neva on the Gulf of Finland. ... Scurvy (N.Lat. ... In Greek mythology, Prometheus (Greek: forethought) is the Titan chiefly honored for stealing fire from Zeus in the stalk of a fennel plant and giving it to mortals for their use. ...

Following the death of Nicholas I, the new Emperor Alexander II personally struck Bakunin's name off the amnesty list. However in February 1857, his mother's pleas to the Emperor were finally heeded and he was allowed to go into permanent exile in the western Siberian city of Tomsk. Within a year of arriving in Tomsk, Bakunin married Antonia Kwiatkowska, the daughter of a Polish merchant. He had been teaching her French. In August of 1858 Bakunin received a visit from his second cousin, General Count Nikolay Muravyov-Amursky, who had been Governor of Eastern Siberia for ten years. Image File history File links Bakunin_and_Antonia. ... Image File history File links Bakunin_and_Antonia. ... Alexander (Aleksandr) II Nikolaevich (Russian: ÐÐ»ÐµÐºÑÐ°Ð½Ð´Ñ€ II ÐÐ¸ÐºÐ¾Ð»Ð°ÐµÐ²Ð¸Ñ‡) (born 29 April 1818 in Moscow; died 13 March 1881 in St. ... 1857 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... Flag Seal Location Tomsk and Oblast on the map of Russia Coordinates , Government Oblast Tomsk Mayor Aleksandr Makarov Geographical characteristics Area City 294,6 kmÂ² Land 294,6 kmÂ² Water 0 kmÂ² Population City (end of 2005) 509,568 Density 1,730/kmÂ² Elevation +100 m Website: Municipality website Main... Count Nikolay N. Muravyov-Amursky Nikolay Nikolayevich Muravyov-Amursky (also spelled as Nikolai Nikolaevich Muraviev-Amurskiy) (Russian: ) (August 11 (August 23 in the Julian calendar), 1809â€”November 30(18), 1881) was a Russian statesman and diplomat, who played a major role in expansion of the Russian Empire to the Pacific... â€œSiberianâ€ redirects here. ...

Muravyov was a liberal and Bakunin, as his relative, became a particular favourite. In the spring of 1859, Muravyov helped Bakunin with a job for Amur Development Agency which enabled him to move with his wife to Irkutsk, the capital of Eastern Siberia. This enabled Bakunin to be part of the circle involved in political discussions centred on Muravyov's colonial headquarters. Resenting the treatment of the colony by the St Petersburg bureaucracy, including its use as a dumping ground for malcontents, a proposal for a United States of Siberia emerged, independent of Russia and federated into a new United States of Siberia and America, following the example of the United States of America. The circle included Muravyov's young Chief of Staff, Kukel—who Kropotkin related had the complete works of Alexander Herzen — the civil governor Izvolsky, who allowed Bakunin to use his address for correspondence, and Muravyov's deputy and eventual successor, General Alexander Dondukov-Korsakov. Irkutsks location Kazansky Church in Irkutsk Irkutsk (Russian: ) is one of the largest cities in Siberia. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Siberia. ... Prince Peter (Pyotr) Alexeyevich Kropotkin (Russian: ) (December 9, 1842â€“February 8, 1921) was one of Russias foremost anarchists and one of the first advocates of anarchist communism: the model of society he advocated for most of his life was that of a communalist society free from central government. ... Aleksandr Ivanovich Herzen (ÐÐ»ÐµÐºÑÐ°ÌÐ½Ð´Ñ€ Ð˜Ð²Ð°ÌÐ½Ð¾Ð²Ð¸Ñ‡ Ð“ÐµÌÑ€Ñ†ÐµÐ½) (April 6 [O.S. 25 March] 1812 in Moscow - January 21 [O.S. 9 January] 1870 in Paris) was a major Russian pro-Western writer and thinker known as the father of Russian socialism. He is held responsible for creating a political climate leading to the emancipation... Dondukov is a Russian princely family descending from Donduk-Ombo, the sixth khan of the Kalmucks (reigned 1737-41). ...

When Herzen criticised Muravyov in The Bell, Bakunin wrote vigorously in his patron's defence.^[6] Bakunin tired of his job as a commercial traveller, but thanks to Muravyov's influence, was able to keep his sinecure (worth 2,000 roubles a year) without having to perform any duties. However Muravyov was forced to retire from his post as governor general, partly because of his liberal views and partly due to fears he might take Siberia towards independence. He was replaced by Korsakov, who perhaps was even more sympathetic to the plight of the Siberian exiles. Korsakov was also related to Bakunin, Bakunin's brother Paul having married his cousin. Taking Bakunin's word, Korsakov issued him with a letter giving him passage on all ships on the river Amur and its tributaries as long as he was back in Irkutsk when the ice came. The Amur River or Heilong Jiang (Russian: ÐÐ¼ÑƒÑ€; Simplified Chinese: ; Traditional Chinese: ; Pinyin: , or Black Dragon River; Mongolian: , Khar MÃ¶rÃ¶n or Black River; Manchu: Sahaliyan Ula, literal meaning Black River) is the worlds eighth longest river, forming the border between the Russian Far East and Northeastern China. ...

Escape From Exile and Return to Europe

On June 5, 1861, Bakunin left Irkutsk under cover of company business, ostensibly employed by a Siberian merchant to make a trip to Nikolaevsk. By July 17 he was on board the Russian warship Strelok bound for Kastri. However, in the port of Olga, Bakunin managed to persuade the American captain of the SS Vickery to take him on board. Despite bumping into the Russian Consul on board, Bakunin was able to sail away under the nose of the Russian Imperial Navy. By August 6 he had reached Hakodate in the northernmost Japanese island of Hokkaidō and was soon in Yokohama. In Japan Bakunin met by chance Wilhelm Heine, one of his comrades-in arms from Dresden. He also met the German botanist Philipp Franz von Siebold who had been involved in opening up Japan to Europeans (particularly Russians and the Dutch) and was a friend of Bakunin's patron Muraviev.^[7] Von Siebold's son wrote some 40 years later: is the 156th day of the year (157th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1861 (MDCCCLXI) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link with display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Thursday of the Julian calendar) // January 1 - Benito JuÃ¡rez captures Mexico City January 2 - Friedrich Wilhelm IV of Prussia dies and is succeeded by... Irkutsks location Kazansky Church in Irkutsk Irkutsk (Russian: ) is one of the largest cities in Siberia. ... Nikolayevsk (Russian: ) is a town in Volgograd Oblast, Russia, located on the left (eastern) shores of the Volga River. ... is the 198th day of the year (199th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Kastri, older forms: Kastrio and Kastrion may refer to several places in Greece Kastri, a village in the Arcadia prefecture Kastri, a village in the Chania prefecture Kastri, a village in the Larissa prefecture Xenodoneio kastri by Stathis Psaltis Categories: | ... OLGA is an acronym for On-line Guitar Archive [1], the oldest internet library of guitar and bass tablature, or tabs. Born from a collection of guitarist internet-forum archives, it has been a useful resource for musicians for over a decade. ... Russian Navy Jack Russian Navy Ensign The Imperial Russian Navy refers to the Navy of Imperial Russia, before the Soviet Union. ... View of Hakodate from Mountain Hakodate (函館市; -shi) is a city and port located in Oshima, Hokkaido, Japan. ... literally North Sea Circuit, Ainu: Mosir), formerly known as Ezo, Yezo, Yeso, or Yesso, is Japans second largest island and the largest of its 47 prefectural-level subdivisions. ... For a tire company, known by Yokohama Tyre, see Yokohama Rubber Company. ... Wilhelm (or William)Heine (January 30, 1827 in Dresden - October 5, 1885 in LÃ¶ÃŸnitz bei Dresden) was a German painter and traveller. ... statue in Akashicho (near Tsukiji), chuo-ku,Tokyo Japan Philipp Franz Balthasar von Siebold (February 17, 1796 in WÃ¼rzburg - October 18, 1866 in Munich) was a German physician. ... World map showing the location of Europe. ...

He left Japan from Kanagawa on the SS Carrington, one of nineteen passengers including Heine, Rev. P. F. Koe and Joseph Heco. Heco was a Japanese American, who eight years later played a significant role giving political advice to Kido Takayoshi and Itō Hirobumi during the revolutionary overthrow of the feudal Tokugawa shogunate.^[8] They arrived in San Francisco on October 15. In the period before the trans-continental railroads had been completed, the quickest way to New York was via Panama. Bakunin boarded the Orizaba for Panama, where after waiting for two weeks he boarded the Champion for New York. Kanagawa-ku (ç¥žå¥ˆå·åŒº) is one of the 18 wards of the city of Yokohama in Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan. ... Joseph Heco (born Hikozo Hamada, æµœç”°å½¦è”µ Hamada Hikozo) (1837-1897), the first Japanese American to be naturalized as a United States citizen and the first to publish a Japanese language newspaper. ... Serving from 1999 to 2003, Army General Eric Shinseki of Hawaii became the first Asian American military chief of staff. ... Kido Takayoshi (Tokugawa shogunate years) Kido Takayoshi ); 11 August 1833 - 26 May 1877), also referred as Kido KÅin was a Japanese statesman during the Late Tokugawa shogunate and the Meiji Restoration. ... ItÅ Hirobumi , 16 October 1841â€“26 October 1909, also called Hirofumi/Hakubun and Shunsuke in his youth) was a Japanese statesman, Resident-General of Korea, four times Prime Minister of Japan (the 1st, 5th, 7th and 10th) and genrÅ. ItÅ was assassinated by An Jung-geun, a Korean anti-Japanese... Feudalism comes from the Late Latin word feudum, itself borrowed from a Germanic root *fehu, a commonly used term in the Middle Ages which means fief, or land held under certain obligations by feodati. ... The Late Tokugawa Shogunate (Japanese: Bakumatsu) is the period between 1853 and 1867 during which Japan ended its isolationist foreign policy called sakoku and modernized from a feudal shogunate to the Meiji government. ... This page is a candidate for speedy deletion. ... is the 288th day of the year (289th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... NY redirects here. ...

In Boston, Bakunin visited Karol Forster, a partisan of Ludwik Mieroslawski during the 1848 Revolution in Paris, and caught up with other "Forty-Eighters", veterans of the 1848 revolutions in Europe, such as Friedrich Kapp.^[9] He then sailed for Liverpool arriving on December 27. Bakunin immediately went to London to see Herzen. That evening he burst into the drawing-room where the family was having supper. "What! Are you sitting down eating oysters! Well! Tell me the news. What is happening, and where?!" Nickname: City on the Hill, Beantown, The Hub (of the Universe)1, Athens of America, The Cradle of Revolution, Puritan City, Americas Walking City Location in Massachusetts, USA Counties Suffolk County Mayor Thomas M. Menino(D) Area - City 232. ... Ludwik MierosÅ‚awski Ludwik MierosÅ‚awski Ludwik Adam MierosÅ‚awski (1814-1878) was a Polish general, writer, poet, historian and political activist. ... The Forty-Eighters were Germans who traveled to the United States and Australia after the Revolutions of 1848. ... During his time as a National Liberal Reichstag deputy Friedrich Kapp was an outspoken opponent of Germanys colonization fervor. ... Location within England Coordinates: , Sovereign state United Kingdom Constituent country England Region North West England Ceremonial county Historic county Merseyside Lancashire Admin HQ Liverpool City Centre Founded 1207 City Status 1880 Government - Type Metropolitan borough, City - Governing body Liverpool City Council Area - Borough & City 43. ...

Bakunin's move to Italy

Having re-entered Western Europe, Bakunin immediately immersed himself in the revolutionary movement. In 1860, while still in Irkutsk Bakunin and his political associates had been greatly impressed by Guiseppe Garibaldi and his expedition to Sicily, during which he declared himself dictator in the name of Victor Emmanuel II. Following his return to London, he wrote to garibaldi on 31 Jjanuary 1862: Irkutsks location Kazansky Church in Irkutsk Irkutsk (Russian: ) is one of the largest cities in Siberia. ... Garibaldi in 1866 Giuseppe Garibaldi (July 4, 1807 â€“ June 2, 1882) was an Italian patriot and soldier of the Risorgimento. ... Sicily (Sicilia in Italian and Sicilian) is an autonomous region of Italy and the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, with an area of 25,708 kmÂ² (9,926 sq. ... Dictator is originally the title of a magistrate in ancient Rome appointed by the Senate to rule the state in times of emergency. ... King Victor Emmanuel II of Italy Victor Emmanuel II (Italian: Vittorio Emanuele II; March 14, 1820—January 9, 1878) was the King of Piedmont, Savoy and Sardinia from 1849–1861, and King of Italy from 1861 until his death in 1878. ...

Bakunin asked garibaldi to participate in a movement encompassing Italians, Hungarians and South Slavs against both Austria and Turkey. Garibaldi was then engaged in preparations for the Expedition against Rome. By May Bakunin's correspondence was focussing on Italian-slavic unity and the developments in Poland. By June, he had resolved to move to Italy, but was waiting for his wife to join him. When he left for Italy in August, Mazzini wrote to Maurizio Quadrio, one of his key supporters that Bakunin was a good and dependable person. However, with the news of the failure at Aspromonte Bakunin paused in Paris where hewas briefly involved with Ludwik Mierosławski. However Bakunin rejected Mieroslawski's chauvinism and refusal to grant any concessions to the peasants. Bakunin returned to England in September and focussed on Polish affairs. When the Polish insurrection broke out in January 1863, he sailed to Copenhagen where he hoped to join the Polish Legion. They planned to sail across the Baltic in the SS Ward Jackson to join the insurrection. This attemot failed, and Bakunin met his wife in Stockholm before returning to London. Now he focussed again on going to Italy and his friend Aurelio Saffi wrote him letters of introduction for Florence, Turin and Milan. Mazzini wrote letters of commendation to Frederico Campanella in Genoa and Giuseppe Dolfi in Florence. Bakunin left London in November 1863 travelling by way of Brussels, Paris and Vevy (Switzereland) arriving in Italy on 11 January 1864. It was here that he first began to develop his anarchist ideas. Location of the city of Naples (red dot) within Italy. ... Countries inhabited by South Slavs (in black) Distribution of Slavic peoples by language The South Slavs are a southern branch of the Slavic peoples that live in the Balkans, the southern Pannonian Plain and the eastern Alps. ... Garibaldi in 1866 Giuseppe Garibaldi (July 4, 1807 â€“ June 2, 1882) was an Italian patriot and soldier of the Risorgimento. ... The Battle of Aspromonte near Calabria in southern Italy marked the end of Giuseppe Garibaldis second march on Rome. ... Ludwik MierosÅ‚awski Ludwik MierosÅ‚awski Ludwik Adam MierosÅ‚awski (1814-1878) was a Polish general, writer, poet, historian and political activist. ... Copenhagen (IPA: or ; Danish: IPA: ) is the capital of Denmark and the countrys largest city. ... Polish Legions ( Polish Legiony Polskie) was the name of several Polish military formations created in 19th and 20th centuries. ... Baltic can refer to: The Baltic Sea Council of the Baltic Sea States - an intergovernmental organization Baltic sea countries - countries with access to the Baltic Sea The Baltic region (Balticum) Baltic States - the independent countries of Estonia Latvia Lithuania Baltic Republics - term refers to the three Baltic states under the... Nickname: Location of Stockholm in northern Europe Coordinates: , Country Sweden Municipality Stockholm Municipality County Stockholm Province SÃ¶dermanland and Uppland Charter 13th century Government - Mayor Kristina AxÃ©n Olin (m) Population (March 2007) - City 786,509 - Density 4,160/kmÂ² (10,774. ... Florence (Italian: ) is the capital city of the region of Tuscany, Italy. ... â€œTorinoâ€ redirects here. ... This article is about the city in Italy. ... Genoa (Genova [] in Italian - Zena [] in Genoese) is a city and a seaport in northern Italy, the capital of the Province of Genoa and of the region of Liguria. ... Nickname: Map showing the location of Brussels in Belgium Coordinates: , Country Belgium Region Brussels-Capital Region Founded 979 Founded (Region) June 18, 1989 Government - Mayor (Municipality) Freddy Thielemans Area - Region 162 kmÂ² (62. ...

He conceived the plan of forming a secret organization of revolutionaries to carry on propaganda work and prepare for direct action. He recruited Italians, Frenchmen, Scandinavians, and Slavs into the International Brotherhood, also called the Alliance of Revolutionary Socialists.

By July 1866 Bakunin was informing Herzen and Ogarev about the fruits of his work over the previous two years. His secret society then had members in Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Belgium, England, France, Spain, and Italy, as well as Polish and Russian members. In his Revolutionary Catechism of 1866, he opposed religion and the state, advocating the 1866 (MDCCCLXVI) is a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar or a common year starting on Wednesday of the 12-day-slower Julian calendar. ...

During the 1867–1868 period, Bakunin responded to Emile Acollas's call and became involved in the League of Peace and Freedom (LPF), for which he wrote a lengthy essay Federalism, Socialism, and Anti-Theologism^[12] Here he advocated a federalist socialism, drawing on the work of Proudhon. He supported freedom of association and the right of secession for each unit of the federation, but emphasized that this freedom must be joined with socialism for: "Liberty without socialism is privilege, injustice; socialism without liberty is slavery and brutality." Image File history File links ILPL.jpgâ€Ž Bakunins membership card of the League of Peace and Freedom, http://www. ... Image File history File links ILPL.jpgâ€Ž Bakunins membership card of the League of Peace and Freedom, http://www. ... Cunt BAg Twat Fuk suck my penis ring 0778851865!!!!!!Year 1867 (MDCCCLXVII) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Thursday of the of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... Year 1868 (MDCCCLXVIII) was a leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian Calendar (or a leap year starting on Monday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... Emile Acollas (1820 - 1891) was a French professor of Jurisprudence born in La ChÃ¢tre. ... Bakunins membership card of the League of Peace and Freedom The Inaugural Congress of the League of Peace and Freedom was originally planned for September 5, 1867 in Geneva. ...

Bakunin played a prominent role in the Geneva Conference (September 1867), and joined the Central Committee. The founding conference was attended by 6,000 people. As Bakunin rose to speak: Cunt BAg Twat Fuk suck my penis ring 0778851865!!!!!!Year 1867 (MDCCCLXVII) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Thursday of the of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ...

At the Berne Congress of the League (1868) he and other socialists (Élisée Reclus, Aristide Rey, Jaclard, Giuseppe Fanelli, N. Joukovsky, V. Mratchkovsky and others) found themselves in a minority. They seceded from the League establishing their own International Alliance of Socialist Democracy which adopted a revolutionary socialist program. Garibaldi may refer to: People Giuseppe Garibaldi, an Italian and French revolutionary, and Anita Garibaldi, his wife; Michael Garibaldi, a fictional character in the television series Babylon 5; Garibaldi, a pop music group; Places Garibaldi, Oregon; Garibaldi, British Columbia; Mount Garibaldi; Garibaldi (city), Rio Grande do Sul - Brazil; Garbaldis... For other uses, see Berne (disambiguation). ... Year 1868 (MDCCCLXVIII) was a leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian Calendar (or a leap year starting on Monday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... Ã‰lisÃ©e Reclus (March 15, 1830 - July 4, 1905) was a French geographer and anarchist. ... Giuseppi Fanelli (1826-1877) came to Spain in 1868 on a journey planned by anarchist Mikhail Bakunin in order to recruit members for the First International. ... The International Alliance of Socialist Democracy was an organisation set up by Bakunin as an organisation within the International Workingmens Association, December 15, 1868. ...

The First International and the Rise of the Anarchist Movement

In 1868, Bakunin joined the Geneva section of the First International, in which he remained very active until he was expelled from the International by Karl Marx and his followers at the Hague Congress in 1872. Bakunin was instrumental in establishing branches of the International in Italy and Spain. The International Workingmens Association, sometimes called the First International, was an international organization which aimed at uniting a variety of different left-wing political groups and trade union organizations which were based on the working class. ... Karl Heinrich Marx (May 5, 1818 â€“ March 14, 1883) was a 19th century philosopher, political economist, and revolutionary. ... The Hague Congress of the International Workers Association (September 1872) marked the end of this organization as a unitarian alliance of all socialist factions (Anarchists and Marxists). ... Year 1872 (MDCCCLXXII) was a leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian Calendar (or a leap year starting on Saturday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ...

In 1869, the Social Democratic Alliance was refused entry to the First International, on the grounds that it was an international organisation in itself, and only national organisations were permitted membership in the International. The Alliance dissolved and the various groups which it comprised joined the International separately. 1869 (MDCCCLXIX) is a common year starting on Friday (link will take you to calendar) of the Gregorian calendar or a common year starting on Sunday of the 12-day-slower Julian calendar. ... The International Alliance of Socialist Democracy was an organisation set up by Bakunin as an organisation within the International Workingmens Association, December 15, 1868. ...

Between 1869 and 1870, Bakunin became involved with the Russian revolutionary Sergey Nechayev in a number of clandestine projects. However, Bakunin broke with Nechaev over what he described as the latter’s “Jesuit” methods, by which all means were justified to achieve revolutionary ends.^[14] Sergey Gennadiyevich Nechayev (also Sergei Nechaev, Ð¡ÐµÑ€Ð³ÐµÐ¹ Ð“ÐµÐ½Ð½Ð°Ð´Ð¸ÐµÐ²Ð¸Ñ‡ ÐÐµÑ‡Ð°ÐµÐ²), born October 2, 1847, died either November 21 or December 3, 1882) was a Russian revolutionary figure associated with the Nihilist movement and known for his single-minded pursuit of revolution by any means necessary, including political violence. ...

In 1870 Bakunin led a failed uprising in Lyon on the principles later exemplified by the Paris Commune, calling for a general uprising in response to the collapse of the French government during the Franco-Prussian War, seeking to transform an imperialist conflict into social revolution. In his Letters to A Frenchman on the Present Crisis, he argued for a revolutionary alliance between the working class and the peasantry and set forth his formulation of what was later to become known as propaganda of the deed: 1870 (MDCCCLXX) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Monday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... City flag City coat of arms Motto: (Franco-ProvenÃ§al: Forward, forward, Lyon the best) Location Coordinates Time Zone CET (GMT +1) Administration Country Region RhÃ´ne-Alpes Department RhÃ´ne (69) Subdivisions 9 arrondissements Intercommunality Urban Community of Lyon Mayor GÃ©rard Collomb (PS) (since 2001) City Statistics Land... Le PÃ¨re Duchesne looking at the statue of Napoleon I on top of the Vendome column: Eh ben ! bougre de canaille, on va donc te foutre en bas comme ta crapule de neveu !â€¦ (Well now! buggering rascal, we will knock you the fuck off just like your crook of... Combatants Second French Empire North German Confederation allied with south German states (later German Empire) Commanders Napoleon III Otto Von Bismarck, Helmuth von Moltke the Elder Strength 400,000 at the beginning of the war 1,200,000 Casualties 150,000 dead or wounded 284,000 captured 350,000 civilian... Propaganda of the deed (or propaganda by the deed, from the French propagande par le fait) is a concept of anarchist origin, which appeared towards the end of the 19th century, that promoted terrorism against political enemies as a way of inspiring the masses and catalyzing revolution. ...

Bakunin was a strong supporter of the Paris Commune of 1871, which was brutally suppressed by the French government. He saw the Commune as above all a “rebellion against the State,” and commended the Communards for rejecting not only the State but also revolutionary dictatorship.^[16] In a series of powerful pamphlets, he defended the Commune and the First International against the Italian nationalist Giuseppe Mazzini, thereby winning over many Italian republicans to the International and the cause of revolutionary socialism. 1871 (MDCCCLXXI) was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... Giuseppe Mazzini. ...

Bakunin’s disagreements with Marx, which led to Bakunin’s expulsion from the International in 1872 after being outvoted by the Marx party at the Hague Congress, illustrated the growing divergence between the "anti-authoritarian" sections of the International, which advocated the direct revolutionary action and organization of the workers in order to abolish the state and capitalism, and the social democratic sections allied with Marx, which advocated the conquest of political power by the working class. Year 1872 (MDCCCLXXII) was a leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian Calendar (or a leap year starting on Saturday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... Marxism is the political practice and social theory based on the works of Karl Marx, a 19th century philosopher, economist, journalist, and revolutionary, along with Friedrich Engels. ... Social democracy is a political ideology emerging in the late 19th and early 20th centuries from supporters of Marxism who believed that the transition to a socialist society could be achieved through democratic evolutionary rather than revolutionary means. ...

The anti-authoritarian sections created their own International at the St. Imier Congress and adopted a revolutionary anarchist program.^[17] Although Bakunin accepted Marx’s class analysis and economic theories regarding capitalism, acknowledging "Marx’s genius", he thought Marx was arrogant, and that his methods would compromise the social revolution. More importantly, Bakunin criticized "authoritarian socialism" (which he associated with Marxism) and the concept of dictatorship of the proletariat which he adamantly refused. The Anarchist St. ... Class analysis is research in sociology, politics and economics from the point of view of the stratification of the society into classes. ... Forms of government Part of the Politics series Politics Portal This box: This article applies to political and organizational ideologies. ... The dictatorship of the proletariat is a term employed by Karl Marx in his 1875 Critique of the Gotha Program that refers to a transition period between capitalist and communist society in which the state can be nothing but the revolutionary dictatorship of the proletariat. The term refers to a...

Bakunin retired to Lugano in 1873 and died in Bern on June 13, 1876. Tsar (Bulgarian, Serbian and Macedonian Ñ†Ð°Ñ€, Russian , in scientific transliteration respectively car and car ), occasionally spelled Czar or Tzar and sometimes Csar or Zar in English, is a Slavonic term designating certain monarchs. ... Lake Lugano Lugano (Latin language: Luganum) is a town (130. ... 1873 (MDCCCLXXIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ... Location within Switzerland The city of Bern, English traditionally Berne (Bernese German BÃ¤rn , German Bern , French Berne , Italian Berna , Romansh Berna ), is the Bundesstadt (administrative capital) of Switzerland, and is the fourth most populous Swiss city (after ZÃ¼rich, Geneva and Basel). ... is the 164th day of the year (165th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1876 Pick up Sticks(MDCCCLXXVI) was a leap year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian Calendar (or a leap year starting on Thursday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ...

Political Beliefs

Bakunin’s political beliefs rejected governing systems in every name and shape, from the idea of God downwards, and every form of external authority, whether emanating from the will of a sovereign or from universal suffrage. He wrote in Dieu et l’Etat (God and the State^[19]), published posthumously in 1882: Image File history File links Size of this preview: 476 Ã— 599 pixelsFull resolution (703 Ã— 885 pixel, file size: 103 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 476 Ã— 599 pixelsFull resolution (703 Ã— 885 pixel, file size: 103 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Authority- is a very talented rocknroll band out of Columbia, S.C. This power rock trio has its roots in rock, funk, hardcore, and a dash of hip hop. ... Sovereignty is the exclusive right to exercise supreme political (e. ... Year 1882 (MDCCCLXXXII) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Tuesday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ...

Bakunin similarly rejected the notion of any privileged position or class, since

Bakunin's political beliefs were based on several interrelated concepts: (1) liberty; (2) socialism; (3) federalism; (4) anti-theism; and (5) materialism. He also developed a critique of Marxism, which some consider prescient, predicting that if the Marxists were successful in seizing power, they would create a party dictatorship "all the more dangerous because it appears as a sham expression of the people's will" (Michael Bakunin: Selected Writings, ed. A. Lehning (New York: Grove Press, 1974), page 268).

Bakunin's Concept of Liberty

By "liberty", Bakunin did not mean an abstract ideal but a concrete reality based on the equal liberty of others. In a positive sense, liberty consists of "the fullest development of all the faculties and powers of every human being, by education, by scientific training, and by material prosperity." Such a conception of liberty is "eminently social, because it can only be realized in society," not in isolation. In a negative sense, liberty is "the revolt of the individual against all divine, collective, and individual authority."^[20]

Libertarian Socialism

Bakunin's socialism was a form of collectivist anarchism, in which the workers would directly manage the means of production through their own productive associations. There would be "equal means of subsistence, support, education, and opportunity for every child, boy or girl, until maturity, and equal resources and facilities in adulthood to create his own well-being by his own labor."^[21] Libertarian socialism is a group of political philosophies that aim to create a society without political, economic or social hierarchies - a society in which all violent or coercive institutions would be dissolved, and in their place every person would have free, equal access to tools of information and production, or... Left Anarchism is a term used almost exclusively by opponents of traditional anarchism to denominate philosophies that oppose private ownership of the means of production (or capitalism). ...

Federalism

By federalism Bakunin meant the organization of society "from the base to the summit—from the circumference to the center—according to the principles of free association and federation."^[22] Consequently, society would be organized "on the basis of the absolute freedom of individuals, of the productive associations, and of the communes," with "every individual, every association, every commune, every region, every nation" having "the absolute right to self-determination, to associate or not to associate, to ally themselves with whomever they wish."^[23]

Anti-Theologism

Bakunin argued that "the idea of God implies the abdication of human reason and justice; it is the most decisive negation of human liberty, and necessarily ends in the enslavement of mankind, in theory and practice." Consequently, Bakunin reversed Voltaire's famous aphorism that if God did not exist, it would be necessary to invent Him, writing instead that "if God really existed, it would be necessary to abolish Him."^[24] This article does not cite any references or sources. ...

Materialism

Bakunin denied religious concepts of "free will" and advocated a materialist explanation of natural phenomena: "the manifestations of organic life, chemical properties and reactions, electricity, light, warmth and the natural attraction of physical bodies, constitute in our view so many different but no less closely interdependent variants of that totality of real beings which we call matter" (Selected Writings, page 219). The "mission of science is, by observation of the general relations of passing and real facts, to establish the general laws inherent in the development of the phenomena of the physical and social world." However, Bakunin rejected the notion of "scientific socialism," writing in God and the State that a "scientific body to which had been confided the government of society would soon end by devoting itself no longer to science at all, but to quite another affair... its own eternal perpetuation by rendering the society confided to its care ever more stupid and consequently more in need of its government and direction."^[25] Free-Will is a Japanese independent record label founded in 1986. ...

Bakunin's concept of social revolution

Bakunin’s methods of realizing his revolutionary program were consistent with his principles. The workers and peasants were to organize on a federalist basis, "creating not only the ideas, but also the facts of the future itself."[3] The worker's trade union associations would "take possession of all the tools of production as well as buildings and capital."[4] The peasants were to "take the land and throw out those landlords who live by the labor of others."^[26] Bakunin looked to "the rabble," the great masses of the poor and exploited, the so-called "lumpenproletariat," to "inaugurate and bring to triumph the Social Revolution," as they were "almost unpolluted by bourgeois civilization."^[27]

Critique of Marxism

The dispute between Mikhail Bakunin and Karl Marx highlighted the differences between anarchism and Marxism. Bakunin decidedly opposed those aspects of Marxism that sought control of the state. He wrote Anarchism is a political philosophy or group of philosophies and attitudes which reject any form of compulsory government[1] (cf. ... Marxism is both the theory and the political practice (that is, the praxis) derived from the work of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. ...

While both anarchists and Marxists share the same final goal, the creation of a free, egalitarian society without social classes and government, they strongly disagree on how to achieve this goal. Anarchists believe that the classless, stateless society should be established by the direct action of the masses, culminating in social revolution, and refuse any intermediate stage such as the dictatorship of the proletariat, on the basis that such a dictatorship will become a self-perpetuating fundament. For Bakunin, the fundamental contradiction is that for the Marxists, Egalitarianism is the moral doctrine that equality ought to prevail among some group along some dimension. ... This page is a candidate to be moved to Wiktionary. ... Direct action is a form of political activism which seeks immediate remedy for perceived ills, as opposed to indirect actions such as electing representatives who promise to provide remedy at some later date. ... The term social revolution may have different connotations depending on the speaker. ... The dictatorship of the proletariat is a term employed by Karl Marx in his 1875 Critique of the Gotha Program that refers to a transition period between capitalist and communist society in which the state can be nothing but the revolutionary dictatorship of the proletariat. The term refers to a...

Bakunin found Marx's economic analysis very useful and began the job of translating Das Kapital into Russian. In turn Marx wrote of the rebels in the Dresden insurrection of 1848 that "In the Russian refugee Michael Bakunin they found a capable and cool headed leader".^[30] Marx wrote to Engels of meeting Bakunin in 1864 after his escape to Siberia saying "On the whole he is one of the few people whom I find not to have retrogressed after 16 years, but to have developed further". ^[31]. Das Kapital (Capital, in the English translation) is an extensive treatise on political economy written by Karl Marx in German. ...

Bakunin was perhaps the first theorist of the "new class", the intellectuals and administrators forming the bureaucratic apparatus of the state. Bakunin argued that the "State has always been the patrimony of some privileged class: a priestly class, an aristocratic class, a bourgeois class. And finally, when all the other classes have exhausted themselves, the State then becomes the patrimony of the bureaucratic class and then falls—or, if you will, rises—to the position of a machine."^[32] The new class is a term to describe the privileged ruling class of bureaucrats and Communist party functionaries which typically arises in a Stalinist communist state. ...

Criticism

Violence, Revolution and "Invisible dictatorship"

Bakunin has been criticized for being a closet authoritarian. In his letter to Albert Richard, he wrote that An invisible dictatorship was a term coined by Mikhail Bakunin to describe his concept of clandestine revolutionary leadership. ...

However, Bakunin's supporters argue that this "invisible dictatorship" is not a dictatorship in any conventional sense of the word, as Bakunin was careful to point out that its members would not exercise any official political power:

Others reject this analysis, arguing that Bakunin never sought to take personal control over the International, the secret societies he organized were not subject to his autocratic power, and that he condemned terrorism as counter-revolutionary.^[34]

Nationalism

Anarchist historian Max Nettlau described Bakunin's pan-slavism as being the result of a nationalist psychosis from which few are free. The publication of his Confession of 1851, written while a prisoner of the Czar in the Peter-Paul fortress, was used to attack Bakunin because in it he asked the Emperor for forgiveness for his sins and begged him to place himself at the head of the slavs as both redeemer and father. Max Nettlau (1865-1944) was an Austrian anarchist and historian. ... Nationalism is an ideology that creates and sustains a nation as a concept of a common identity for groups of humans. ... Psychosis is a generic psychiatric term for a mental state often described as involving a loss of contact with reality. Stedmans Medical Dictionary defines psychosis as a severe mental disorder, with or without organic damage, characterized by derangement of personality and loss of contact with reality and causing deterioration... 1851 (MDCCCLI) was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Friday of the 12-day-slower Julian calendar). ... Redeemer may refer to: Jesus Christ, described in Christianity as the Redeemer (of mankind) The Redeemer (comics), a character in the Spawn comic series Redeemer, an album by Swedish metal group Machinae Supremacy A miniature thermonuclear warhead launcher in the Unreal computer game series Redeemers, a Southern U.S. political... Father with child For other uses, see Father (disambiguation). ...

Anti-Semitism

Bakunin is often seen as a notable anti-semite by critics since his death. However, during his lifetime anti-semitism was a commonplace attitude in Europe and among literati or intellectuals. Such sentiments were often tacked on to anti-capitalist ideas. Karl Marx, Bakunin's associate and intellectual rival during this time dealt with this issue in his seminal work On the Jewish Question. The Eternal Jew: 1937 German poster. ... An intellectual is a person who uses his or her intellect to study, reflect, and speculate on a variety of different ideas. ... Anti-capitalism is any and all opposition to capitalism. ... Karl Heinrich Marx (May 5, 1818 â€“ March 14, 1883) was a 19th century philosopher, political economist, and revolutionary. ... On the Jewish Question (German: Zur Judenfrage) is an essay by Karl Marx written in autumn 1843 and first published in February 1844 in the Deutschâ€“FranzÃ¶sische JahrbÃ¼cher. ...

Bakunin used Anti-Semitic arguments during a period of his life; e.g. in his argument with Karl Marx. He claimed that Marxist communism and finance capital worked together to promote the interests of Jews, a claim common among anti-Semites.^[35] Mikhail Bakunin repeated typical anti-semitic positions of the time, imagining, for instance, the Jews as Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ...

Bakunin's racism was shared by some other radical socialists of the time. Proudhon's notebooks, for example, contain a passage in which he calls for the expulsion or extermination of the Jews from Europe.^[36] Karl Marx referred to the "Jewish nigger Lassalle" ^[37] whom Pierre-Joseph Proudhon Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (pronounced Pruood-on, not prowd-hon) (January 15, 1809 - January 19, 1865) was a French anarchist of the 19th century. ... Karl Heinrich Marx (May 5, 1818 â€“ March 14, 1883) was a 19th century philosopher, political economist, and revolutionary. ...

"There is a philosophical fallacy known as the 'expert fallacy'. The best recent example of this is Einstein, who was a lovely little physicist but whose opinions on world affairs were considered haphazard. You don't have to agree with Einstein's opinions to agree with his physics. In the same way, you don't have to like someone's personal utterances to agree with their ideas. So, despite what Marx may have said in unguarded moments, his ideas remain worthy of consideration. The irony is that 'philosophers' who are all too keen to prosecute Marx would subscribe to the expert fallacy - for everyone apart from those they have a beef with in terms of their ideas. Can a philosopher recuse themselves?" ^[38]

Bakunin in Popular Culture

Sir Tom Stoppard, OM, CBE (born as TomÃ¡Å¡ Straussler on July 3, 1937)[1] is an Academy Award winning British playwright of more than 24 plays. ... The Coast of Utopia is a 2002 trilogy of plays by Tom Stoppard, focused on the philosophical debates in pre-revolutionary Russia between 1833 and 1866. ... Lost is an Emmy Award and Golden Globe-winning American serial drama television series that follows the lives of plane crash survivors on a mysterious tropical island, after a passenger jet flying between Australia and the United States crashes somewhere in the South Pacific. ... The Sex Pistols were an iconic and highly influential English punk rock band, formed in London in 1975. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... So It Goes can refer to: So It Goes, a British musical television series So it Goes, a popular song A recurring refrain in the novel Slaughterhouse-Five Category: ... Tony Wilson presents So It Goes in 1976 Anthony Howard Wilson (20 February 1950 â€“ 10 August 2007) was an English record label owner, radio presenter, TV show host, nightclub manager, impresario and journalist for Granada Television and the BBC. // Wilson was born 20 February 1950, in Salford, Greater Manchester. ... Anarchy in the U.K. (B-side I Wanna Be Me) was the first single by the punk band the Sex Pistols released on November 26, 1976, and is thus frequently considered to be the first punk single (although The Ramones released Blitzkrieg Bop a year earlier). ... KMFDM (an initialism of Kein Mehrheit FÃ¼r Die Mitleid, see below) is an industrial rock band and the brainchild of founding member Sascha Konietzko. ...

Bibliography

English translations of Bakunin are generally rare when compared to the comprehensive editions in French (by Arthur Lehning), Spanish and German. Madelaine Grawitz’s biography (Paris: Calmann Lévy 2000) remains to be translated. Paul Avrich is a professor and historian. ... James Guillaume (February 16, 1844 - November 20, 1916) was a leading member of the Jura federation of the First International, the anarchist wing of the International. ... Daniel GuÃ©rin (May 19, 1904-April 14, 1988) was a French anarchist and author. ... Robert Graham has written several books which challenge conventional history, mostly pertaining to the pyramids at Giza. ...

A new biography, Bakunin: The Creative Passion, by Mark Leier, was published by St. Martin’s Press August 22 2006, hardcover, 320 pages, ISBN 0-312-30538-9

An eight-volume complete works of Bakunin is to be published at some point in the future by AK Press; according to Ramsey Kanaan these will likely be published yearly for eight years in hardcover format. AK Press is a collectively owned and operated independent publisher and book distributor that specialises in radical and anarchist literature. ... Ramsey Kanaan is an anarchist from Scotland, best known as a founder of the publisher and distributor AK Press. ...

Contents

Biography

Early years

Interest in Philosophy

Switzerland, Brussels and Paris

Imprisonment, Confession, and Exile

Escape From Exile and Return to Europe

Bakunin's move to Italy

The First International and the Rise of the Anarchist Movement

Political Beliefs

Bakunin's Concept of Liberty

Libertarian Socialism

Federalism

Anti-Theologism

Materialism

Bakunin's concept of social revolution

Critique of Marxism

Criticism

Violence, Revolution and "Invisible dictatorship"

Nationalism

Anti-Semitism

Bakunin in Popular Culture

Bibliography

See also

References

Further reading

External links

Contents

Biography GA_googleFillSlot("encyclopedia_square");

Early years

Interest in Philosophy

Switzerland, Brussels and Paris

Imprisonment, Confession, and Exile

Escape From Exile and Return to Europe

Bakunin's move to Italy

The First International and the Rise of the Anarchist Movement

Political Beliefs

Bakunin's Concept of Liberty

Libertarian Socialism

Federalism

Anti-Theologism

Materialism

Bakunin's concept of social revolution

Critique of Marxism

Criticism

Violence, Revolution and "Invisible dictatorship"

Nationalism

Anti-Semitism

Bakunin in Popular Culture

Bibliography

See also

References

Further reading

External links

Biography