NationMaster - Encyclopedia: Mircea Eliade

Mircea Eliade (March 13 [O.S. February 28] 1907 – April 22, 1986) was a Romanian historian of religion, fiction writer, philosopher, and professor at the University of Chicago. Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Marcel Janco/Iancu/Ianco (May 24, 1895, Bucharest - April 21, 1984, Tel Aviv) was a Jewish-Romanian artist, painter and architect. ... is the 72nd day of the year (73rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1907 (MCMVII) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Monday of the 13-day-slower Julian calendar). ... Nickname: Motto: Patria si Dreptul Meu (My Country and My Right) Location of Bucharest within Romania (in red) Coordinates: , Country County Founded 1459 (first official mentioned) Government - Mayor Adriean Videanu Area - City 228 kmÂ² (88 sq mi) - Metro 238 kmÂ² (91. ... is the 112th day of the year (113th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1986 (MCMLXXXVI) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link displays 1986 Gregorian calendar). ... Nickname: Motto: Urbs in Horto (Latin: City in a Garden), I Will Location in the Chicago metro area and Illinois Coordinates: , Country State Counties Cook, DuPage Settled 1770s Incorporated March 4, 1837 Government - Mayor Richard M. Daley (D) Area - City 234. ... For the album by the Kaiser Chiefs see Employment (album) Employment is a contract between two parties, one being the employer and the other being the employee. ... In English usage, nationality is the legal relationship between a person and a country. ... 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Cultural history (from the German term Kulturgeschichte), at least in its common definition since the 1970s, often combines the approaches of anthropology and history to look at popular cultural traditions and cultural interpretations of historical experience. ... The Politics series Politics Portal This box: Political history is the narrative and analysis of political events, ideas, movements, and leaders. ... ... For Christian theological modernism, see Liberal Christianity and Modernism (Roman Catholicism). ... â€œBalzacâ€ redirects here. ... Surendranath Dasgupta (1887-1952) was a scholar of Sanskrit and philosophy. ... Julius Evola born Giulio Cesare Andrea Evola, aka Baron Evola (May 19, 1898-June 11, 1974), was an Italian esotericist and occult author, who wrote extensively on Hermeticism, the metaphysics of sex, Tantra, Buddhism, Taoism, mountaineering, the Holy Grail, militarism, aristocracy, on matters political, philosophical, historical, racial, religious, as well... RenÃ© Jean Marie Joseph GuÃ©non (November 15, 1886 â€“ January 7, 1951) also named Sheikh Abd al-Wahid Yahya upon his acceptance of Islam, was a French-born author. ... Nae Ionescu (born Nicolae C. Ionescu; June 16 (June 4 O. S.) 1890, BrÄƒilaâ€”March 15, 1940) was a Romanian philosopher, logician, mathematician, professor, and journalist. ... â€œJungâ€ redirects here. ... Rudolf Otto (September 25, 1869 - 6 March 1937) was an eminent German protestant theologian and scholar of comparative religion. ... Giovanni Papini (1881-1956) was an Italian journalist, critic, poet and novelist. ... Gerardus van der Leeuw (March 18, 1890, The Hague â€“ Nov 18, 1950, Utrecht) was a Dutch historian and philosopher of religion. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Ioan Petru Culianu (5 January 1950–21 May 1991) was a Romanian-born professor of divinity at the University of Chicago and an expert in gnosticism and Mediaeval magic. ... Wendy Doniger (born November 20, 1940) is an American professor of religion, active in international religious studies since 1973. ... is the 72nd day of the year (73rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Old Style or O.S. is a designation indicating that a date conforms to the Julian calendar, formerly in use in many countries, rather than the Gregorian calendar, currently in use in most countries. ... Year 1907 (MCMVII) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Monday of the 13-day-slower Julian calendar). ... is the 112th day of the year (113th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1986 (MCMLXXXVI) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link displays 1986 Gregorian calendar). ... The University of Chicago is a private university located principally in the Hyde Park neighborhood of Chicago. ...

He was a leading interpreter of religious experience, who established paradigms in religious studies that persist to this day. His theory that hierophanies form the basis of religion, splitting the human experience of reality into sacred and profane space and time, has proved influential.^[1] One of his most influential contributions to religious studies was his theory of Eternal Return, which holds that myths and rituals do not simply commemorate hierophanies, but, at least to the minds of the religious, actually participate in them. In academia, the Eternal Return has become one of the most widely accepted ways of understanding the purpose of myth and ritual.^[2] Hierophany (from the Greek roots hieros - sacred, holy -, and epiphaneia - appearance) signifies a manifestation of the Sacred. ... The dichotomy between the sacred and the profane has been identified by French sociologist Emile Durkheim as the central characteristic of religion: religion is a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, that is to say, things set apart and forbidden. ... The Eternal return is, according to the theories of religious historian Mircea Eliade, a belief, expressed (sometimes implicitly but often explicitly) in religious behavior, in the ability to return to the mythical age, to become contemporary with the events described in ones myths. ...

His literary works belong to the fantasy and autobiographical genre; the best known are the autobiographical novel Maitreyi (La Nuit Bengali or Bengal Nights), the novella Domnişoara Christina (Miss Christina), and the short stories Secretul doctorului Honigberger (The Secret of Dr. Honigberger) and La Ţigănci (With the Gypsy Girls). For other uses, see Fantasy (disambiguation). ... This Side Of Paradise by F. Scott Fitzgerald, a famous example of an autobiographical novel An autobiographical novel is a novel based on the life of the author. ... For the magazine, see Genre (magazine). ... Maitreyi (La Nuit Bengali, French; Bengal Nights, English) is a 1933 Romanian novel written by the author and philosopher Mircea Eliade. ... A novella is a narrative work of prose fiction somewhat longer than a short story but shorter than a novel. ...

Early in his life, Eliade was a noted journalist and essayist, a disciple of Romanian far right philosopher and journalist Nae Ionescu, and member of the literary society Criterion. He also served as cultural attaché to the United Kingdom and Portugal. Several times during the late 1930s, Eliade publicly expressed his support for the Iron Guard, a fascist and antisemitic political organization; his political involvement at the time, as well his other far right connections, were the frequent topic of criticism after World War II. It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into far right. ... Nae Ionescu (born Nicolae C. Ionescu; June 16 (June 4 O. S.) 1890, BrÄƒilaâ€”March 15, 1940) was a Romanian philosopher, logician, mathematician, professor, and journalist. ... An attachÃ© is a person who is assigned to the staff of a diplomatic mission and often has special responsibilities or expertise. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Fascism is an authoritarian political ideology (generally tied to a mass movement) that considers individual and other societal interests subordinate to the needs of the state, and seeks to forge a type of national unity, usually based on, but not limited to, ethnic, cultural, or racial attributes. ... Antisemitism (alternatively spelled anti-semitism or anti-Semitism) is discrimination, hostility or prejudice directed at Jews. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into far right. ... Combatants Allied powers: China France Great Britain Soviet Union United States and others Axis powers: Germany Italy Japan and others Commanders Chiang Kai-shek Charles de Gaulle Winston Churchill Joseph Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Adolf Hitler Benito Mussolini Hideki TÅjÅ Casualties Military dead: 17,000,000 Civilian dead: 33,000...

Remarkable for his vast erudition, Eliade had fluent command of five languages (Romanian, French, German, Italian, and English) and a reading knowledge of three others (Hebrew, Persian, and Sanskrit). He was elected postmortem member of the Romanian Academy. The English language is a West Germanic language that originates in England. ... â€œHebrewâ€ redirects here. ... â€œFarsiâ€ redirects here. ... The Sanskrit language ( , for short ) is a classical language of India, a liturgical language of Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, and Jainism, and one of the 23 official languages of India. ... The Romanian Academy (Romanian: Academia Română) is a cultural forum founded in Romania in 1866. ...

Biography

Childhood and adolescence

Born in Bucharest, he was the son of Romanian Land Forces officer Gheorghe Eliade (whose original surname was Ieremia).^[3] An Orthodox believer, Gheorghe Eliade registered his son's birth four days before the actual date, to coincide with the liturgical calendar feast of the Forty Martyrs of Sebaste (see March 9 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)).^[3] As a child, Eliade was fascinated with the natural world, which formed the setting of his very first literary attempts.^[3] His first work to be published was Cum am găsit piatra filosofală, "How I Found the Philosophers' Stone", printed in 1921, when he was aged 14. Nickname: Motto: Patria si Dreptul Meu (My Country and My Right) Location of Bucharest within Romania (in red) Coordinates: , Country County Founded 1459 (first official mentioned) Government - Mayor Adriean Videanu Area - City 228 kmÂ² (88 sq mi) - Metro 238 kmÂ² (91. ... The coat of arms of the Romanian Land Forces Staff The Flag of the Land Forces The Romanian Land Forces have completely overhauled their equipment and today they are one of the most modernized armies in Eastern Europe. ... The Romanian Orthodox Church (Biserica OrtodoxÄƒ RomÃ¢nÄƒ in Romanian) is one of the autocephalous Eastern Orthodox churches. ... The Eastern Orthodox liturgical calendar describes and dictates the rhythm of the life of the Eastern Orthodox Church. ... The Forty Martyrs of Sebaste or the Holy Forty (Ancient/Katharevousa Greek á¼‹Î³Î¹Î¿Î¹ Î¤ÎµÏƒÏƒÎµÏÎ¬ÎºÎ¿Î½Ï„Î±, Demotic Î†Î³Î¹Î¿Î¹ Î£Î±ÏÎ¬Î½Ï„Î±) were a group of Roman soldiers in the Legio XII Fulminata who became martyrs for their Christian faith in 320 A.D. Category: ... The philosophers stone, in Latin lapis philosophi, is a legendary substance that supposedly could turn inexpensive metals such as lead into gold (chrysopoeia in the Greek language) and/or create an elixir that would make humans younger, thus delaying death. ...

Mircea Eliade attended the Spiru Haret National College in the same class as Arşavir Acterian, Haig Acterian, and Petre Viforeanu (and several years the senior of Nicolae Steinhardt, who was to satirize his novels under the pen name Antisthius, and who became a close friend of Eliade's).^[4] Another one of his colleagues was the future philosopher Constantin Noica.^[3] Haig Acterian (March 5, 1904â€”around August 8, 1943) was a Romanian film and theatre director, critic, poet, journalist, and fascist political activist. ... Nicolae Steinhardt (born Nicu-Aurelian Steinhardt; July 12, 1912-March 29, 1989) was a Romanian writer, Orthodox hermit and father confessor. ... Constantin Noica Constantin Noica (July 12/25 1909, Vităneşti - December 4, 1987, Păltiniş) was a Romanian philosopher and essayist. ...

He joined the Romanian Boy Scouts, and, with a group of friends, designed and sailed a boat on the Danube, from Tulcea to the Black Sea.^[5] At the same time, Eliade grew estranged from the educational environment, becoming disenchanted with the discipline required and obsessed with the idea that he was uglier and less virile than his colleagues.^[3] In order to cultivate his willpower, he would force himself to swallow insects.^[3] At one point, Eliade was flunking four subjects, among which was the study of Romanian language.^[3] Instead, he became interested in natural science and chemistry, as well as the occult, and, despite his father's concern that he was in danger of losing his already weak eyesight, read passionately.^[3] One of his favorite authors was Honoré de Balzac, whose work he studied carefully.^[3] Eliade wrote his debut volume, the autobiographical Novel of the Nearsighted Adolescent (influenced by the literature of Giovanni Papini, particularly his Un uomo finito); it was completed in 1925. Membership badge of CercetaÅŸii RomÃ¢niei OrganizaÅ£ia NaÅ£ionala A CercetaÅŸii RomÃ¢niei is the National Scout Organization of Romania. ... This article is about the Danube River. ... County Tulcea County Status County capital Mayor Constantin Hogea, Democratic Party , since 2004 Population (2002) 91,875 Geographical coordinates , Web site http://www. ... For other uses, see Black Sea (disambiguation). ... Romanian (limba romÃ¢nÄƒ, IPA: ) is a Romance language spoken by around 24 to 28 million people[1], primarily in Romania and Moldova. ... The Michelsonâ€“Morley experiment was used to disprove that light propagated through a luminiferous aether. ... For other uses, see Chemistry (disambiguation). ... The word occult comes from the Latin occultus (clandestine, hidden, secret), referring to knowledge of the hidden.[1] In the medical sense it is used commonly to refer to a structure or process that is hidden, e. ... â€œBalzacâ€ redirects here. ... Giovanni Papini (1881-1956) was an Italian journalist, critic, poet and novelist. ...

University studies

He graduated from the University of Bucharest's Faculty of Philosophy and Letters in 1928, earning his diploma with a study on Italian Philosophy from Marsilio Ficino to Giordano Bruno, and subsequently traveled to Italy, where he met Papini and collaborated with the scholar Giuseppe Tucci. It was during his student years that Eliade would meet Nae Ionescu, who lectured in Logic, becoming one of his disciples and friends.^[3] He was especially attracted to Ionescu's radical ideas and his interest in religion, which signified a break with the rationalist tradition represented by senior academics such as Constantin Rădulescu-Motru, Dimitrie Gusti, and Tudor Vianu (all of whom owed inspiration to the defunct literary society Junimea, albeit in varying degrees).^[3] University of Bucharest University of Bucharest is a university founded in 1864 by decree of Prince Alexandru Ioan Cuza to convert the former Saint Sava Academy into the current University of Bucharest. ... Domenico Ghirlandaio. ... Giordano Bruno. ... Giuseppe Tucci (1894 or 1895 - 1984), born in Macerata, Italy was an italian archaeologist, anthropologist, journalist and writer. ... Nae Ionescu (born Nicolae C. Ionescu; June 16 (June 4 O. S.) 1890, BrÄƒilaâ€”March 15, 1940) was a Romanian philosopher, logician, mathematician, professor, and journalist. ... Logic (from Classical Greek Î»ÏŒÎ³Î¿Ï‚ logos; meaning word, thought, idea, argument, account, reason, or principle) is the study of the principles and criteria of valid inference and demonstration. ... In epistemology and in its broadest sense, rationalism is any view appealing to reason as a source of knowledge or justification (Lacey 286). ... Constantin RÄƒdulescu-Motru Constantin RÄƒdulescu-Motru (born Constantin RÄƒdulescu, he added the surname Motru in 1892; February 15, 1868â€“March 6, 1957) was a Romanian philosopher, psychologist, sociologist, logician, academic, dramatist, as well as centre-left nationalist politician with a noted anti-fascist discourse. ... Dimitrie Gusti (February 13, 1880â€”October 30, 1955) was a Romanian sociologist, ethnologist, and voluntarist philosopher; a professor at the University of IaÅŸi and the University of Bucharest, he served as Romanias Minister of Education in 1932-1933. ... Tudor Vianu was born on January 8, 1898 in Giurgiu, Romania. ... Junimea was a Romanian literary society founded in IaÅŸi in 1863, by the initiative of some foreign educated personalities led by Titu Maiorescu, Petre P. Carp, Vasile Pogor and Iacob Negruzzi. ...

Eliade's scholarly works began after a long period of study in British India, at the University of Calcutta. Finding that the Maharaja of Kassimbazar sponsored European scholars to study in India, Eliade applied and was granted an allowance for four years. In 1928 he sailed for Calcutta to study Sanskrit and philosophy under Surendranath Dasgupta, a Bengali Cambridge alumnus and professor at Calcutta University, the author of a five volume History of Indian Philosophy. While living with Dasgupta, Eliade fell in love with his daughter, Maitreyi Devi, later writing a barely-disguised autobiographical novel Maitreyi (also known as La Nuit Bengali or Bengal Nights), in which he claimed that he carried on a physical relationship with her.^[6] When she became aware of this account, she contested it in her own novel Na Hanyate, written in Bengali (the title in English is It Does Not Die).^[6] Anthem God Save The Queen/King British India, circa 1860 Capital Calcutta (1858-1912), New Delhi (1912-1947) Language(s) Hindi, Urdu, English and many others Government Monarchy Emperor of India - 1877-1901 Victoria - 1901-1910 Edward VII - 1910-1936 George V - January-December 1936 Edward VIII - 1936-1947 George... Formally established on the 24 January 1857, the University of Calcutta (also known as Calcutta University) (Bengali: à¦•à¦²à¦•à¦¾à¦¤à¦¾ à¦¬à¦¿à¦¶à§à¦¬à¦¬à¦¿à¦¦à§à¦¯à¦¾à¦²à¦¯à¦¼), located in the city of Kolkata (previously Calcutta), India, is the first modern university in the Indian subcontinent. ... Major-General H.H. Farzand-i-Dilband Rasikh- al-Iqtidad-i-Daulat-i-Inglishia, Raja-i-Rajagan, Maharaja Sir Jagatjit Singh, Bahadur, Maharaja of Kapurthala, GCSI , GCIE , GBE The word MahÄrÄja (also spelled maharajah) is Sanskrit for great king or high king (a karmadharaya from mahÄnt great... For other uses, see Europe (disambiguation). ... This article is on Calcutta/Kolkata, the city. ... Surendranath Dasgupta (1887-1952) was a scholar of Sanskrit and philosophy. ... Bengal (Bengali: à¦¬à¦™à§à¦— BÃ´ngo, à¦¬à¦¾à¦‚à¦²à¦¾ Bangla, à¦¬à¦™à§à¦—à¦¦à§‡à¦¶ BÃ´ngodesh or à¦¬à¦¾à¦‚à¦²à¦¾à¦¦à§‡à¦¶ Bangladesh), is a historical and geographical region in the northeast of South Asia. ... The University of Cambridge (often Cambridge University), located in Cambridge, England, is the second-oldest university in the English-speaking world and has a reputation as one of the worlds most prestigious universities. ... Maitreyi (La Nuit Bengali, French; Bengal Nights, English) is a 1933 Romanian novel written by the author and philosopher Mircea Eliade. ... Bengali or Bangla (IPA: ) is an Indo-Aryan language of the eastern Indian subcontinent, evolved from the Magadhi Prakrit, PÄli and Sanskrit languages. ...

At the time, he became interested in the actions of Mahatma Gandhi, whom he met personally,^[7] and the Satyagraha as a phenomenon; later, Eliade adapted Gandhist ideas in his discourse on spirituality and Romania.^[8] He received his PhD with a thesis on Yoga practices.^[3]^[9] Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (Gujarati: , Hindi: , IAST: mohandÄs karamcand gÄndhÄ«, IPA: ) (October 2, 1869 â€“ January 30, 1948), was a major political and spiritual leader of India and the Indian independence movement. ... Mohandas Karamchand â€œMahatmaâ€ Gandhi, who developed Satyagraha Satyagraha (Sanskrit: à¤¸à¤¤à¥à¤¯à¤¾à¤—à¥à¤°à¤¹ satyÄgraha) is a philosophy and practice of nonviolent resistance developed by Mohandas K. Gandhi. ... PhD usually refers to the academic title Doctor of Philosophy PhD can also refer to the manga Phantasy Degree This is a disambiguation page â€” a list of pages that otherwise might share the same title. ... For other uses, see Yoga (disambiguation). ...

Interwar activities

After contributing various and generally polemical pieces in university magazines, Eliade came to the attention of journalist Pamfil Şeicaru, who invited him to collaborate on the nationalist paper Cuvântul, which was noted for its harsh tones.^[3] By then, Cuvântul was also hosting articles by Ionescu.^[3] â€¹ The template below is being considered for deletion. ...

As one of the figures in the Criterion literary society (1933-1934), Eliade's initial encounter with the traditional far right was polemical: the group's conferences were stormed by members of A. C. Cuza's National-Christian Defense League, who objected to what they viewed as pacifism and addressed anti-Semitic insults to several speakers, including Mihail Sebastian;^[10] in 1933, he was among the signers of a manifesto opposing Nazi Germany's state-enforced racism.^[11] Eliade's views at the time focused on innovation — in the summer of 1933, he replied to an anti-modernist critique written by George Călinescu: A literary society is a group of people interested in literature. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into far right. ... A. C. Cuza (Alexandru C. Cuza; November 8, 1857, IaÅŸiâ€”1947) was a Romanian far right politician and theorist. ... Pacifism is the opposition to war or violence as a means of settling disputes or gaining advantage. ... The Eternal Jew: 1937 German poster. ... Mihail Sebastian (18 October 1907-29 May 1945), born in Brăila as Iosif Hechter was a Jewish-Romanian author. ... Nazi Germany, or the Third Reich, commonly refers to Germany in the years 1933–1945, when it was under the firm control of the totalitarian and fascist ideology of the Nazi Party, with the Führer Adolf Hitler as dictator. ... Racism is the prejudice that members of one race are intrinsically superior or inferior to members of other races. ... For Christian theological modernism, see Liberal Christianity and Modernism (Roman Catholicism). ... George CÄƒlinescu (1899 - 1965) was a Romanian novelist, poet, playwright, literary critic, and essayist. ...

In 1936, Eliade was the focus of a press campaign in the far right press, being targeted for having authored "pornography" in his Domnişoara Christina and Isabel şi apele diavolului (similar accusations were aimed at other cultural figures, including Tudor Arghezi and Geo Bogza).^[13] Spirituality, in a narrow sense, concerns itself with matters of the spirit. ... Porn redirects here. ... Tudor Arghezi (May 21, 1880-1967) was a notable Romanian poet and childrens author. ... Geo Bogza (1908-1993) was a Romanian author, journalist, poet, publicist, avante-garde theoretician, and reporter. ...

However, while a professor at the University of Bucharest (1933-1939), Eliade became active in nationalist politics. He and friends Emil Cioran and Constantin Noica were by then under the influence of Trăirism, a school of thought that was formed around the ideals expressed by Ionescu. A form of existentialism, Trăirism was also the synthesis of traditional and newer right-wing beliefs.^[14] Emil Cioran Emil Cioran (April 8, 1911 â€“ June 20, 1995) was a Romanian philosopher and essayist. ... Constantin Noica Constantin Noica (July 12/25 1909, Vităneşti - December 4, 1987, Păltiniş) was a Romanian philosopher and essayist. ... Existentialism is a philosophical movement which claims that individual human beings create the meanings of their own lives. ... In politics, right-wing, the political right, or simply the right, are terms which refer, with no particular precision, to the segment of the political spectrum in opposition to left-wing politics. ...

Eliade's articles before and after his adherence to the principles of the Iron Guard (or, as it was usually known at the time, the Legionary Movement), beginning with his famous Itinerar spiritual ("Spiritual itinerary", serialized in Cuvântul in 1927), center on several political ideals advocated by the far right. They displayed his rejection of liberalism and the modernizing goals of the 1848 Wallachian revolution (perceived as "an abstract apology of Mankind"^[15] and "ape-like imitation of [Western] Europe"),^[16] as well as for democracy itself (accusing it of "managing to crush all attempts at national renaissance",^[17] and later praising Benito Mussolini's Fascist Italy on the grounds that, according to Eliade, "[in Italy,] he who thinks for himself is promoted to the highest office in the shortest of times").^[18] He approved of an ethnic nationalist state centered on the Romanian Orthodox Church (in 1927, despite his still-vivid interest in Theosophy, he recommended young intellectuals "the return to the Church"),^[19] which he opposed to, among others, the secular nationalism of Constantin Rădulescu-Motru;^[20] referring to this particular ideal as "Romanianism", Eliade was, in 1934, still viewing it as "neither fascism, nor chauvinism".^[21] Eliade was especially dissatisfied with the incidence of unemployment among intellectuals, whose careers in state-financed institutions had been rendered uncertain by the Great Depression.^[22] To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... This article gives an overview of Liberalism and Radicalism in Romania. ... Modernization (also Modernisation) is a concept in the sphere of social sciences that refers to process in which society goes through industrialization, urbanization and other social changes that completely transforms the lives of individuals. ... People in Bucharest during the 1848 events, carrying the Romanian tricolor The Wallachian Revolution of 1848 was a Romanian liberal and Romantic nationalist uprising in the principality of Wallachia. ... â€œMussoliniâ€ redirects here. ... Italian fascism (in Italian, fascismo) was the authoritarian political movement which ruled Italy from 1922 to 1943 under the leadership of Benito Mussolini. ... Ethnic nationalism is the form of nationalism in which the state derives political legitimacy from historical cultural or hereditary groupings (ethnicities); the underlying assumption is that ethnicities should be politically distinct. ... The Romanian Orthodox Church (Biserica OrtodoxÄƒ RomÃ¢nÄƒ in Romanian) is one of the autocephalous Eastern Orthodox churches. ... Theosophy, literally god-wisdom (Greek: Î¸ÎµÎ¿ÏƒÎ¿Ï†Î¯Î± theosophia), designates several bodies of ideas. ... An intellectual is one who tries to use his or her intellect to work, study, reflect, speculate on, or ask and answer questions with regard to a variety of different ideas. ... George Jacob Holyoake (1817-1906), British writer who coined the term secularism. ... Constantin RÄƒdulescu-Motru Constantin RÄƒdulescu-Motru (born Constantin RÄƒdulescu, he added the surname Motru in 1892; February 15, 1868â€“March 6, 1957) was a Romanian philosopher, psychologist, sociologist, logician, academic, dramatist, as well as centre-left nationalist politician with a noted anti-fascist discourse. ... Chauvinism (IPA:) is extreme and unreasoning partisanship on behalf of a group to which one belongs, especially when the partisanship includes malice and hatred towards a rival group. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... For other uses, see The Great Depression (disambiguation). ...

By 1937, he gave his intellectual support to the Iron Guard, in which he saw "a Christian revolution aimed at creating a new Romania",^[23] and a group able "to reconcile Romania with God".^[24] His articles of the time, published in Iron Guard papers such as Sfarmă Piatră and Buna Vestire, contain ample praises of the movement's leaders (Corneliu Zelea Codreanu, Ion Moţa, Vasile Marin, and Gheorghe Cantacuzino-Grănicerul).^[25] He eventually enrolled in the Totul pentru Ţară ("Everything for the Fatherland" Party), the political expression of the Iron Guard,^[3]^[26] and contributed to its 1937 electoral campaign in Prahova County — as indicated by his inclusion on a list of party members with county-level responsibilities (published in Buna Vestire).^[27] Topics in Christianity Movements Â· Denominations Â· Other religions Ecumenism Â· Preaching Â· Prayer Music Â· Liturgy Â· Calendar Symbols Â· Art Â· Criticism Important figures Apostle Paul Â· Church Fathers Constantine Â· Athanasius Â· Augustine Anselm Â· Aquinas Â· Palamas Â· Luther Calvin Â· Wesley Arius Â· Marcion of Sinope Archbishop of Canterbury Â· Catholic Pope Coptic Pope Â· Ecumenical Patriarch Christianity Portal This box: Christianity is... Corneliu Zelea Codreanu Corneliu Zelea Codreanu (born Corneliu Zelinski; September 13, 1899 â€“ November 30, 1938) was the charismatic leader of the Romanian ultra-Nationalist and strongly anti-Semitic movement in the interwar period, the Iron Guard (Garda de Fier) or The Legion of the Archangel Michael (also known as the... Ion MoÅ£a Ion MoÅ£a (July 5, 1902, OrÄƒÅŸtie, Transylvaniaâ€”January 13, 1937, Majadahonda, Spain) was the Romanian ultra-nationalist deputy leader of the Iron Guard, who became a prominent symbol of martyrdom after killed in battle during the Spanish Civil War. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Prahova (IPA: ) is a county (judeÅ£) in the Center-South of Romania, in the North of the Wallachia region, with the capital city at PloieÅŸti (population: 253,068). ... Administrative map of Romania. ...

Internment and diplomatic service

The stance taken by Eliade resulted in his arrest on July 14, 1938 after a crackdown on the Iron Guard authorized by King Carol II. At the time of his arrest, he had just interrupted a column on Provincia şi legionarismul ("The Province and the Iron Guard's ideology") in Vremea, having been singled out by Prime Minister Armand Călinescu as an author of Iron Guard propaganda.^[28] is the 195th day of the year (196th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1938 (MCMXXXVIII) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will take you to calendar). ... The King of Romania was the title of the ruler of the Kingdom of Romania from 1881 until 1947 when Romania was proclaimed a republic. ... Carol II of Romania, (15 October 1893 â€“ 4 April 1953) reigned as King of Romania from June 8, 1930 until September 6, 1940. ... Categories: Lists of office-holders | Romanian Prime Ministers | History of Romania ... Armand CÄƒlinescu Armand CÄƒlinescu (June 4, 1893 [O.S. May 22] - September 21, 1939) was a Romanian economist and politician. ... For other uses, see Propaganda (disambiguation). ...

Eliade was kept for three weeks in a cell at the Siguranţa Statului Headquarters, in an attempt to have him sign a "declaration of dissociation" with the Iron Guard, but he refused to do so.^[29] In the first week of August he was transferred to a makeshift camp at Miercurea-Ciuc. When Eliade began coughing blood in October 1938, he was taken to a clinic in Moroeni.^[30] Eliade was simply released on November 12 and, with the help of Alexandru Rosetti, became the cultural attaché to the United Kingdom, a posting cut short when Romanian-British foreign relations were broken.^[31] Miercurea-Ciuc (Hungarian: Csíkszereda, German: Szeklerburg) is a city in Harghita county, Transylvania, Romania, with a population of 50,000. ...

After leaving London he retained the same position in Portugal, where he was kept on as diplomat by the National Legionary State (the Iron Guard government) and, ultimately, by Ion Antonescu's regime. In 1942, Eliade authored a volume in praise of the Estado Novo, established in Portugal by António de Oliveira Salazar, alleging that "The Salazarian state, a Christian and totalitarian one, is first and foremost based on love".^[32] On July 7 of the same year, he was received by Salazar himself, who asked assigned Eliade the task of warning Antonescu to withdraw the Romanian Army from the Eastern Front ("[In his place], I would not be grinding it in Russia").^[33] Eliade also claimed that such contacts with the leader of a neutral country had made him the target for Gestapo surveillance, but that he had managed to communicate Salazar's advice to Mihai Antonescu, Romania's Foreign Minister.^[34] The National Legionary State (Romanian: Statul NaÅ£ional Legionar) was the Romanian government of September 6, 1940â€”January 23, 1941. ... Office Prime Minister, ConducÄƒtor of Romania Term of office from September 4, 1940 until August 23, 1944 Profession Soldier, politician Political party none, formally allied with the Iron Guard Spouse Rasela Mendel Date of birth June 15, 1882 Place of birth PiteÅŸti, Romania Date of death June 1... History of Portugal series Prehistoric Portugal Pre-Roman Portugal Roman Lusitania and Gallaecia Visigoths and Suevi Moorish rule and Reconquista First County of Portugal Kingdom of Galicia and Portugal Second County of Portugal Establishment of the Monarchy Consolidation of the Monarchy 1383â€“1385 Crisis Discoveries Portuguese Empire 1580 Crisis Iberian... AntÃ³nio de Oliveira Salazar, pron. ... Forms of government Part of the Politics series Politics Portal This box: Totalitarianism is a term employed by some scientists, especially those in the field of comparative politics, to describe modern regimes in which the state regulates nearly every aspect of public and private behavior. ... The Romanian Army (Armata RomÃ¢nÄƒ) consists of three branches: Romanian Land Forces Romanian Naval Forces Romanian Air Force The term army is used in Romania when referring to the entire military, while land forces deal only with the actual army itself. ... Combatants Soviet Union,[1] Poland, Tannu Tuva (until 1944 incorporation with USSR), Mongolia Germany,[2] Italy (to 1943), Romania (to 1944), Finland (to 1944), Hungary, Slovakia, Croatia, Spain (to 1943, unofficial) Commanders Joseph Stalin, Aleksei Antonov, Ivan Konev, Rodion Malinovsky, Ivan Bagramyan, Kirill Meretskov, Ivan Petrov, Alexander Rodimtsev, Konstantin Rokossovsky... The (contraction of Geheime Staatspolizei: â€œsecret state policeâ€) was the official secret police of Nazi Germany. ... Mihai Antonescu Mihai Antonescu (1907-1946) was Deputy Prime Minister and Foreign Minister of Romania during World War II. Antonescu made his living as an attorney before becoming Prime Minister Ion Antonescuâ€™s (whom he was not related to) Minister of Propaganda in 1940. ... // Foreign Affairs Ministers of the United Principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia, 1862 - 1866 Apostol Arsache 1862 prince Alexandru Cantacuzino 1862 general Ioan G. Ghica 1862-1863 Nicolae Rosetti-BÄƒlÄƒnescu 1863-1865 Alexandru Papadopol-Callimachi 1865-1866 Ion Ghica 1866 Petre Mavrogheni 1866 Foreign Affairs Ministers of the Principality...

Exile

At signs that the Romanian communist regime was about to take hold, Eliade opted not to return to the country. He lived in France, where, recommended by Georges Dumézil, he taught at the École Pratique des Hautes Études in Paris. It was estimated that, at the time, it was not uncommon for him to work 15 hours a day.^[9] Anthem Zdrobite cÄƒtuÅŸe (1947 - 1953) Te slÄƒvim RomÃ¢nie (1953 - 1968) Trei Culori (1968-1989) Capital Bucharest Language(s) Romanian Government Socialist republic Head of State - 1947â€“1965 Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej - 1965-1989 Nicolae CeauÅŸescu Legislature Marea Adunare NaÅ£ionalÇŽ Historical era Cold War - Monarchy abolished... Georges DumÃ©zil (March 4, 1898 - October 11, 1986) was a French comparative philologist best known for his analysis of sovereignty and power in Indo-European religion and society. ... The Ã‰cole Pratique des Hautes Ã‰tudes is a university in Paris, France. ... This article is about the capital of France. ...

In 1957, he moved to the United States. He was invited by Joachim Wach to give a series of lectures at Wach's home institution, the University of Chicago, and settled in Chicago. The two scholars are generally admitted to be the founders of the "Chicago school" that basically defined the study of religions for the second half of the 20th century.^[35] Upon Wach's untimely death before the lectures were delivered, Eliade was appointed as his replacement, becoming the Sewell Avery Distinguished Service Professor of the History of Religions. He also worked as editor-in-chief of Macmillan Publishers' Encyclopedia of Religion, collaborated with Carl Jung and the Eranos circle, and wrote for the Antaios magazine (edited by Ernst Jünger).^[9] This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... The University of Chicago is a private university located principally in the Hyde Park neighborhood of Chicago. ... Nickname: Motto: Urbs in Horto (Latin: City in a Garden), I Will Location in the Chicago metro area and Illinois Coordinates: , Country State Counties Cook, DuPage Settled 1770s Incorporated March 4, 1837 Government - Mayor Richard M. Daley (D) Area - City 234. ... Macmillan Publishers Ltd, also known as The Macmillan Group, is a privately-held international publishing company owned by Georg von Holtzbrinck Publishing Group. ... â€œJungâ€ redirects here. ... Eranos is an intellectual discussion group dedicated to study of spirituality. ... Ernst JÃ¼nger Ernst JÃ¼nger, (March 29, 1895 â€“ February 17, 1998) was a German author of novels and accounts of his war experiences. ...

Initially attacked with virulence by the Romanian Communist Party press, chiefly by România Liberă (which described him as "the Iron Guard's ideologue, enemy of the working class, apologist of Salazar's dictatorship"),^[36] he was slowly rehabilitated beginning in the early 1960s (under the rule of Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej).^[37] In the 1970s, Eliade was approached by the Nicolae Ceauşescu regime in several ways, in order to have him return. The move was prompted by the officially-sanctioned nationalism and Romania's claim to independence from the Eastern Bloc, as both phenomena came to see Eliade's prestige as an asset. An unprecedented event occurred with the interview that was granted by Mircea Eliade to poet Adrian Păunescu, during the latter's 1970 visit to Chicago; Eliade complimented both Păunescu's activism and his support for official tenets, expressing a belief that PCR hammer and sickle symbol The Romanian Communist Party (Romanian: Partidul Comunist RomÃ¢n, PCR) was a Communist political party in Romania. ... RomÃ¢nia LiberÄƒ is one of the leading newspapers in Romania. ... The term enemy of the people (Russian language: Ð²Ñ€Ð°Ð³ Ð½Ð°Ñ€Ð¾Ð´Ð°, vrag naroda) was a fluid designation under the Bolsheviks rule in regards to their real or suspected political or class opponents, sometimes including former allies. ... Rehabilitation in the context of Soviet or Russian topics is often a false friend used to translate the Russian term reabilitatsiya as applied to convicted persons. ... Gheorghiu-Dej (center) and CeauÅŸescu (left) Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej (November 8, 1901, BÃ¢rlad - March 19, 1965, Bucharest) was the Communist leader of Romania from 1948 until his death in 1965. ... Nicolae CeauÅŸescu (IPA , in English, sometimes (and erroneously) ) (January 26, 1918â€“December 25, 1989) was the leader of Romania from 1965 until December 1989. ... A map of the Eastern Bloc 1948-1989. ... Adrian PÄƒunescu, (Born July 20, 1943). ...

Păunescu's visit to Chicago was followed by those of the nationalist official writer Eugen Barbu and by Eliade's friend Constantin Noica.^[39] At the time, Eliade contemplated returning to Romania, but was eventually persuaded by fellow Romanian intellectuals in exile (including Radio Free Europe's Virgil Ierunca and Monica Lovinescu) to reject Communist proposals.^[40] In 1977, he joined other exiled Romanian intellectuals in signing a telegram protesting the repressive measures newly enforced by the Ceauşescu regime.^[3] The borders of Western Europe were largely defined by the Cold War. ... The New Left is a term used in different countries to describe left-wing movements that occurred in the 1960s and 1970s. ... Eugen Barbu (February 20, 1924 - September 7, 1993) was a modern Romanian novelist, playwright, journalist, and correspondent member of the Romanian Academy, a position which was vehemently criticised by those who contended that he plagiarized in his novel Incognito and for his anti-Semitic campaigns in the newspapers SÄƒpt... Constantin Noica Constantin Noica (July 12/25 1909, Vităneşti - December 4, 1987, Păltiniş) was a Romanian philosopher and essayist. ... Cover of Radio Liberty booklet The Most Important Job in the World Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty (RFE/RL) is a radio and communications organization which is funded by the United States Congress. ... Virgil Ierunca (August 16, 1920, LÄƒdeÅŸti, VÃ¢lcea County â€“ September 28, 2006, Paris) was a Romanian literary critic, journalist and poet. ... Monica Lovinescu (she published several works as Monique Saint-Come and Claude Pascal; b. ...

During his latter years, Eliade's fascist past was progressively exposed publicly, the stress of which probably contributed to the decline of his health.^[3] He died in April 1986, four months after a fire destroyed part of his office (an event which he had interpreted as an omen).^[3] Examples of omens from the Nuremberg Chronicle (1493): natural phenomena and strange births. ...

The scholar

The general nature of religion

In his work on the history of religion, Eliade is most highly regarded for his writings on Shamanism, Yoga and what he called the eternal return—the implicit belief, supposedly present in religious thought in general, that religious behavior is not only an imitation of, but also a participation in, sacred events, and thus restores the mythical time of origins. Eliade's thinking was in part influenced by Rudolf Otto, Gerardus van der Leeuw, Nae Ionescu and the writings of the Traditionalist School (René Guénon and Julius Evola).^[41] For instance, Eliade's The Sacred and the Profane partially builds on Otto's The Idea of the Holy to show how religion emerges from the experience of the sacred, and myths of time and nature. A shaman doctor of Kyzyl. ... For other uses, see Yoga (disambiguation). ... The Eternal return is, according to the theories of religious historian Mircea Eliade, a belief, expressed (sometimes implicitly but often explicitly) in religious behavior, in the ability to return to the mythical age, to become contemporary with the events described in ones myths. ... Rudolf Otto (September 25, 1869 - 6 March 1937) was an eminent German protestant theologian and scholar of comparative religion. ... Gerardus van der Leeuw (March 18, 1890, The Hague â€“ Nov 18, 1950, Utrecht) was a Dutch historian and philosopher of religion. ... Nae Ionescu (born Nicolae C. Ionescu; June 16 (June 4 O. S.) 1890, BrÄƒilaâ€”March 15, 1940) was a Romanian philosopher, logician, mathematician, professor, and journalist. ... The Traditionalist School of thought (not to be confused with Traditionalist Catholicism), attained its current form with the French metaphysician RenÃ© GuÃ©non, although its precepts are considered to be timeless and to be found in all authentic traditions. ... RenÃ© Jean Marie Joseph GuÃ©non (November 15, 1886 â€“ January 7, 1951) also named Sheikh Abd al-Wahid Yahya upon his acceptance of Islam, was a French-born author. ... Julius Evola born Giulio Cesare Andrea Evola, aka Baron Evola (May 19, 1898-June 11, 1974), was an Italian esotericist and occult author, who wrote extensively on Hermeticism, the metaphysics of sex, Tantra, Buddhism, Taoism, mountaineering, the Holy Grail, militarism, aristocracy, on matters political, philosophical, historical, racial, religious, as well...

Eliade is noted for his attempt to find broad, cross-cultural parallels and unities in religion, particularly in myths. Wendy Doniger, Eliade's colleague from 1978 until his death, notes that "Eliade argued boldly for universals where he might more safely have argued for widely prevalent patterns".^[42] His Treatise on the History of Religions was praised by French philologist Georges Dumézil for its coherence and ability to synthesize diverse and distinct mythologies.^[43] Wendy Doniger (born November 20, 1940) is an American professor of religion, active in international religious studies since 1973. ... Georges DumÃ©zil (March 4, 1898 - October 11, 1986) was a French comparative philologist best known for his analysis of sovereignty and power in Indo-European religion and society. ...

Sacred and profane

Eliade argues that religious thought in general rests on a sharp distinction between the Sacred and the profane;^[44] whether it takes the form of God, gods, or mythical Ancestors, the Sacred contains all "reality", or value, and other things acquire "reality" only to the extent that they participate in the sacred.^[45] Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Moses with the Tablets, 1659, by Rembrandt This article is about the Biblical figure. ... Burning bush at St. ... Jacobs Ladder from a Speculum of ca. ...

Eliade's understanding of religion centers on his concept of hierophany (manifestation of the Sacred) — a concept that includes, but is not limited to, the older and more restrictive concept of theophany (manifestation of a god).^[46] From the perspective of religious thought, Eliade argues, hierophanies give structure and orientation to the world, establishing a sacred order. The "profane" space of nonreligious experience can only be divided up geometrically: it has no "qualitative differentiation and, hence, no orientation [is] given by virtue of its inherent structure".^[47] Thus, profane space gives man no pattern for his behavior. In contrast to profane space, the site of a hierophany has a sacred structure to which religious man conforms himself. A hierophany amounts to a "revelation of an absolute reality, opposed to the nonreality of the vast surrounding expanse".^[48] As an example of "sacred space" demanding a certain response from man, Eliade gives the story of Moses halting before Yahweh's manifestation as a burning bush (Exodus 3:5) and taking off his shoes.^[49] Hierophany (from the Greek roots hieros - sacred, holy -, and epiphaneia - appearance) signifies a manifestation of the Sacred. ... Look up theophany in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Moses with the Tablets, 1659, by Rembrandt This article is about the Biblical figure. ... Tetragrammaton redirects here. ... Burning bush at St. ... Exodus is the second book of the Torah, the Tanakh, and the Old Testament. ...

Origin myths and sacred time

Eliade notes that, in traditional societies, myth represents the absolute truth about primordial time.^[50] According to the myths, this was the time when the Sacred first appeared, establishing the world's structure — myths claim to describe the primordial events that made society and the natural world be that which they are. Eliade argues that all myths are, in that sense, origin myths: "myth, then, is always an account of a 'creation'".^[51]

Many traditional societies believe that the power of a thing lies in its origin.^[52] If origin is equivalent to power, then "it is the first manifestation of a thing that is significant and valid"^[53] (a thing's reality and value therefore lies only in its first appearance).

According to Eliade's theory, only the Sacred has value, only a thing's first appearance has value and, therefore, only the Sacred's first appearance has value. Myth describes the Sacred's first appearance; therefore, the mythical age is sacred time,^[54] the only time of value: "primitive man was interested only in the beginnings [...] to him it mattered little what had happened to himself, or to others like him, in more or less distant times".^[55] Eliade postulated this as the reason for the "nostalgia for origins" that appears in many religions, the desire to return to a primordial Paradise.^[56] One may feel nostalgic for the familiar routine of school, conveniently forgetting the painful experiences such as bullying. ... Paradise, Jan Bruegel Paradise is an English word from Persian roots that is generally identified with the Garden of Eden or with Heaven. ...

Eternal return and "Terror of history"

Eliade argues that traditional man attributes no value to the linear march of historical events: only the events of the mythical age have value. To give his own life value, traditional man performs myths and rituals. Because the Sacred's essence lies only in the mythical age, only in the Sacred's first appearance, any later appearance is actually the first appearance; by recounting or reenacting mythical events, myths and rituals "reactualize" those events.^[57] The Eternal return is, according to the theories of religious historian Mircea Eliade, a belief, expressed (sometimes implicitly but often explicitly) in religious behavior, in the ability to return to the mythical age, to become contemporary with the events described in ones myths. ...

Thus, argues Eliade, religious behavior does not only commemorate, but also participates in, sacred events:

Eliade called this concept the "eternal return" (distinguished from the philosophical concept of "eternal return"). Wendy Doniger noted that Eliade's theory of the eternal return "has become a truism in the study of religions".^[59] The Eternal return is, according to the theories of religious historian Mircea Eliade, a belief, expressed (sometimes implicitly but often explicitly) in religious behavior, in the ability to return to the mythical age, to become contemporary with the events described in ones myths. ... Eternal return or sometimes eternal recurrence is a concept originating from ancient Egypt and developed in the teachings of Pythagoras. ...

Eliade attributes the well-known "cyclic" vision of time in ancient thought to belief in the eternal return. For instance, the New Year ceremonies among the Mesopotamians, the Egyptians, and other Near Eastern peoples reenacted their cosmogonic myths. Therefore, by the logic of the eternal return, each New Year ceremony was the beginning of the world for these peoples. According to Eliade, these peoples felt a need to return to the Beginning at regular intervals, turning time into a circle.^[60] The New Year is an event that happens when a culture celebrates the end of one year and the beginning of the next year. ... For other uses, see Mesopotamia (disambiguation). ... Overview map of the Ancient Near East The term Ancient Near East or Ancient Orient encompasses the early civilizations predating Classical Antiquity in the region roughly corresponding to that described by the modern term Middle East (Egypt, Iraq, Turkey), during the time roughly spanning the Bronze Age from the rise... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ...

Eliade argues that yearning to remain in the mythical age causes a "terror of history": traditional man desires to escape the linear succession of events (which, Eliade indicated, he viewed as empty of any inherent value or sacrality). Eliade suggests that the abandonment of mythical thought and the full acceptance of linear, historical time, with its "terror", is one of the reasons for modern man's anxieties.^[61] Traditional societies escape this anxiety to an extent, as they refuse to completely acknowledge historical time.

Coincidentia oppositorum

Eliade claims that many myths, rituals, and mystical experiences involve a "coincidence of opposites", or coincidentia oppositorum. In fact, he calls the coincidentia oppositorum "the mythical pattern".^[62] Many myths, Eliade notes, "present us with a twofold revelation":

Eliade argues that "Yahweh is both kind and wrathful; the God of the Christian mystics and theologians is terrible and gentle at once".^[64] He also thought that the Indian and Chinese mystic tried to attain "a state of perfect indifference and neutrality" that resulted in a coincidence of opposites in which "pleasure and pain, desire and repulsion, cold and heat [...] are expunged from his awareness".^[65]

According to Eliade, the coincidentia oppositorum’s appeal lies in "man's deep dissatisfaction with his actual situation, with what is called the human condition".^[66] In many mythologies, the "fall" out of the mythical age resulted in a fundamental "ontological change in the structure of the World".^[67] Because the coincidentia oppositorum is a contradiction, it represents an abolition of the laws of the "fallen" world.

Also, traditional man's dissatisfaction with the post-mythical age expresses itself as a feeling of being "torn and separate".^[68] In many mythologies, the lost mythical age was a Paradise, "a paradoxical state in which the contraries exist side by side without conflict, and the multiplications form aspects of a mysterious Unity".^[69] The coincidentia oppositorum expresses a wish to recover the lost unity of the mythical Paradise, for it presents a reconciliation of opposites and the unification of diversity:

Exceptions to the general nature

Eliade acknowledges that not all religious behavior has all the attributes described in his theory of sacred time and the eternal return. The Jewish, Christian, and Muslim traditions embrace linear, historical time as sacred or capable of sanctification, while some Eastern traditions largely reject the notion of sacred time, seeking escape from the cycles of time. Image File history File links Size of this preview: 544 Ã— 600 pixelsFull resolution (1576 Ã— 1737 pixel, file size: 450 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File historyClick on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 544 Ã— 600 pixelsFull resolution (1576 Ã— 1737 pixel, file size: 450 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File historyClick on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. ... This article is about the Christian concept. ... The most famous of the surviving Byzantine mosaics of the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople - the image of Christ Pantocrator on the walls of the upper southern gallery. ... Torcello is a quiet island at the northern end of the Venetian Lagoon. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Topics in Christianity Movements Â· Denominations Â· Other religions Ecumenism Â· Preaching Â· Prayer Music Â· Liturgy Â· Calendar Symbols Â· Art Â· Criticism Important figures Apostle Paul Â· Church Fathers Constantine Â· Athanasius Â· Augustine Anselm Â· Aquinas Â· Palamas Â· Luther Calvin Â· Wesley Arius Â· Marcion of Sinope Archbishop of Canterbury Â· Catholic Pope Coptic Pope Â· Ecumenical Patriarch Christianity Portal This box: Christianity is... For people named Islam, see Islam (name). ... Religions, sects and denominations Note that the classification hereunder is only one of several possible. ... Wheel of time may refer to: The Wheel of time or history, a religious concept predominant in Buddhism and Hinduism The Wheel of Time, a fantasy book series by author Robert Jordan The Wheel of Time (computer game), an action first-person shooter based on the series The Timewheel, a...

Because they contain rituals, Judaism and Christianity necessarily — Eliade argues — retain a sense of cyclic time:

However, Judaism and Christianity do not see time as a circle endlessly turning on itself; nor do they see such a cycle as desirable, as a way to participate in the Sacred. Instead, these religions embrace the concept of linear history progressing toward the Messianic Age or the Last Judgment, thus initiating the idea of "progress" (humans are to work for a Paradise in the future).^[72] However, Eliade's understanding of Judaeo-Christian eschatology can also be understood as cyclical in that the "end of time" is a return to God: "The final catastrophe will put an end to history, hence will restore man to eternity and beatitude".^[73] Messianic Age is a theological term referring to a future time of peace and brotherhood on the earth, without crime, war and poverty. ... This article is about the Christian concept. ... For the book by Pope Benedict XVI, see Eschatology (book). ...

The Dharmic religions of the East generally retain a cyclic view of time — for instance, the Hindu doctrine of kalpas. According to Eliade, most religions that accept the cyclic view of time also embrace it: they see it as a way to return to the sacred time. However, in Buddhism, Jainism, and some forms of Hinduism, the Sacred lies outside the flux of the material world (called maya, or "illusion"), and one can only reach it by escaping from the cycles of time.^[74] Because the Sacred lies outside cyclic time, which conditions humans, people can only reach the Sacred by escaping the human condition. According to Eliade, Yoga techniques aim at escaping the limitations of the body, allowing the soul (atman) to rise above maya and reach the Sacred (nirvana, moksha). Imagery of "freedom", and of death to one's old body and rebirth with a new body, occur frequently in Yogic texts, representing escape from the bondage of the temporal human condition.^[75] Eliade discusses these themes in detail in Yoga: Immortality and Freedom. Hinduism (known as in modern Indian languages[1]) is a religious tradition[2] that originated in the Indian subcontinent. ... A kalpa is a Sanskrit word meaning an aeon, or a long period of time in Hindu and Buddhist cosmology. ... A silhouette of a Buddha statue at Ayutthaya, Thailand. ... Jain and Jaina redirect here. ... Maya (illusion) - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia /**/ @import /skins-1. ... For other uses, see Human condition (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Yoga (disambiguation). ... The Atman or Atma (IAST: Ä€tmÄ, sanskrit: à¤†à¤¤à¥à¤®â€ ) is a philosophical term used within Hinduism and Vedanta to identify the soul. ... This article is about the Buddhist concept. ... Moksha - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia /**/ @import /skins-1. ...

Symbolism of the Center

A recurrent theme in Eliade's myth analysis is the axis mundi, the Center of the World. According to Eliade, the Cosmic Center is a necessary corollary to the division of reality into the Sacred and the profane. The Sacred contains all value, and the world gains purpose and meaning only through hierophanies: Axis mundi - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia /**/ @import /skins-1. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (750x2329, 4393 KB)Yggdrasill with the assorted animals that live in it and on it. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (750x2329, 4393 KB)Yggdrasill with the assorted animals that live in it and on it. ... In certain Indo-European religions there was a belief in a world tree, such as Yggdrasil, in Norse mythology, an Oak in Slavic mythology and in Hinduism, a banyan tree. ... Yggdrasil In Norse Mythology, Yggdrasil (also Mimameid and Lerad) was the World tree, a gigantic tree (often suggested to be an ash, an interpretation generally accepted in the modern Scandinavian mind), thought to hold all of the different worlds, such as Asgard, Midgard, Utgard and Hel. ... Axis mundi - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia /**/ @import /skins-1. ...

Because profane space gives man no orientation for his life, the Sacred must manifest itself in a hierophany, thereby establishing a sacred site around which man can orient himself. The site of a hierophany establishes a "fixed point, a center".^[77] This Center abolishes the "homogeneity and relativity of profane space",^[78] for it becomes "the central axis for all future orientation".^[79]

A manifestation of the Sacred in profane space is, by definition, an example of something breaking through from one plane of existence to another. Therefore, the initial hierophany that establishes the Center must be a point at which there is contact between different planes — this, Eliade argues, explains the frequent mythical imagery of a Cosmic Tree or Pillar joining Heaven, Earth, and the underworld.^[80] In certain Indo-European religions there was a belief in a world tree, such as Yggdrasil, in Norse mythology, an Oak in Slavic mythology and in Hinduism, a banyan tree. ... // In the study of mythology and religion, the underworld is a generic term approximately equivalent to the lay term afterlife, referring to any place to which newly dead souls go. ...

Eliade noted that, when traditional societies found a new territory, they often perform consecrating rituals that reenact the hierophany that established the Center and founded the world.^[81] In addition, the designs of traditional buildings, especially temples, usually imitate the mythical image of the axis mundi joining the different cosmic levels. For instance, the Babylonian ziggurats were built to resemble cosmic mountains passing through the heavenly spheres, and the rock of the Temple in Jerusalem was supposed to reach deep into the tehom, or primordial waters.^[82] For other uses, see Babylon (disambiguation). ... Dur-Untash, or Choqa Zanbil, built in 13th century BC by Untash Napirisha and located near Susa, Iran is one of the worlds best-preserved ziggurats. ... The Temple in Jerusalem or Holy Temple (Hebrew: ×‘×™×ª ×”×ž×§×“×©, transliterated Bet HaMikdash and meaning literally The Holy House) was located on the Temple Mount (Har HaBayit) in the old city of Jerusalem. ... Religious Usage in the Bible Tehom is the first of seven Infernal Habitations that correspond to the ten Qliphoth (literally peels in Hebrew) of Jewish Kabbalic tradition. ...

According to the logic of the eternal return, the site of each such symbolic Center will actually be the Center of the World: The Eternal return is, according to the theories of religious historian Mircea Eliade, a belief, expressed (sometimes implicitly but often explicitly) in religious behavior, in the ability to return to the mythical age, to become contemporary with the events described in ones myths. ...

According to Eliade's interpretation, religious man apparently feels the need to live not only near, but at, the mythical Center as much as possible, given that the Center is the point of communication with the Sacred.^[84]

Thus, Eliade argues, many traditional societies share common outlines in their mythical geographies. In the middle of the known world is the sacred Center, "a place that is sacred above all";^[85] this Center anchors the established order.^[86] Around the sacred Center lies the known world, the realm of established order; and beyond the known world is a chaotic and dangerous realm, "peopled by ghosts, demons, [and] 'foreigners' (who are [identified with] demons and the souls of the dead)".^[87] According to Eliade, traditional societies place their known world at the Center because (from their perspective) their known world is the realm that obeys a recognizable order, and it therefore must be the realm in which the Sacred manifests itself; the regions beyond the known world, which seem strange and foreign, must lie far from the Center, outside the order established by the Sacred.^[88]

The High God

Many pre-agricultural societies hold a vague belief in a supreme sky-god. Like Wilhelm Schmidt's "historico-cultural school" of religious studies, Eliade cites this sky-god as evidence of an earlier "primordial monotheism" (Urmonotheismus).^[89] This hypothesis is directly opposed to certain schools of thought that see religion evolving linearly from polytheism to monotheism. This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... Deus otiosus idle god is a theological concept used to describe the belief in a creator god who largely retires from the world and is no longer involved in its daily operation. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... Wilhelm Schmidt (1868-1954) was a German linguist, anthropologist, and ethnologist. ... For the Celtic Frost album, see Monotheist (album) In theology, monotheism (from Greek one and god) is the belief in the existence of one deity or God, or in the oneness of God. ... Polytheism is belief in or worship of multiple gods or deities. ...

However, unlike Schmidt, Eliade cautiously avoids assuming that this primordial monotheism was the very beginning of religion. "At most," he writes, "this schema renders an account of human [religious] evolution since the paleolithic era".^[90] Eliade also points out that his hypothetical Urmonotheismus probably differed in many ways from the conceptions of God in many modern monotheistic faiths: for instance, the primordial High God could manifest himself as an animal without losing his status as a celestial Supreme Being.^[91] // The Paleolithic is a prehistoric era distinguished by the development of stone tools. ...

Eliade speculates that the discovery of agriculture brought a host of fertility gods and goddesses into the forefront, causing the celestial Supreme Being to fade away and eventually vanish from many ancient religions.^[92] Even in the primitive hunter-gatherer societies in which Eliade identifies traces of the Urmonotheismus, the High God is a vague, distant figure, dwelling high above the world. Often he has no cult and receives prayer only as a last resort, when prayers to all other gods have failed.^[93] Eliade calls the distant High God a deus otiosus ("idle god").^[94] In polytheistic religions and mythologies, a fertility god is a male deity who is responsible for ensuring human fertility. ... In traditional usage, the cult of a religion, quite apart from its sacred writings (scriptures), its theology or myths, or the personal faith of its believers, is the totality of external religious practice and observance, the neglect of which is the definition of impiety. ... Mary Magdalene in prayer. ... Deus otiosus idle god is a theological concept used to describe the belief in a creator god who largely retires from the world and is no longer involved in its daily operation. ...

In belief systems that involve a deus otiosus, the distant High God is believed to have been closer to humans during the mythical age. After finishing his works of creation, the High God "forsook the earth and withdrew into the highest heaven".^[95] This is an example of the Sacred's distance from "profane" life, life lived after the mythical age: by escaping from the profane condition through religious behavior, figures such as the shaman return to the conditions of the mythical age, which include nearness to the High God ("by his flight or ascension, the shaman [...] meets the God of Heaven face to face and speaks directly to him, as man sometimes did in illo tempore").^[96] The shamanistic behaviors surrounding the High God are a particularly clear example of the eternal return. The shaman is an intellectual and spiritual figure who is regarded as possessing power and influence on other peoples in the tribe and performs several functions, primarily that of a healer ( medicine man). The shaman provides medical care, and serves other community needs during crisis times, via supernatural means (means...

Shamanism

Overview

Eliade's scholarly work includes a well-known study of shamanism, Shamanism: Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy, a survey of shamanistic practices in different areas. His Myths, Dreams and Mysteries also addresses shamanism in some detail. Image File history File links Metadata No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links Metadata No higher resolution available. ... The shaman is an intellectual and spiritual figure who is regarded as possessing power and influence on other peoples in the tribe and performs several functions, primarily that of a healer ( medicine man). The shaman provides medical care, and serves other community needs during crisis times, via supernatural means (means... Tyva Republic IPA: (Russian: IPA: ; Tuvan: ), or Tuva (), is a federal subject of Russia (a republic). ...

In Shamanism, Eliade argues for a restrictive use of the word shaman: it should not apply to just any magician or medicine man, as that would make the term redundant; at the same time, he argues against restricting the term to the practitioners of the sacred of Siberia and Central Asia (it is from one of the titles for this function, namely, šamán, considered by Eliade to be of Tungusic origin, that the term itself was introduced into Western languages).^[97] Eliade defines a shaman as follows: John Dee and Edward Kelley evoking a spirit: Elizabethans who claimed magical knowledge A magician is a person skilled in the mysterious and hidden art of magic, which can be described as either the act of entertaining with tricks that are in apparent violation of natural law, such as those... Medicine man is an English term used to describe Native American religious figures; such individuals are analogous to shamans. ... â€œSiberianâ€ redirects here. ... Map of Central Asia showing three sets of possible boundaries for the region Central Asia located as a region of the world Central Asia is a vast landlocked region of Asia. ... Tungusic languages (or Manchu-Tungus languages) are spoken in Eastern Siberia and Manchuria. ...

If we define shamanism this way, Eliade claims, we find that the term covers a collection of phenomena that share a common and unique "structure" and "history".^[99] (When thus defined, shamanism tends to occur in its purest forms in hunting and pastoral societies like those of Siberia and Central Asia, which revere a celestial High God "on the way to becoming a deus otiosus".^[100] Eliade takes the shamanism of those regions as his most representative example.) In anthropology, the hunter-gatherer way of life is that led by certain societies of the Neolithic Era based on the exploitation of wild plants and animals. ... A man herding goats in Tunisia Herding is the act of bringing individual animals together into a group, maintaining the group and moving the group from place to placeâ€”or any combination of those. ...

In his examinations of shamanism, Eliade emphasizes the shaman's attribute of regaining man's condition before the "Fall" out of sacred time: "The most representative mystical experience of the archaic societies, that of shamanism, betrays the Nostalgia for Paradise, the desire to recover the state of freedom and beatitude before 'the Fall'."^[101] This concern — which, by itself, is the concern of almost all religious behavior, according to Eliade — manifests itself in specific ways in shamanism.

Death, resurrection and secondary functions

According to Eliade, one of the most common shamanistic themes is the shaman's supposed death and resurrection. This occurs in particular during his initiation.^[102] Often, the procedure is supposed to be performed by spirits who dismember the shaman and strip the flesh from his bones, then put him back together and revive him. In more than one way, this death and resurrection represents the shaman's elevation above human nature. Look up Resurrection in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... For other uses, see Initiation (disambiguation). ... The English word spirit comes from the Latin spiritus (breath). // The English word spirit comes from the Latin spiritus, meaning breath (compare spiritus asper), but also soul, courage, vigor, ultimately from a PIE root *(s)peis- (to blow). In the Vulgate, the Latin word translates Greek (Ï€Î½ÎµÏ…Î¼Î±), pneuma (Hebrew (×¨×•×—) ruah), as...

First, the shaman dies so that he can rise above human nature on a quite literal level. After he has been dismembered by the initiatory spirits, they often replace his old organs with new, magical ones (the shaman dies to his profane self so that he can rise again as a new, sanctified, being).^[103] Second, by being reduced to his bones, the shaman experiences rebirth on a more symbolic level: in many hunting and herding societies, the bone represents the source of life, so reduction to a skeleton "is equivalent to re-entering the womb of this primordial life, that is, to a complete renewal, a mystical rebirth".^[104] Eliade considers this return to the source of life essentially equivalent to the eternal return.^[105]

Third, the shamanistic phenomenon of repeated death and resurrection also represents a transfiguration in other ways. The shaman dies not once but many times: having died during initiation and risen again with new powers, the shaman can send his spirit out of his body on errands; thus, his whole career consists of repeated deaths and resurrections. The shaman's new ability to die and return to life shows that he is no longer bound by the laws of profane time, particularly the law of death: "the ability to 'die' and come to life again [...] denotes that [the shaman] has surpassed the human condition".^[106]

Having risen above the human condition, the shaman is not bound by the flow of history. Therefore, he enjoys the conditions of the mythical age. In many myths, humans can speak with animals; and, after their initiations, many shamans claim to be able to communicate with animals. According to Eliade, this is one manifestation of the shaman's return to "the illud tempus described to us by the paradisiac myths".^[107]

The shaman can descend to the underworld or ascend to heaven, often by climbing the World Tree, the cosmic pillar, the sacred ladder, or some other form of the axis mundi.^[108] Often, the shaman will ascend to heaven to speak with the High God. Because the gods (particularly the High God, according to Eliade's deus otiosus concept) were closer to humans during the mythical age, the shaman's easy communication with the High God represents an abolition of history and a return to the mythical age.^[109] In certain Indo-European religions there was a belief in a world tree, such as Yggdrasil, in Norse mythology, an Oak in Slavic mythology and in Hinduism, a banyan tree. ... Axis mundi - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia /**/ @import /skins-1. ...

Because of his ability to communicate with the gods and descend to the land of the dead, the shaman frequently functions as a psychopomp and a medicine man.^[110] Many sets of religious beliefs have a particular spirit, deity, demon or angel whose responsibility is to escort newly-deceased souls to the afterlife, such as Heaven or Hell. ... Medicine man is an English term used to describe Native American religious figures; such individuals are analogous to shamans. ...

Eliade's philosophy of religion

By profession, Eliade was a historian of religion. However, his scholarly works draw heavily on philosophical and psychological terminology. In addition, they contain a number of philosophical arguments about religion. Because of these arguments, some have accused Eliade of promoting a theological agenda under the guise of historical scholarship; however, others argue that Eliade is better understood as a scholar who is willing to openly discuss sacred experience and its consequences.^[111]

Anti-reductionism and the "transconscious"

In studying religion, Eliade rejects certain "reductionist" approaches.^[112] Eliade thinks a religious phenomenon can't be reduced to a product of culture and history. He insists that, although religion involves "the social man, the economic man, and so forth", nonetheless "all these conditioning factors together do not, of themselves, add up to the life of the spirit".^[113]

Using this anti-reductionist position, Eliade argues against those who accuse him of overgeneralizing, of looking for universals at the expense of particulars. Eliade admits that every religious phenomenon is shaped by the particular culture and history that produced it:

However, Eliade argues against those he calls "historicist or existentialist philosophers" who do not recognize "man in general" behind particular men produced by particular situations.^[115] (Eliade cites Kant as the likely forerunner of this kind of "historicism".^[116]) Eliade argues that human consciousness transcends (is not reducible to) its historical and cultural conditioning.^[117] He even suggests the possibility of a "transconscious".^[118] By this, Eliade does not necessarily mean anything supernatural or mystical: within the "transconscious", he places religious motifs, symbols, images, and nostalgias that are supposedly universal and whose causes therefore can't be reduced to historical and cultural conditioning.^[119] Immanuel Kant Immanuel Kant (April 22, 1724 – February 12, 1804) was a Prussian philosopher, generally regarded as one of Europes most influential thinkers and the last major philosopher of the Enlightenment. ...

Platonism and "primitive ontology"

According to Eliade, traditional man feels that things "acquire their reality, their identity, only to the extent of their participation in a transcendent reality".^[120] To traditional man, the profane world is "meaningless", and a thing rises out of the profane world only by conforming to an ideal, mythical model.^[121]

Eliade describes this view of reality as a fundamental part of "primitive ontology".^[122] (Ontology is the study of "existence" or "reality".) Here he sees a similarity with the philosophy of Plato, who believed that physical phenomena are pale and transient imitations of eternal models or "Forms": In philosophy, ontology (from the Greek , genitive : of being (part. ... PLATO was one of the first generalized Computer assisted instruction systems, originally built by the University of Illinois (U of I) and later taken over by Control Data Corporation (CDC), who provided the machines it ran on. ...

Eliade thinks the Platonic Theory of Forms is "primitive ontology" persisting in Greek philosophy. He claims that Platonism is the "most fully elaborated" version of this primitive ontology.^[124] Theory of Forms typically refers to Platos belief that the material world as it seems to us is not the real world, but only a shadow of the real world. ...

In The Structure of Religious Knowing: Encountering the Sacred in Eliade and Lonergan, John Daniel Dadosky argues that, by making this statement, Eliade was acknowledging "indebtedness to Greek philosophy in general, and to Plato's theory of forms specifically, for his own theory of archetypes [i.e., ideal models] and repetition".^[125] However, Dadosky also states that "one should be cautious when trying to assess Eliade's indebtedness to Plato".^[126] Dadosky quotes Robert Segal, a professor of religion, who draws a distinction between Platonism and Eliade's "primitive ontology": for Eliade, the ideal models are patterns that a person or object may or may not imitate; for Plato, there is a Form for everything, and everything imitates a Form by the very fact that it exists.^[127]

Existentialism and secularism

Behind the diverse cultural forms of different religions, Eliade proposes a universal: traditional man, he claims, "always believes that there is an absolute reality, the sacred, which transcends this world but manifests itself in this world, thereby sanctifying it and making it real".^[128] Furthermore, traditional man's behavior gains purpose and meaning through the Sacred: "By imitating divine behavior, man puts and keeps himself close to the gods — that is, in the real and the significant."^[129]

According to Eliade, "modern nonreligious man assumes a new existential situation".^[130] For traditional man, historical events gain significance by imitating sacred, transcendent events. In contrast, nonreligious man "regards himself solely as the subject and agent of history, and refuses all appeal to transcendence".^[131] In other words, nonreligious man lacks sacred models for how history or human behavior should be, so he must decide on his own how history should proceed. From the standpoint of religious thought, the world has an objective purpose established by mythical events, to which man should conform himself: "Myth teaches [religious man] the primordial 'stories' that have constituted him existentially."^[132] From the standpoint of secular thought, any purpose must be invented and imposed on the world by man.

Because of this new "existential situation", Eliade argues, the Sacred becomes the primary obstacle to nonreligious man's "freedom". In viewing himself as the proper maker of history, nonreligious man resists all notions of an externally (e.g., divinely) imposed order or model he must obey: modern man "makes himself, and he only makes himself completely in proportion as he desacralizes himself and the world. [...] He will not truly be free until he has killed the last god".^[133]

Ironically, Eliade says, nonreligious man cannot escape his bondage to religious thought. By resisting sacred models, by insisting that man make history on his own, secularism identifies itself only through opposition to religious thought: "He [secular man] recognizes himself in proportion as he 'frees' and 'purifies' himself from the 'superstitions' of his ancestors."^[134] Furthermore, modern man "still retains a large stock of camouflaged myths and degenerated rituals".^[135] For example, modern social events still have similarities to traditional initiation rituals, and modern novels feature mythical motifs and themes.^[136] Finally, nonreligious man still participates in something like the eternal return: by reading modern literature, "modern man succeeds in obtaining an 'escape from time' comparable to the 'emergence from time' effected by myths".^[137] George Jacob Holyoake (1817-1906), British writer who coined the term secularism. ...

Modern man and the "terror of history"

According to Eliade, modern man displays "traces" of "mythological behavior" because he intensely needs sacred time and the eternal return.^[138] Despite modern man's claims to be nonreligious, he ultimately cannot find value in the linear progression of historical events; even modern man feels the "terror of history": "Here too [...] there is always the struggle against Time, the hope to be freed from the weight of 'dead Time,' of the Time that crushes and kills."^[139]

According to Eliade, this "terror of history" becomes especially acute when violent and threatening historical events confront modern man. The mere fact that a terrible event has happened, that it is part of history, is of little comfort to those who suffer from it. Eliade asks rhetorically how modern man can "tolerate the catastrophes and horrors of history — from collective deportations and massacres to atomic bombings — if beyond them he can glimpse no sign, no transhistorical meaning".^[140]

For ancient man, the Sacred gave history meaning: historical events were seen as repetitions of mythical events, and those mythical events had sacred value. But modern man has denied the Sacred and must therefore invent value and purpose on his own. Without the Sacred to confer an absolute, objective value upon historical events, modern man is left with "a relativistic or nihilistic view of history" and a resulting "spiritual arditiy".^[141] In chapter 9 ("Religious Symbolism and the Modern Man's Anxiety") of Myths, Dreams, and Mysteries, Eliade argues at length that the rejection of religious thought is a primary cause of modern man's anxieties.

Inter-cultural dialogue and a "new humanism"

Eliade argues that modern man may escape the terror of history by learning from traditional cultures. For example, Eliade thinks Hinduism has advice for modern Westerners. According to many branches of Hinduism, the world of historical time is illusory, and the only absolute reality is the immortal soul or atman within man. According to Eliade, Hindus thus escape the terror of history by refusing to see historical time as the true reality.^[142]

Eliade notes that a Western philosopher might feel suspicious toward this Hindu view of history:

However, Eliade argues that the Hindu approach to history does not necessarily lead to a rejection of history. On the contrary, in Hinduism historical human existence isn't the "absurdity" that many European philosophers see it as.^[144] According to Hinduism, history is a divine creation, and one may live contentedly within it as long as one maintains a certain degree of detachment from it: "One is devoured by Time, by History, not because one lives in them, but because one thinks them real and, in consequence, one forgets or undervalues eternity."^[145] Eliade thinks modern man can escape the terror of history not by ceasing to make history, but by learning from the traditional cultures not to take the history he makes too seriously.

Furthermore, Eliade argues that Westerners can learn from non-Western cultures to see something besides absurdity in suffering and death. Traditional cultures see suffering and death as a rite of passage. In fact, their initiation rituals often involve a symbolic death and resurrection, or symbolic ordeals followed by relief. Thus, Eliade argues, modern man can learn to see his historical ordeals, even death, as necessary initiations into the next stage of one's existence.^[146]

Eliade even suggests that traditional thought offers relief from the vague anxiety caused by "our obscure presentiment of the end of the world, or more exactly of the end of our world, our own civilization".^[147] Many traditional cultures have myths about the end of their world or civilization; however, these myths do not succeed "in paralysing either Life or Culture".^[148] These traditional cultures emphasize cyclic time and, therefore, the inevitable rise of a new world or civilization on the ruins of the old. Thus, they feel comforted even in contemplating the end times.^[149]

Eliade argues that a Western spiritual rebirth can happen within the framework of Western spiritual traditions.^[150] However, he says, to start this rebirth, Westerners may need to be stimulated by ideas from non-Western cultures. In his Myths, Dreams, and Mysteries, Eliade claims that a "genuine encounter" between cultures "might well constitute the point of departure for a new humanism, upon a world scale".^[151]

Christianity and the "salvation" of History

As noted above, Eliade sees the Abrahamic religions as a turning point between the ancient, cyclic view of time and the modern, linear view of time. In these religions, sacred events are not limited to a far-off primordial age, but continue throughout history: "time is no longer [only] the circular Time of the Eternal Return; it has become linear and irreversible Time".^[152]

Eliade sees Christianity as the ultimate example of a religion embracing linear, historical time. When God is born as a man, into the stream of history, "all history becomes a theophany".^[153] According to Eliade, "Christianity strives to save history".^[154] In Christianity, the Sacred enters a human being (Christ) to save humans, but it also enters history to "save" history and turn otherwise ordinary, historical events into something "capable of transmitting a trans-historical message".^[155]

From Eliade's perspective, Christianity's "trans-historical message" may be the most important help that modern man could have in confronting the terror of history. In his book Mito ("Myth"), Furio Jesi argues that Eliade denies man the position of a true protagonist in history: for Eliade, true human experience lies not in intellectually "making history", but in man's experiences of joy and grief. Thus, from Eliade's perspective, the Christ story becomes the perfect myth for modern man. According to Christianity, God willingly entered historical time by being born as Christ, and accepted the suffering that followed. By identifying with Christ, modern man can learn to confront painful historical events.^[156]

Ultimately, according to Jesi,^[157] Eliade sees Christianity as the only religion that can save man from the "terror of history". According to Eliade, traditional man sees time as an endless repetition of mythical archetypes (models). In contrast, modern man has abandoned mythical archetypes and entered linear, historical time. Unlike many other religions, Christianity attributes value to historical time. Thus, Eliade concludes, "Christianity incontestably proves to be the religion of 'fallen man'", of modern man who has lost "the paradise of archetypes and repetition".^[158]

Criticism of Eliade's scholarship

Overgeneralization

Eliade cites a wide variety of myths and rituals to support his theories. However, he has been accused of making over-generalizations: many scholars think he lacks sufficient evidence to put forth his ideas as universal, or even general, principles of religious thought. According to one scholar, "Eliade may have been the most popular and influential contemporary historian of religion", but "many, if not most, specialists in anthropology, sociology, and even history of religions have either ignored or quickly dismissed" Eliade's works.^[159]

The classicist G. S. Kirk criticizes Eliade's insistence that Australian Aborigines and ancient Mesopotamians had concepts of "being", "non-being", "real", and "becoming", although they lacked words for them. Kirk also believes that Eliade overextends his theories: for example, Eliade claims that the modern myth of the "noble savage" results from the religious tendency to idealize the primordial, mythical age.^[160] According to Kirk, "such extravagances, together with a marked repetitiousness, have made Eliade unpopular with many anthropologists and sociologists".^[161] According to Kirk, Eliade derived his theory of eternal return from the functions of Australian Aboriginal mythology and then proceeded to apply the theory to other mythologies to which it did not apply. For example, Kirk argues that the eternal return does not accurately describe the functions of Native American or Greek mythology.^[162] Kirk concludes, "Eliade's idea is a valuable perception about certain myths, not a guide to the proper understanding of all of them".^[163] Geoffrey Stephen Kirk (December 3, 1921-March 2003 ) was a British classical scholar. ... Aboriginal Flag Australian Aborigines is a name used to collectively describe most of the indigenous peoples of the Australian continent and its nearby islands. ... For other uses, see Mesopotamia (disambiguation). ... A section of Benjamin Wests The Death of General Wolfe; Wests depiction of this Native American has been considered an idealization in the tradition of the Noble savage (Fryd, 75) In the 18th century culture of Primitivism the noble savage, uncorrupted by the influences of civilization was considered... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... Native American spirituality includes a number of stories and legends that are mythological. ... The bust of Zeus found at Otricoli (Sala Rotonda, Museo Pio-Clementino, Vatican) Greek mythology is the body of stories belonging to the Ancient Greeks concerning their gods and heroes, the nature of the world and the origins and significance of their own cult and ritual practices. ...

Even Wendy Doniger, Eliade's successor at the University of Chicago, claims (in an introduction to Eliade's own Shamanism) that the eternal return does not apply to all myths and rituals, although it may apply to many of them.^[164] However, although Doniger agrees that Eliade made over-generalizations, she notes that his willingness to "argue boldly for universals" allowed him to see patterns "that spanned the entire globe and the whole of human history".^[165] Whether they were true or not, she argues, Eliade's theories are still useful "as starting points for the comparative study of religion". She also argues that Eliade's theories have been able to accommodate "new data to which Eliade did not have access".^[166] Wendy Doniger (born November 20, 1940) is an American professor of religion, active in international religious studies since 1973. ... The Eternal return is, according to the theories of religious historian Mircea Eliade, a belief, expressed (sometimes implicitly but often explicitly) in religious behavior, in the ability to return to the mythical age, to become contemporary with the events described in ones myths. ...

Lack of empirical support

Several researchers have criticized Eliade's work as having no empirical support. Thus, he is said to have "failed to provide an adequate methodology for the history of religions and to establish this discipline as an empirical science",^[167] though the same critics admit that "the history of religions should not aim at being an empirical science anyway".^[167] Specifically, his claim that the sacred is a structure of human consciousness is distrusted as not being empirically provable: "no one has yet turned up the basic category sacred".^[168] Also, there has been mention of his tendency to ignore the social aspects of religion.^[169] Anthropologist Alice Kehoe is highly critical of Eliade's work on Shamanism, namely because he was not an anthropologist but a historian. She contends that Eliade never did any field work or contacted any indigenous groups that practiced Shamanism, and that his work was synthesized from various sources without being supported by direct field research.^[170] Empirical method is generally meant as the collection of a large amount of data on which to base a theory or derive a conclusion in science. ...

In contrast, Professor Kees W. Bolle of the University of California, Los Angeles argues that "Professor Eliade's approach, in all his works, is empirical":^[171] Bolle sets Eliade apart for what he sees as Eliade's particularly close "attention to the various particular motifs" of different myths.^[172] The University of California, Los Angeles (generally known as UCLA) is a public university located in Los Angeles, California, United States. ...

Far right and nationalist influences

Although his scholarly work was never subordinated to his early political beliefs, the school of thought he was associated with in interwar Romania, namely Trăirism, as well as the works of Evola he continued to draw inspiration from, has thematic links to Fascism;^[173] Writer and academic Marcel Tolcea has argued that, through Evola's particular interpretation of Guénon's works, Eliade kept a traceable connection with far right ideologies in his academic contribution.^[174] Evola, who continued to defend the core principles of mystical fascism, once protested to Eliade about the latter's failure to cite him and Guénon. Eliade replied that his works were written for a contemporary public, and not to initiates of esoteric circles.^[175] After the 1960s, he, together with Evola, Louis Rougier, and other intellectuals, offered support to Alain de Benoist's controversial Groupement de recherche et d'études pour la civilisation européenne, part of the Nouvelle Droite intellectual trend.^[176] The Interwar period was the time between World War I and World War II, ergo the 1920s and 1930s. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into far right. ... Louis Auguste Paul Rougier (1889 - 1982) was a French philosopher. ... Alain de Benoist (born 11 December 1943) is a French academic, founder of the Nouvelle Droite (English: ) and head of the French think tank GRECE. Benoist is little known outside his native France but his writings have been highly influential on anti-globalist thought, primarily on the political right, with... GRECE logo The Groupement de recherche et dÃ©tudes pour la civilisation europÃ©enne (Study and research group regarding European Culture), also known as GRECE (French acronym for Greece) is an ethnonationalist think-tank, founded in 1968 by the journalist and writer Alain de Benoist. ... Nouvelle Droite (English: New Right) is a school of political thought founded largely on the works of Alain de Benoist and GRECE. Although most popular and well known in France, Nouvelle Droite has been very influential in other European right-wing movements. ...

Notably, Eliade was also preoccupied with the cult of Zalmoxis and its supposed monotheism.^[177] His conclusions regarding Dacian history (arguing that Romanization was superficial inside Roman Dacia) have been celebrated by contemporary partisans of Protochronist nationalism.^[178] Detail of the main fresco of the Aleksandrovo kurgan. ... For the Celtic Frost album, see Monotheist (album) In theology, monotheism (from Greek one and god) is the belief in the existence of one deity or God, or in the oneness of God. ... Dacian kingdom during the reign of Burebista, 82 BC The Dacians (Lat. ... Romanization was a gradual process of cultural assimilation, in which the conquered barbarians (non-Greco-Romans) gradually adopted and largely replaced their own native culture (which in many cases were quite developed, like the culture of the Gauls or Carthage) with the culture of their conquerors - the Romans. ... The provinces of the Roman Empire in 120, with Dacia highlighted. ... Protochronism (Romanian: Protocronism, originating in the Ancient Greek terms for before time [itself]) is a modern tendency in cultural nationalism. ...

Controversy: anti-Semitism and links with the Iron Guard

The early years in Eliade's public career show him to have been highly tolerant of Jews in general, and of the Jewish minority in Romania in particular. His early condemnation of Nazi anti-Semitic policies was accompanied by his caution and moderation in regard to Nae Ionescu's various anti-Jewish attacks.^[179] Jewish Romanian history concerns the Jews of Romania and of Romanian origins. ... National Socialism redirects here. ... Antisemitism (alternatively spelled anti-semitism or anti-Semitism) is discrimination, hostility or prejudice directed at Jews. ... Nae Ionescu (born Nicolae C. Ionescu; June 16 (June 4 O. S.) 1890, BrÄƒilaâ€”March 15, 1940) was a Romanian philosopher, logician, mathematician, professor, and journalist. ...

Mihail Sebastian claimed in his Journal that Eliade's actions during the 1930s show him to be an anti-Semite. According to Sebastian, who was Jewish, Eliade had been friendly to him until the start of his political commitments, after which he severed all ties.^[180] Before their friendship came apart, however, Sebastian claimed that he took notes on their conversations (which he later published) during which Eliade was supposed to have expressed anti-Semitic views. According to Sebastian, Eliade said in 1939: Mihail Sebastian (18 October 1907-29 May 1945), born in Brăila as Iosif Hechter was a Jewish-Romanian author. ...

Later, Eliade expressed his regret at not having had the chance to redeem his friendship with Sebastian, before the latter was killed in a car accident.^[182] German supply train blown up by the Armia Krajowa during World War II. Polish resistance movement was a resistance movement in Poland, part of the anti-fascist resistance movement which fought against the occupation of Poland by Nazi Germany during World War II. Resistance to the Nazi German occupation began... For other uses, see Warsaw (disambiguation) and Warszawa (disambiguation). ... Bukovina (Ukrainian: , Bukovyna; Romanian: Bucovina; German and Polish: Bukowina; see also other languages) is a historical region on the northern slopes of the northeastern Carpathian Mountains and the adjoining plains. ...

Beyond his involvement with a movement known for its anti-Semitism, Eliade did not usually comment on Jewish issues. However, a text he contributed to Vremea in 1936 showed that he supported at least some Iron Guard accusations against the Jewish community:

One year later, a text, accompanied by his picture, was featured as answer to an inquiry by the Iron Guard's Buna Vestire about the reasons he had for supporting the movement. A short section of it summarizes an anti-Jewish attitude: â€œThe Great War â€ redirects here. ... Map of Romania with MaramureÅŸ region highlighted Image:Old Romanian village, with old traditions in Maramures, a region of Romania. ... Bukovina (Ukrainian: , Bukovyna; Romanian: Bucovina; German and Polish: Bukowina; see also other languages) is a historical region on the northern slopes of the northeastern Carpathian Mountains and the adjoining plains. ... 1927 map of Bessarabia from Charles Upson Clarks book Bessarabia (Basarabia in Romanian, Ð‘ÐµÑÐ°Ñ€Ð°Ð±Ñ–Ñ in Ukrainian, Ð‘ÐµÑÑÐ°Ñ€Ð°Ð±Ð¸Ñ in Russian, Ð‘ÐµÑÐ°Ñ€Ð°Ð±Ð¸Ñ in Bulgarian, Besarabya in Turkish) is a historical term for the geographic entity in Eastern Europe bounded by the Dniester River on the East and the Prut River on the West. ...

According to the literary critic Z. Ornea, in the 1980s Eliade denied authorship of the text. He explained the use of his signature, his picture, and the picture's caption, as having been applied by the magazine's editor, Mihail Polihroniade, to a piece the latter had written after having failed to obtain Eliade's contribution; he also claimed that, given his respect for Polihroniade, he had not wished to publicize this matter previously.^[186] Syphilis is a sexually transmitted disease caused by Treponema pallidum. ... For the Moldovan currency, see Moldovan leu. ...

A fellow diplomat present in London during Eliade's stay in the city later stated that the latter had identified himself as "a guiding light of [the Iron Guard] movement" and victim of Carol II's repression.^[187] The depolitisation of Eliade after the start of his diplomatic career was also mistrusted by his former close friend Eugène Ionesco, who indicated that, upon the close of World War II, Eliade's personal beliefs as expressed to his friends amounted to "all is over now that «Communism has won»" (this forms part of Ionesco's harsh and succinct review of the careers of Legionary-inspired intellectuals, many of them his friends and former friends, in a letter he sent to Tudor Vianu).^[188] In August 1954, when Horia Sima, who led the Iron Guard during its exile, was rejected by a faction inside the movement, his name was included on a list of persons who supported the latter (although this may have happened without Eliade's consent).^[189] During the final years of Eliade's life, his disciple Ioan Petru Culianu exposed and publicly criticized his 1930s pro-Iron Guard activities; relations between the two soured as a result.^[190] This article is about the capital of England and the United Kingdom. ... Carol II of Romania, (15 October 1893 â€“ 4 April 1953) reigned as King of Romania from June 8, 1930 until September 6, 1940. ... EugÃ¨ne Ionesco EugÃ¨ne Ionesco, born Eugen Ionescu, (November 26, 1909 â€“ March 29, 1994) was a French-Romanian playwright and dramatist, one of the foremost playwrights of the Theatre of the Absurd. ... Combatants Allied powers: China France Great Britain Soviet Union United States and others Axis powers: Germany Italy Japan and others Commanders Chiang Kai-shek Charles de Gaulle Winston Churchill Joseph Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Adolf Hitler Benito Mussolini Hideki TÅjÅ Casualties Military dead: 17,000,000 Civilian dead: 33,000... Tudor Vianu was born on January 8, 1898 in Giurgiu, Romania. ... Horia Sima (July 3, 1907-1993) was the second and last leader of Romanias Iron Guard in the Second World War. ... Ioan Petru Culianu (5 January 1950–21 May 1991) was a Romanian-born professor of divinity at the University of Chicago and an expert in gnosticism and Mediaeval magic. ...

Further criticism of his political involvement with anti-Semitism and fascism came from Adriana Berger, Leon Volovici, Daniel Dubuisson, Florin Ţurcanu and others, who have attempted to trace Eliade's anti-Semitism throughout his work and through his associations with contemporary anti-Semites, such as the Italian Fascist occultist Julius Evola. Volovici, for example, is critical of Eliade not only because of his support for the Iron Guard, but also for spreading anti-Semitism and anti-Masonry in 1930s Romania.^[191] For other uses of this term, see occult (disambiguation). ... Julius Evola born Giulio Cesare Andrea Evola, aka Baron Evola (May 19, 1898-June 11, 1974), was an Italian esotericist and occult author, who wrote extensively on Hermeticism, the metaphysics of sex, Tantra, Buddhism, Taoism, mountaineering, the Holy Grail, militarism, aristocracy, on matters political, philosophical, historical, racial, religious, as well... Anti-Masonry (alternatively called Anti-Freemasonry) is defined as Avowed opposition to Freemasonry.[1] However, there is no homogeneous anti-Masonic movement. ...

Other scholars, like Bryan S. Rennie, have claimed that there is, to date, no evidence of Eliade's membership, active services rendered, or of any real involvement with any fascist or totalitarian movements or membership organizations, nor that there is any evidence of his continued support for nationalist ideals after their inherently violent nature was revealed. They further assert that there is no imprint of overt political beliefs in Eliade's scholarship, and also claim that Eliade's critics are following political agendas.^[192] Bryan Rennie (b. ...

Eliade's own version of events, presenting his involvement in far right politics as marginal, was judged to contain several inaccuracies and unverifiable claims.^[193] On another occasion, he is known to have denied ever having contributed to Buna Vestire.^[194]

Legacy

Tributes

An endowed chair in the History of Religions at the University of Chicago Divinity School was named after Eliade in recognition of his wide contribution to the research on this subject; the current (and first incumbent) holder of this chair is Wendy Doniger. The University of Chicago is a private university located principally in the Hyde Park neighborhood of Chicago. ... Wendy Doniger (born November 20, 1940) is an American professor of religion, active in international religious studies since 1973. ...

To evaluate the legacy of Eliade and Joachim Wach within the discipline of the history of religions, the University of Chicago chose 2006 (the intermediate year between the 50th anniversary of Wach's death and the 100th anniversary of Eliade's birth), to hold a two-day conference in order to reflect upon their academic contributions and their political lives in their social and historical contexts, as well as the relationship between their works and their lives.^[35] This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ...

In 1990, after the Romanian Revolution, Eliade was elected posthumously to the Romanian Academy. In Romania, Mircea Eliade's legacy in the field of the history of religions is mirrored by the journal Archaeus (founded 1997, and affiliated with the University of Bucharest Faculty of History). The 6th European Association for the Study of Religion and International Association for the History of Religions Special Conference on Religious History of Europe and Asia took place from September 20 to September 23, 2006, in Bucharest. An important section of the Congress was dedicated to the memory of Mircea Eliade, whose legacy in the field of history of religions was scrutinized by various scholars, some of whom were his direct students at the University of Chicago.^[195] Combatants Securitate and other loyalist forces Anti-CeauÅŸescu protesters, discontented Communist party members, Romanian Army defectors Commanders Nicolae CeauÅŸescuâ€ Various independent leaders Casualties 1,104 deaths The Romanian Revolution of 1989 was a week-long series of riots and fighting in late December of 1989 that overthrew the... The Romanian Academy (Romanian: Academia Română) is a cultural forum founded in Romania in 1866. ... University of Bucharest University of Bucharest is a university founded in 1864 by decree of Prince Alexandru Ioan Cuza to convert the former Saint Sava Academy into the current University of Bucharest. ... is the 263rd day of the year (264th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 266th day of the year (267th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Nickname: Motto: Patria si Dreptul Meu (My Country and My Right) Location of Bucharest within Romania (in red) Coordinates: , Country County Founded 1459 (first official mentioned) Government - Mayor Adriean Videanu Area - City 228 kmÂ² (88 sq mi) - Metro 238 kmÂ² (91. ...

A Romanian Television 1 poll nominated him as the 7th Greatest Romanian in history; his case was argued by the writer Dragoş Bucurenci (see 100 greatest Romanians). Mircea Eliade's name was given to a boulevard in northern Bucharest, to a street in Cluj-Napoca, and to high schools in Bucharest, Sighişoara, and Reşiţa. TVR 1, Televiziunea RomÃ¢nÇŽ 1 (translated: Romanian Television 1), is the first channel of the public broadcaster TVR. The most important show of the channel is Jurnalul TVR, whos motto is: Jurnalul aÅŸa cum ar trebui sÇŽ fie! (The news journal as it should be). ... TV shows logo In 2006, the Romanian Television Company (Televiziunea RomÃ¢nÄƒ, TVR) conducted a vote to determine whom the general public considers the 100 greatest Romanians of all time, in a version of the British TV show 100 greatest Britons. ... Map of Romania showing Cluj_Napoca Cluj_Napoca (Hungarian: Kolozsvár, German: Klausenburg, Latin: Claudiopolis), the seat of Cluj county, is one of the most important academic, cultural and industrial centers in Romania. ... County MureÅŸ County Status Municipality Mayor Ioan Dorin DÄƒneÅŸan, Social Democratic Party, since 2004 Population (2002) 32,287 Geographical coordinates Web site http://www. ... County CaraÅŸ-Severin County Status County capital Mayor Liviu SpÄƒtaru, National Liberal Party, since 2004 Population (2006) 86. ...

Portrayals

In the 1988 film The Bengali Night, the European character based on Eliade is played by British actor Hugh Grant; Supriya Pathak is Gayatri, a character based on Maitreyi Devi (who had refused to be mentioned by name).^[6] The film, considered "pornographic" by Hindu activists, was only shown once in India.^[6] The Bengali Night is a 1988 a semi-autobiographical film based upon the Mircea Eliade 1933 Romanian novel, Maitreyi, directed by Nicolas Klotz and starring the noted Indian actors Soumitra Chatterjee and Shabana Azmi (it also stars a young Hugh Grant). ... Hugh John Mungo Grant[1] (born September 9, 1960) is a Golden Globe-winning English actor. ... Supriya Pathak is an Indian actress famous for her role in the Indian sitcom Khichdi. ... Porn redirects here. ... Hinduism (known as in modern Indian languages[1]) is a religious tradition[2] that originated in the Indian subcontinent. ...

In 2000, Saul Bellow published his controversial Ravelstein novel. Having for its setting the University of Chicago, it had among its characters Radu Grielescu, who was indicated by several critics as Eliade. The latter's portrayal, accomplished through statements made by the eponymous character, is polemical: Grielescu, who is identified as a disciple of Nae Ionescu, took part in the Bucharest Pogrom, and is in Chicago as a refugee scholar, searching for the friendship of a Jewish colleague as a means to rehabilitate himself.^[196] In 2005, the Romanian literary critic and translator Antoaneta Ralian, who was an acquaintance of Bellow's, argued that much of the negative portrayal was owed to a personal choice Bellow made (after having divorced from Alexandra Bagdasar, his Romanian wife and Eliade disciple).^[197] She also mentioned that, during a 1979 interview, Bellow had expressed admiration for Eliade.^[197] Saul Bellow (left) with Keith Botsford Saul Bellow, born Solomon Bellows, (Lachine, Quebec, Canada, June 10, 1915 â€“ April 5, 2005 in Brookline, Massachusetts) was an acclaimed Canadian-born American writer. ... Ravelstein cover Ravelstein is Saul Bellows final novel. ... The University of Chicago is a private university located principally in the Hyde Park neighborhood of Chicago. ... Nae Ionescu (born Nicolae C. Ionescu; June 16 (June 4 O. S.) 1890, BrÄƒilaâ€”March 15, 1940) was a Romanian philosopher, logician, mathematician, professor, and journalist. ... The Legionnaires Rebellion and the Bucharest Pogrom occurred in Bucharest, Romania, between the 21st and the 23rd of January, 1941. ...

Eliade in cinema

Eliade has never been a protagonist in a cinema production. Following is a list of films based on, or referring to, his works.

Paul BarbÄƒ NeagrÄƒ or BarbÄƒneagrÄƒ (born February 11, 1929 in Isaccea) is a Romanian film director and essayist who, starting in 1957, has directed short and medium-length documentaries on topics related to culture and the arts. ... The Bengali Night is a 1988 a semi-autobiographical film based upon the Mircea Eliade 1933 Romanian novel, Maitreyi, directed by Nicolas Klotz and starring the noted Indian actors Soumitra Chatterjee and Shabana Azmi (it also stars a young Hugh Grant). ... Maitreyi (La Nuit Bengali, French; Bengal Nights, English) is a 1933 Romanian novel written by the author and philosopher Mircea Eliade. ... Eu Adam was a 1996 Romanian film directed by Romanian director Dan PiÅ£a, based on short stories by Mircea Eliade. ... Dan PiÅ£a (born 11 October 1938, Dorohoi, BotoÅŸani County, Romania) is a Romanian film director and writer. ... Youth Without Youth is a 2007 film by Francis Ford Coppola. ... Francis Ford Coppola (born April 7, 1939) is a five-time Academy Award winning American film director, producer, and screenwriter. ...

Critical works about Mircea Eliade

Ioan Petru Culianu (5 January 1950â€“21 May 1991) was a Romanian-born professor of divinity at the University of Chicago and an expert in gnosticism and Mediaeval magic. ... Bryan Rennie (b. ...

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