The Mishnah ( The Modern Hebrew language is a Semitic language of the Afro-Asiatic language family. What makes it unique is that the original Hebrew Bible, the Torah, that Orthodox Judaism teaches to have been recorded in the time of Moses 3,300 years ago, was written in Biblical Classical Hebrew. Jews... Hebrew משנה, "Repetition") is a major source of rabbinic For a discussion of Jews as an ethnicity or ethnic group see the article on Jew. The Star of David, a common symbol of Jews and Judaism Judaism is the religion and culture of the Jewish people and one of the first recorded monotheistic faiths. It is also one of... Judaism's religious texts. It is the first recording of the An oral law is a code of conduct in use in a given culture, religion or other regroupement, by which a body of rules of human behaviour is transmitted by oral tradition and effectively respected, or the single rule that is verbally transmitted. Many cultures do have an oral law... oral law of the Jewish people, as championed by the The Pharisees (from the Hebrew perushim, from parash, meaning to separate) were, depending on the time, a political party, a social movement, and a school of thought among Jews that flourished during the Second Temple Era (536 BCE–70 CE). After the destruction of the Second Temple, Pharisaic Judaism... Pharisees. It was redacted by Judah haNasi, or more accurately in Hebrew, Yehudah HaNasi, was a key leader of the Jewish community of Judea under the Roman empire, toward the end of the 2nd century CE. He was reputedly from the Davidic line of the royal line from King David, hence his title Prince (Nasi... Judah haNasi around the year For other uses, see number 200. Events Jewish Eretz Yisraeli scholar Judah ha-Nasi compiles tracts of the Mishnah, beginning the creation of Talmudic law. Chinese warlord Cao Cao defeats Yuan Shao in the Battle of Guandu. The Classic age of Maya civilization begins. Sun Quan founds the Kingdom of... 200 CE. It is considered the first work of For a discussion of Jews as an ethnicity or ethnic group see the article on Jew. The Star of David, a common symbol of Jews and Judaism Judaism is the religion and culture of the Jewish people and one of the first recorded monotheistic faiths. It is also one of... Rabbinic Judaism.

The Mishnah is noteworthy in Rabbinic literature for its depiction of a religious universe in which the The Jerusalem Temple (Hebrew: beit ha-mikdash) was the center of Israelite and Jewish worship, primarily for the offering of sacrifices known as the korbanot. It was located on Jerusalems Temple Mount. According to the Bible, the First Temple was built by Solomon. It replaced the Tabernacle of Moses... Temple in Jerusalem, destroyed a century earlier, still retains a central place. Laws concerning the Temple service constitute one of the Mishnah's six divisions.

Also noteworthy is the Mishnah's lack of citation of a scriptural basis for its laws. It is said that the Oral Law was given simultaneously with the Written Law (Torah), and so does not derive directly from it. Connecting the Mishnaic law with the Torah, (תורה) is a Hebrew word meaning teaching, instruction, or especially Law. It primarily refers to the first section of the Tanakh–the first five books of the Hebrew Bible, or the Five Books of Moses. The five books are Genesis (Bereishit בראש... Torah law was a major enterprise of the later Midrash (pl. Midrashim) is a Hebrew word referring to a method of reading details into, or out of, a Biblical text. The term midrash also can refer to a compilation of Midrashic teachings, in the form of legal, exegetical or homiletical commentaries on the Tanakh . Midrash can be used as... Midrash and The first page of the Talmud, in the standard Vilna edition. The core text of the Mishna and Talmud is in the center; commentaries and notes on either side surround it. The Talmud (התלמוד) is considered an authoritative record of rabbinic discussions on Jewish law... Talmuds.

The Rabbinic sages whose views are recorded therein are called Tannaim, the plural of Tanna; Tanna is an Aramaic is a Semitic language with a four-thousand year history. It is the original language of some parts of the Bible; it has been the language of administration in empires, and the language of divine worship. It was most probably the mother tongue of Jesus, and it is still... Aramaic term for the The Modern Hebrew language is a Semitic language of the Afro-Asiatic language family. What makes it unique is that the original Hebrew Bible, the Torah, that Orthodox Judaism teaches to have been recorded in the time of Moses 3,300 years ago, was written in Biblical Classical Hebrew. Jews... Hebrew word shana, which also is the root-word of Mishnah. The verb shanah (שנה) literally means 'to repeat [what one was taught]' and is used to mean 'to learn'. The term 'Mishna' basically means the entire body of Jewish religious law that was passed down and developed before 200 CE, when it was finally redacted by Rabbi Judah haNasi, or more accurately in Hebrew, Yehudah HaNasi, was a key leader of the Jewish community of Judea under the Roman empire, toward the end of the 2nd century CE. He was reputedly from the Davidic line of the royal line from King David, hence his title Prince (Nasi... Yehudah haNasi (Judah the Prince). He is usually simply referred to as 'Rabbi'.

The word mishna can also indicate a paragraph, i.e., the smallest unit of structure in the Mishna. The plural is mishnayot. Thus, a number of mishnayot make up a perek (chapter), a number of perakim (chapters) make up a masechet (tractate), a number of masechtot (tractates) make up a seder (order) and the Shas (acronym for Shisha Sedarim - the six orders) make up the Mishna (or alternatively the The first page of the Talmud, in the standard Vilna edition. The core text of the Mishna and Talmud is in the center; commentaries and notes on either side surround it. The Talmud (התלמוד) is considered an authoritative record of rabbinic discussions on Jewish law... Talmud if discussing the The Gemara are the Rabbinical commentaries and analysis on the Mishnah, undertaken in the Academies of Palestine and Babylon over a 300 year period to about 500CE. The Mishnah is the core text, and the gemara is the analysis and commentary which “completes” the Talmud (from gamar ג... Gemara.)

Relation between the Bible and the Mishnah

Rabbinical Judaism holds that the Five Books of Moses called the Torah have always been transmitted in parallel with an oral tradition. Two guides to Halakha (הלכה in Hebrew or Halakhah, Halacha, Halachah) is the collective corpus of Jewish law, custom and tradition regulating all aspects of behavior. The name Halakha derives from the Hebrew הלכ, halach meaning going or the [correct] way; thus a literal translation does not yield... laws were given to (See also Exodus) Moses or Móshe (מֹשֶׁה Drawn, Standard Hebrew Móše, Tiberian Hebrew Mōšeh, Arabic موسى), son of Amram and his wife, Jochebed, a Levite. Legendary Hebrew liberator, leader, lawgiver, prophet, and historian. If... Moses at For other places named Mount Sinai, see Mount Sinai (disambiguation) Sunrise on the Mount Sinai Sinai Peninsula, showing location of Jabal Musa Mount Sinai (2,285 meters) is a mountain in the southern Sinai Peninsula of Egypt. In Arabic, the mountain is known as Gebel Musa or Jabal Musa (literally... Mount Sinai. The first, known as Torah she-bi-khtav, or the "Written Law" is composed of only the Five Books of Moses--Genesis through Deuteronomy. These five books are the Hebrew Bible. When the writings of the Prophets and the wisdom and creative literature are added to the Torah [the Five Books of Moses] the expanded volume is called the Tanakh. It is this "complete" version of Hebrew Literature that Christianity knows as "The Old Testament." The Tanakh comprises the Hebrew Bible as we know it today. The second law given to Moses at Sinai, known as Torah she-ba'al peh, is the exposition of the Written Law as relayed by the scholarly and other religious leaders of each generation. This Oral Law is, in some sense, the more authoritative of the two. The traditions of the An oral law is a code of conduct in use in a given culture, religion or other regroupement, by which a body of rules of human behaviour is transmitted by oral tradition and effectively respected, or the single rule that is verbally transmitted. Many cultures do have an oral law... Oral Law are considered as the basis for the interpretation, and often for the reading, of the Torah, (תורה) is a Hebrew word meaning teaching, instruction, or especially Law. It primarily refers to the first section of the Tanakh–the first five books of the Hebrew Bible, or the Five Books of Moses. The five books are Genesis (Bereishit בראש... Written Law.

By the time of Judah haNasi, or more accurately in Hebrew, Yehudah HaNasi, was a key leader of the Jewish community of Judea under the Roman empire, toward the end of the 2nd century CE. He was reputedly from the Davidic line of the royal line from King David, hence his title Prince (Nasi... Judah Ha-Nasi (200 CE) much of the Oral Law was edited together into the Mishnah; see below. Over the next four centuries this material underwent analysis and debate, known as The Gemara are the Rabbinical commentaries and analysis on the Mishnah, undertaken in the Academies of Palestine and Babylon over a 300 year period to about 500CE. The Mishnah is the core text, and the gemara is the analysis and commentary which “completes” the Talmud (from gamar ג... Gemara (completion), in both of the world's major Jewish communities (in the The Land of Israel (Hebrew: Eretz Yisrael) refers to the land making up the ancient Jewish Kingdoms of Israel and Judah. The term has been used by Jews and Christians throughout history. Many Israelis see Eretz Yisrael symbolically represented in the Israeli national flag, with the blue stripes representing the... land of Israel and Babylon (disambiguation). Babylon was the capital city of Babylonia in Mesopotamia (in contemporary Iraq, about 70 mi/110 km south of Baghdad). The name is the Greek form of Babel, which is derived in turn from the Semitic form bab-Illu, meaning The Gate of God. This Semitic word is... Babylon). These eventually came to be edited together into compilations known as the The first page of the Talmud, in the standard Vilna edition. The core text of the Mishna and Talmud is in the center; commentaries and notes on either side surround it. The Talmud (התלמוד) is considered an authoritative record of rabbinic discussions on Jewish law... Talmud. Halakha (הלכה in Hebrew or Halakhah, Halacha, Halachah) is the collective corpus of Jewish law, custom and tradition regulating all aspects of behavior. The name Halakha derives from the Hebrew הלכ, halach meaning going or the [correct] way; thus a literal translation does not yield... Jewish law and custom thus is not based on a literal reading of the Torah, (תורה) is a Hebrew word meaning teaching, instruction, or especially Law. It primarily refers to the first section of the Tanakh–the first five books of the Hebrew Bible, or the Five Books of Moses. The five books are Genesis (Bereishit בראש... Torah, or the rest of the 11th century Targum Tanakh [תנ״ך] (also spelt Tanach or Tenach) is an acronym for the three parts of the Hebrew Bible, based upon the initial Hebrew letters of each part: Torah [תורה] (The Law; also: Teaching or Instruction), Chumash [חומש] (The... Tanakh, but on the combined oral and written tradition.

The writing of the Mishnah

Prior to the time of Rabbi, Jewish Law was transmitted orally; It was forbidden to write and publish the Oral Law, as any writing would be incomplete and subject to misinterpretation and abuse. However, after great debate, this restriction was lifted when it became apparent that it was the only way to ensure that the law could be preserved. To prevent the material from being lost, Rabbi took up the redaction of the Mishna. He did not do this at his own discretion, but rather examined the tradition all the way back to the Great Assembly. Some of tractates preceded him; These he merely supplemented.

The structure of the Mishna

The Mishna consists of six orders (sedarim). This explains the traditional name for the Talmud as Shas, which is an abbreviation of shishah sedarim, "six orders". Each of the six orders contains between 7 and 12 tractates, called masechtot. Each masechet is divided into smaller units called mishnayot.(mishna - singular)

• First Order: Zeraim (זרעים) is the first Order of the Mishnah (and Tosefta and Talmud). Of the six orders of the Mishnah, Zeraim is the shortest. The order Zeraim (Seeds) deals mainly with the agricultural laws of the land of Israel. It consists of 11 tractates: Berakhot: (Blessings... Zeraim ("Seeds"). 11 tractates. It deals with agricultural laws and prayers.
• Second Order: Moed (Festivals) is the second Order of the Mishnah (also the Tosefta and Talmud), Of the six orders of the Mishna, Moed is the third shortest. The order of Moed includes the following 12 treatises: Shabbat: (Sabbath) deals with the 39 prohibitions of work on the Shabbat. 24 chapters. Eruvin... Moed ("Festival Days"). 12 tractates. This pertains to the laws of the Sabbath and the Festivals.
• Third Order: Nashim (Women) is the third order of the Mishnah (also of the Tosefta andTalmud), containing the laws related to women and family life. Of the six orders of the Mishna, it is the second shortest. The order consists of 7 tractates: Yevamot: (Levirates); Deals with levirate marriage (Deut 15) and... Nashim ("Women"). 7 tractates. Concerns marriage and divorce.
• Fourth Order: Nezikin (The Order of Damages) is the fourth order of Mishna (also the Tosefta and Talmud). It deals with Jewish criminal and civil law, court system etc. There are 10 tractates: Bava Kamma: (First Gate); Deals with civil matters, largely damages and compensation. (See Shomrim) Bava Metzia: (Second Gate); Deals... Nezikin ("Damages"). 10 tractates. Deals with civil and criminal law.
• Fifth Order: Kodshim (קדשים, Holy Things) is the fifth order in the Mishna (also the Tosefta and Talmud). Of the six orders of the Mishna, it is the third longest. The order deals largely with the Temple service, the Korbanot (sacrificial offerings), and other subjects considered related Holy... Kodshim ("Holy things"). 11 tractates. This involves sacrificial rites, the The Jerusalem Temple (Hebrew: beit ha-mikdash) was the center of Israelite and Jewish worship, primarily for the offering of sacrifices known as the korbanot. It was located on Jerusalems Temple Mount. According to the Bible, the First Temple was built by Solomon. It replaced the Tabernacle of Moses... Temple, and the dietary laws.
• Sixth order: Tohorot (The Order of Purities) is the sixth order of the Mishnah (also the Tosefta and Talmud). This order deals with the clean/unclean distinction and family purity. This is the longest of the orders in the Mishnah. There are 12 tractates: Keilim: (Vessels); deals with a large array of... Tohorot ("Purity"). 12 tractates. This pertains to ritual and the laws of family purity.

Most of the Mishnah is related stam, i.e. without any name attributed to it. This usually indicates that many sages taught so, and the halakhic ruling usually follows that view. Sometimes, however, it is the opinion of a single sage whom Rabbi Judah haNasi, or more accurately in Hebrew, Yehudah HaNasi, was a key leader of the Jewish community of Judea under the Roman empire, toward the end of the 2nd century CE. He was reputedly from the Davidic line of the royal line from King David, hence his title Prince (Nasi... Judah haNasi favored and sought to establish the ruling accordingly.

The generations of the Mishnah sages

First Generation: Rabban Yohanan ben Zakkai was a Jewish sage of the first century of the common era, and a primary contributor to the core text of rabbinic Judaism, the Mishnah. He was an important sage in the era of the Second Temple in Jerusalem, and re-established the Sanhedrin after the destruction... Yohanan ben Zakkai's generation (circa For alternate uses, see Number 40. Events Christianity comes to Egypt as a church is founded in Alexandria. Mark the Evangelist founds the Coptic Orthodox Church as the first pope. Caligula embarks on a campaign to conquer Britain. German tribe Quadi begin settling in today Slovakia. Noricum and Mauretania are... 40- For other uses, see number 80. Centuries: 1st century BC - 1st century - 2nd century Decades: 0s BC - 0s _ 10s - 20s - 30s _ 40s - 50s - 60s _ 70s - 80s - 90s - 100s Years: 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 Events The Emperor Titus inaugurates the Flavian... 80 CE).

Second Generation: Rabban Gamliel of Yavneh, Rabbi Eliezer and Rabbi Yehoshua's generation, the teachers of Rabbi Rabbi Akiva (or Rebbi Akiva) is one of the most central and essential contributors to the early Oral Torah, mainly the Mishnah and the Midrash Halakha. He laid the foundations of the mishnaic dispute, by which pairs or larger groups of sages dispute points of Halakha or Bible interpretation. In... Akiva.

Third Generation: The generation of Rabbi Rabbi Akiva (or Rebbi Akiva) is one of the most central and essential contributors to the early Oral Torah, mainly the Mishnah and the Midrash Halakha. He laid the foundations of the mishnaic dispute, by which pairs or larger groups of sages dispute points of Halakha or Bible interpretation. In... Akiva and his colleagues.

Fourth Generation: The generation of Rabbi Meir is the main shopping street in Antwerp, Belgium. Only the Nieuwstraat avenue in Brussels is a more important shopping area in the country. Situated in the centre of Antwerp, Meir connects the Town Hall with the Central Station. Historical Buildings Meir 50: Royal Residence, built in 1745. This building... Meir, Rabbi Judah (יְהוּדָה Praise, Standard Hebrew Yəhuda, Tiberian Hebrew Yəhûḏāh) may refer to: One of the sons of the Biblical patriarch Jacob, see Judah (biblical figure) The tribe formed by Judahs offspring, see Tribe of Judah... Yehuda and their colleagues.

Fifth Generation: Rabbi Judah haNasi, or more accurately in Hebrew, Yehudah HaNasi, was a key leader of the Jewish community of Judea under the Roman empire, toward the end of the 2nd century CE. He was reputedly from the Davidic line of the royal line from King David, hence his title Prince (Nasi... Judah haNasi's generation.

Sixth Generation: The interim generation between the Mishnah and the The first page of the Talmud, in the standard Vilna edition. The core text of the Mishna and Talmud is in the center; commentaries and notes on either side surround it. The Talmud (התלמוד) is considered an authoritative record of rabbinic discussions on Jewish law... Talmud: Rabbis Shimon ben Judah HaNasi and Yehoshua ben Levi, etc.

Oral traditions and pronunciation

The Mishnah was and still is traditionally studied through recitation (out loud). Many medieval manuscripts of the Mishnah are vowelized, and some of these contain partial Tiberian Cantillation (Hebrew: ta`amei ha-mikra or just te`amim; Yiddish trope is also commonly used in English) comprises special signs or marks in the Masoretic text of the Hebrew Bible (or Tanakh) which complement the letters and vowel points. Some of these signs were also sometimes used in medieval... cantillation. Jewish communities around the world preserved local melodies for chanting the Mishnah, and distinctive ways of pronouncing its words.

Most vowelized editions of the Mishnah today reflect standard Ashkenazi (אַשְׁכֲּנָזִי, Standard Hebrew Aškanazi, Tiberian Hebrew ʾAškănāzî) Jews or Ashkenazic Jews, also called Ashkenazim (אַשְׁכֲּנָזִים... Ashkenazic vowelization, and often contain mistakes. The Albeck edition of the Mishnah was vowelized by Hannokh Yellin, who made careful eclectic use of both medieval manuscripts and current oral traditions of pronunciation from Jewish communities all over the world. The Albeck edition includes an entire volume by Yellin detailing his eclectic method.

Two institutes at the The Hebrew University of Jerusalem (האוניברסיטה העברית בירושלים) is one of Israels biggest and most important institutes of higher learning and research. One of the Zionist movement... Hebrew University in Jerusalem have collected major oral archives which hold (among other things) extensive recordings of Jews chanting the Mishnah using a variety of melodies and many different kinds of pronunciation. These institutes are the Jewish Oral Traditions Research Center and the National Voice Archives (the "Phonoteca" at the Jewish National and University Library). See below for external links.

Commentaries

Rabbi Moshe ben Maimon (Hebrew: רבי משה בן מיימון; Arabic: Mussa bin Maimun ibn Abdallah al-Kurtubi al-Israili; March 30, 1135—December 13, 1204), commonly known by his Greek name Maimonides, was a Jewish rabbi, physician, and philosopher... Maimonides was probably the first to author a comprehensive commentary on the Mishnah. He condenses the associated Talmudical debates, and offers his conclusion in a number of undecided issues.

Rabbi Samson of Sens ( The French Republic or France ( French: République française or France) is a country whose metropolitan territory is located in western Europe, and which is further made up of a collection of overseas islands and territories located in other continents. France is a democracy organised as a... France) was, apart from Maimonides, one of the few rabbis of the early medieval era to compose a Mishna commentary. It is printed in many editions of the Mishna.

Rabbi Obadiah ben Abraham of Bertinoro was a Jewish rabbi and a commentator on the Mishnah, commonly known as The Bartenura by Orthodox Judaism Talmud scholars. He lived in the second half of the fifteenth century in Italy; died in Jerusalem about 1500. He was a pupil of Joseph ben Solomon... Obadiah ben Abraham of Bertinoro ( (14th century - 15th century - 16th century - other centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 15th century was that century which lasted from 1401 to 1500. Events Renaissance affects philosophy, science and art. The New Monarchs come to power in France, England, Portugal and Spain. Rise of... 15th century) wrote one of the most popular Mishna commentaries. While he draws on Maimonides' work, he offers more Talmudical material, making his work an occasional but useful work of reference in Talmud study.

After the Judah Low ben Bezalel (1525 — 1609) was a Jewish scholar and rabbi, most of his life in Prague. He is commonly referred to as the Maharal [of Prague] (Moreinu ha-Rav Loew, Our Teacher and Rabbi Loew). Within Judaism, he is known for this works on philosophy of religion... Maharal of Prague had initiated organised Mishna study (Chevrath ha-Mishnayoth), his pupil Yomtov Lipman Heller wrote a commentary which resembles that of the Tosafists were medieval rabbis who collected commentaries on the Talmud, and appear in virtually every edition since it was first printed. As such, they parallel Rashi in their importance. The Tosafists are so named for their commentary, Tosafot, which translates as additions or supplements. This probably means that their authors... Tosafists on the Talmud, and is therefore called Tosafoth Yom Tov. He offers brief insights into the Mishna and Bartenura's work. In many compact Mishna printings, a condensed version of his commentary, titled Ikar Tosafoth Yom Tov, is featured.

Other Acharonim (Hebrew - sing. Acharon) literally the later ones, is a term used in Jewish law and history, to signify the leading Rabbis and Poskim living from roughly the 16th century to the present. The acharonim follow the Rishonim, the first ones. The Rishonim are the Rabbinic scholars between the 13th... Acharonim who have written Mishna commentaries:

• Rabbi Solomon Luria (the Maharshal)
• The Elijah ben Solomon, the Vilna Gaon Elijah (Eliyahu) ben Solomon Kremer (born April 23, 1720, Vilna, Lithuania; died there October 9, 1797). He was a Jewish rabbi, Talmud scholar, and Kabbalist. He is commonly known as the Gaon of Vilna, Gaon mi Vilno, or Vilna Gaon (genius of Vilnius), and... Vilna Gaon (Shenoth Eliyahu)
• Rabbi Akiva Eiger

A prominent commentary from the Alternative meaning: Nineteenth Century (periodical) (18th century — 19th century — 20th century — more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 19th century was that century which lasted from 1801-1900 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar. In the sense of the Common Era... 19th century is Tifereth Yisrael by Rabbi Yisrael Lipschutz. It is subdivided into two parts, one more general and the other more analytical, titled Yachin and Boaz respectively (after two large pillars in the The Jerusalem Temple (Hebrew: beit ha-mikdash) was the center of Israelite and Jewish worship, primarily for the offering of sacrifices known as the korbanot. It was located on Jerusalems Temple Mount. According to the Bible, the First Temple was built by Solomon. It replaced the Tabernacle of Moses... Temple in Jerusalem). Lipschutz has not been completely without controversy, partially because he refers on occasion to scientific findings.

The commentary by Pinhas Kehati, based on classical and contemporary works, has become widely popular. The commentary is designed to make the Mishnah widely accessible and is popularly referred to as "The Kehati". Each tractate is introduced with an overview of its contents, including historical and legal background material, and each mishnah is prefaced by a thematic introduction.

Historical study

Both the Mishnah and Talmud contain little serious biographical studies of the people discussed therein, and the same tractate will conflate the points of view of many different people. Yet, sketchy biographies of the Mishaic sages can often be constructed with historical detail from Talmudic and Midrash (pl. Midrashim) is a Hebrew word referring to a method of reading details into, or out of, a Biblical text. The term midrash also can refer to a compilation of Midrashic teachings, in the form of legal, exegetical or homiletical commentaries on the Tanakh . Midrash can be used as... Midrashic sources.

Many modern historical scholars have focused on the timing and the formation the Mishnah. A vital question is whether it is comprised of sources which date from its editor's lifetime, and to what extent is it comprised of earlier, or later sources. Are Mishnaic disputes distinguishable along theological or communal lines, and in what ways do different sections derive from different schools of thought within early Judaism? Can these early sources be identified, and if so, how? In response to these questions, modern scholars have adopted a number of different approaches.

• Traditionally, For a discussion of Jews as an ethnicity or ethnic group see the article on Jew. The Star of David, a common symbol of Jews and Judaism Judaism is the religion and culture of the Jewish people and one of the first recorded monotheistic faiths. It is also one of... rabbinic Judaism has viewed the statements in the Mishna and Talmud as being historically accurate, and written under a subtle form of divine inspiration, sometimes called the The Holy Spirit, from the Christian viewpoint, while related to Gods will, is not Gods will personified. The Christian and Jewish views of the Holy Spirit vary greatly. In the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) the Hebrew term Ruach HaKodesh is used many times; it is translated literally as... Ruach haKodesh, "The Holy Spirit". In this view, the statements described therein are entirely reliable, and accepted as much. Nevertheless, even the Talmud points out that the Mishna is on occasions ambiguous or deficient. In general, textual criticism of the Mishna from Orthodox point-of-view has ceased after the completion of the Talmud, and modern attempts at textual criticism are mainly considered heretical. Most Orthodox Jews view the biographical statements in the Mishnah, Talmud and in some cases, even the early Midrash (pl. Midrashim) is a Hebrew word referring to a method of reading details into, or out of, a Biblical text. The term midrash also can refer to a compilation of Midrashic teachings, in the form of legal, exegetical or homiletical commentaries on the Tanakh . Midrash can be used as... midrash collections, as being entirely historically reliable.

• Some scholars hold that there has been extensive editorial reshaping of the stories and statements within the Mishna (and later, in the Talmud.) Lacking outside confirming texts, they hold that we cannot confirm the origin or date of most statements and laws, and that we can say little for certain about their authorship. In this view, the questions above are impossible to answer. See, for example, the works of Louis Jacobs, Baruch M. Bokser, Shaye J.D. Cohen, Steven D. Fraade.

• Some scholars hold that the Mishna and Talmud have been extensively shaped by later editorial redaction, but that it contains sources which we can identify and describe with some level of reliability. In this view, sources can be identified to some extent because era of history and each distinct geographical region has its own unique feature, which one can trace and analyze. Thus, the questions above may be analyzed. See, for example, the works of Goodblatt, Lee Levine, David C. Kraemer and Robert Goldenberg.

• Some scholars hold that many or most the statements and events described in the Mishnah and Talmud usually occurred more or less as described, and that they can be used as serious sources of historical study. In this view, historians do their best to tease out later editorial additions (itself a very difficult task) and skeptically view accounts of miracles, leaving behind a reliable historical text. See, for example, the works of Saul Lieberman, David Weiss Halivni, Avraham Goldberg and Dov Zlotnick.

See also

• The first page of the Talmud, in the standard Vilna edition. The core text of the Mishna and Talmud is in the center; commentaries and notes on either side surround it. The Talmud (התלמוד) is considered an authoritative record of rabbinic discussions on Jewish law... Talmud
• The Mishnah is the basic compilation of the Oral law of Judaism; it was written compile around 200 CE. The Tosefta is a second compilation of oral law from that period. It is a Halakhic work which corresponds in structure almost exactly to the Mishna, with the same divisions for... Tosefta
• The Minor Tractates are essays from the tannaitic period or later dealing with topics about which no formal tractate exists in the Mishnah. The Minor Tractates may thus be contrasted to the Tosefta, whose tractates parallel those of the Mishnah. The first eight or so contain much original material; the... Minor Tractates
• wikibooks:Mishnah

References

Translations

• Herbert Danby (20 January 1889 - 29 March 1953) was an Anglican priest and writer who played a central role in the change of attitudes toward Judaism at the start of the twentieth century. He was the regus professor of Hebrew and Canon at Christ Church, Oxford, and also the Residentiary... Herbert Danby. The Mishna. Oxford, 1933 (ISBN 019815402X).
• Jacob Neusner is a prolific, as well as controversial, Jewish scholar and rabbi. He has written or edited over 400 books about the Torah, Tosefta, Talmud, Midrash and other Jewish writings. Books by Neusner Neusner, Jacob. The Judaism behind the texts--the generative premises of rabbinic literature. II, Tosefta, Tractate... Jacob Neusner. The Mishnah: A New Translation. New Haven, reprint 1991 (ISBN 0300050224).
• Various editors. The Mishnah, a new translation with commentary Yad Avraham. New York: Mesorah publishers, since 1980s.

Historical study

• Shalom Carmy (Ed.) Modern Scholarship in the Study of Torah: Contributions and Limitations Jason Aronson, Inc.
• Shaye J.D. Cohen, Patriarchs and Scholarchs, Proceedings of the American Academy for Jewish Research 48 (1981), pp. 57-87
• Steven D. Fraade, "The Early Rabbinic Sage," in The Sage in Israel and the Ancient Near East, ed. John G. Gammie and Leo G. Perdue (Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns, 1990), pp. 417-23
• Robert Goldenberg The Sabbath-Law of Rabbi Meir (Missoula, Montana: Scholars Press, 1978)
• Jacob Neusner Making the Classics in Judaism (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1989), pp. 1-13 and 19-44
• Jacob Neusner Judaism: The Evidence of the Mishna (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981), pp. 14-22.
• Gary Porton, The Traditions of Rabbi Ishmael (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1982), vol. 4, pp. 212-25
• Dov Zlotnick, The Iron Pillar: Mishnah (Jerusalem: Bialik Institute, 1988), pp. 8-9

External links

• Electronic Texts:
  • Mechon Mamre (http://www.mechon-mamre.org/) - Hebrew text according to Maimonides' version.
  • The Structured Mishnah (http://chaver.com/Mishnah/TheMishnah.htm) - Hebrew text according to the Albeck edition (without vowels) with special formatting.
  • The Open Mishnah Project (project page), a multilingual project at Wikibooks in English (Mishnah) and in Hebrew (http://he.wikibooks.org/wiki/%D7%A2%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%93_%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%A9%D7%99) (משנה  (http://he.wikibooks.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%A9%D7%A0%D7%94)).
• The Daily Mishnah (a study-cycle):
  • The Daily Mishnah (http://www.jafi.org.il/education/torani/kehati/) - uses the Kehati commentary (in English translation).
  • Mishna Yomis (http://www.shemayisrael.com/mishna/) - Daily Mishnah audio (English).
  • Mishnah Yomit (http://www.uscj.org/New!_Mishnah_Yomit740.html) - One mishnah per day. (Note: this study-cycle follows a different schedule than the regular one; contains extensive archives in English).
  • Mishnah of the Daf (http://www.mishnaofthedaf.org/mishna.php) - a new Mishnah study cycle that parallels the progress of the The first page of the Talmud, in the standard Vilna edition. The core text of the Mishna and Talmud is in the center; commentaries and notes on either side surround it. The Talmud (התלמוד) is considered an authoritative record of rabbinic discussions on Jewish law... Daf Yomi.
• Audio Lectures:
  • Rabbi Meir Pogrow (http://613.org/mishnah.html) - advanced lectures (in English); free MP3 download.
• Manuscripts:
  • Kaufmann manuscript (http://jnul.huji.ac.il/dl/talmud/indexeng.htm) of the Mishnah - View images of the entire vowelized manuscript.
• Oral Traditions (chanting and pronunciation of the Mishnah):
  • Jewish Oral Traditions Research Center (http://www.hum.huji.ac.il/masorot/) (Hebrew University)
  • The National Sound Archives (http://jnul.huji.ac.il/eng/music.html) at the Hebrew University (catalogue not currently online).