See related article Modernity.

The terms Modern World, Modern Period, New World, Modern Times, Progressive Age, Modern Age, or Modern Era are recognized by historians as being that period of time commencing after the Middle Ages and the Early Modern period, after the mid-18th century. Modernity is a term used to describe the condition of being Modern. Since the term Modern is used to describe a wide range of periods, modernity must be taken in context. ... Periodization is the attempt to categorize or divide historical time into discrete named blocks. ... The Middle Ages formed the middle period in a traditional schematic division of European history into three ages: the classical civilization of Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and modern times, beginning with the Renaissance. ... The early modern period is a term used by historians to refer to the period in Western Europe and its first colonies, between the Middle Ages and modern society. ... (17th century - 18th century - 19th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 18th century refers to the century that lasted from 1701 through 1800. ...

The beginning of the period is marked by the end of the European Renaissance. Exact definition depends on the specific usage — for example a historian might be referring to the period 1650-, whilst a musician might be referring to music postdating the romantic era, which would date the beginning of modernity to around 1900. World map showing location of Europe Europe is geologically and geographically a peninsula, forming the westernmost part of Eurasia. ... By Region: Italian Renaissance Northern Renaissance *French Renaissance *German Renaissance *English Renaissance The Renaissance was an influential cultural movement which brought about a period of scientific revolution and artistic transformation, at the dawn of modern European history. ... // Events June 23 - Claimant King Charles II of England, Scotland and Ireland arrives in Scotland, the only of the three Kingdoms that has accepted him as ruler. ... Romanticism was an artistic and intellectual movement that originated in late 18th century Western Europe. ... Modernity is a term used to describe the condition of being Modern. Since the term Modern is used to describe a wide range of periods, modernity must be taken in context. ... 1900 is a common year starting on Monday. ...

The modern age may be defined to extend to the present day, or else to conclude postmodernism (which may be dated any time from the 1960s to the early 1980s), again depending on the usage. In the case where modern is used in a sense which means "before postmodernism", it may refer specifically to modernism. Another view is that postmodernism may, however, be considered as just the latest development of modernism itself. Post-modernist architecture rejects the rigid geometricity of modernist design in favour of radical, often asymmetrical, forms Postmodernism is a term applied to a wide-ranging set of developments in critical theory, philosophy, architecture, art, literature, and culture, which are generally characterized as either emerging from, in reaction to, or... The 1960s, or The Sixties, in its most obvious sense refers to the decade between 1960 and 1969, but the expression has taken on a wider meaning over the past twenty years. ... // Events and trends The 1980s marked an abrupt shift towards more conservative lifestyles after the momentous cultural revolutions which took place in the 60s and 70s and the definition of the AIDS virus in 1981. ... Le Corbusiers Villa Savoye, 1929-30: The modern style is noted for its rigorous geometrical forms. ...

Characteristics

The concept of the modern world as distinct from an ancient world of historical and outmoded artifacts rests on a sense that the modern world is primarily the product of relatively recent and revolutionary change. Advances in all areas of human activity -- politics, industry, society, economics, commerce, transport, communication, mechanization, automation, science, medicine, technology and culture -- appear to have transformed an "Old World" into the 'Modern or New World. In each case, the identification of a Revolutionary change can be used to demarcate the old and old-fashioned from the modern. The Elections and Parties Series Democracy Representative democracy History of democracy Referenda Liberal democracy Representation Voting Voting systems Ideology Elections Elections by country Elections by calender Electoral systems Politics Politics by country Political campaigns Political science Political philosophy Related topics Political parties Parties by country Parties by name Parties by... ... Wikibooks has more about this subject: Economics Wikibooks Wikiversity has more about this subject: School of Economics U.S. Economic Calendar Economics at the Open Directory Project Economics textbooks on Wikibooks The Economists Economics A-Z Institutions and organizations Bureau of Labor Statistics - from the American Labor Department Center... This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ... Communication is the process of exchanging information usually via a common system of symbols. ... Mechanization refers to the use of powered machinery to help a human operator in some task. ... Automation (ancient Greek: = self dictated) or industrial automation is the use of computers to control industrial machinery and processes, replacing human operators. ... // What is science? There are different theories of what science is. ... Medicine on the Web NLM (National Library of Medicine, contains resources for patients and healthcare professionals) Virtual Hospital (digital health sciences library by the University of Iowa) Online Medical Dictionary Collection of links to free medical resources Categories: Medicine | Health ... Technology (Gr. ... Look up Culture in Wiktionary, the free dictionary Wikinews has news related to this article: Culture and entertainment Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Cultural Development in Antiquity Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Culture and Civilization in Modern Times Classificatory system for cultures and civilizations, by Dr. Sam Vaknin... The Old World consists of those parts of Earth known to Europeans before the voyages of Christopher Columbus: Europe, Asia, and Africa (collectively known as Africa-Eurasia) and the surrounding islands. ...

In European politics, the transition from feudal institutions to modern institutions has been marked by a series of Revolutions and military conflicts, beginning with the Eighty Years' War, which resulted in Dutch independence, confirmed in the Peace of Westphalia. The Peace of Westphalia (1648) established the modern international system of independent nation-states, ending feudalism in international relations. The English Glorious Revolution (1688) marked the end of feudalism in Great Britain, creating a modern constitutional monarchy. The French Revolution of 1789 overthrew the Ancien Régime in France, and as a result of the Napoleonic Wars, served to introduce political modernity in much of Western Europe. The Eighty Years War, or Dutch Revolt from 1568 to 1648 was the secession war in which the proto-Netherlands first became an independent country and in which the region now known as Belgium became established. ... The Ratification of the Treaty of Münster by Gerard Terborch (1648) Banquet of the Amsterdam Civic Guard in Celebration of the Peace of Münster by Bartholomeus van der Helst, 1648 The Peace of Westphalia, also known as the treaties of Münster and Osnabrück, is the series... // Events Peace treaty signed at Westphalia ends the Thirty Years War. ... // Events A high-powered conspiracy of notables, the Immortal Seven, invite William and Mary to depose James II of England. ... During the French Revolution (1789–1799) democracy and republicanism overthrew the absolute monarchy in France, and the French portion of the Roman Catholic Church was forced to undergo radical restructuring. ... 1789 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... Administrative map of ancien régime France Ancien Régime means Old Rule or Old Order in French; in English, the term refers primarily to the social and political system established in France under the Valois and Bourbon dynasties. ...

The American and French Revolutions ended the role of absolute monarchies to do as they wished in the world. Henceforth the world would become a "Modern" place where Democracy, and Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity became the new standards of government and of the rules of society. Personal Liberty is one of the meanings of freedom. Statue of Liberty - Societal Liberty is one of the meanings of freedom. For proper-noun uses of Freedom, see Freedom (disambiguation). ... Equality is a social state of affairs in which certain different people have the same status in a certain respect. ... Brotherhood has multiple meanings: Siblings: The relationship between male offspring, Fraternity: Sodality, or people engaged in a particular occupation; the medical fraternity Brotherhood: The feeling that men should treat one another as brothers Labor union: Union, trade union, brotherhood, an organization of employees formed to bargain with an employer Brotherhood... ...

Men such as the Emperor Napoleon introduced new codes of law in Europe based on merit and achievement, rather than on a class system rooted in Feudalism. The modern political system of Liberalism (derived from the word "Liberty" which means "Freedom") empowered members of the dis-enfranchised Third Estate. The power of elected bodies swept aside traditional rule by royal decree. A new attachment to one's nation, culture and language produced the powerful forces of Nationalism. This in turn ultimately contributed to new ideologies such as the ideology of Fascism, Socialism and Communism. For other uses, see Napoleon (disambiguation). ... World map showing location of Europe Europe is geologically and geographically a peninsula, forming the westernmost part of Eurasia. ... This article needs to be wikified. ... Social class describes the relationships between people in hierarchical societies or cultures. ... Defining feudalism is difficult because there is no generally accepted agreement on what it means. ... A political system is a social system of politics and government. ... Note: This entry discusses liberalism as a world wide ideology, not its manifestations in any specific country. ... In France of the ancien régime and the age of the French Revolution, the term Third Estate (tiers état) indicated the generality of people which were not part of the clergy (the First Estate) nor of the nobility (the Second Estate). ... An Order-in-Council is a type of legislation in the United Kingdom and certain Commonwealth countries which is formally made in the name of the Queen (or the Governor-General acting on her behalf) by the Privy Council or the Executive Council the Queen-in-Council or the Governor... For publications of this name, see also Nation (disambiguation) The most popular modern ethical and philosophical doctrines state that all humans are divided into groups called nations. ... Look up Culture in Wiktionary, the free dictionary Wikinews has news related to this article: Culture and entertainment Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Cultural Development in Antiquity Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Culture and Civilization in Modern Times Classificatory system for cultures and civilizations, by Dr. Sam Vaknin... // Nationalism is an ideology which holds that the nation, ethnicity or national identity is a fundamental unit of human social life, and makes certain political claims based on that belief, above all the claim that the nation is the only legitimate basis for the state, and that each nation is... The Elections and Parties Series Democracy Representative democracy History of democracy Referenda Liberal democracy Representation Voting Voting systems Ideology Elections Elections by country Elections by calender Electoral systems Politics Politics by country Political campaigns Political science Political philosophy Related topics Political parties Parties by country Parties by name Parties by... Fascism (in Italian, fascismo), capitalized, was the authoritarian political movement which ruled Italy from 1922 to 1943 under the leadership of Benito Mussolini. ... The color red and particularly the red flag are traditional symbols of Socialism. ... This article is about communism as a form of society and as a popular movement. ...

Taken to an extreme, the desire to demolish all vestiges of the past and create a classless society, resulted in the abuses of Communism following the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia, which executed the Tsar and his family, created the Soviet Union, transformed serfdom, and forcibly modernized Mother Russia. In Germany, once the Kaiser had abdicated in 1918, chaos ensued, paving the way for the rise of Adolf Hitler and Nazism. A social class is, at its most basic, a group of people that have similar status. ... This article is about communism as a form of society and as a popular movement. ... The October Revolution, also known as the Bolshevik Revolution, was the second phase of the Russian Revolution, the first having been instigated by the events around the February Revolution. ... Tsar (Bulgarian цар, Russian царь,   listen?; often spelled Czar or Tzar and sometimes Csar or Zar in English), was the title used for the autocratic rulers of the First and Second Bulgarian Empires since 913, in Serbia in the middle of the 14th century, and in Russia from 1547 to 1917 (although... Costumes of Slaves or Serfs, from the Sixth to the Twelfth Centuries, collected by H. de Vielcastel, from original Documents in the great Libraries of Europe. ... The history of Russia is essentially that of its many nationalities, each with a separate history and complex origins. ... Kaiser is a German title meaning emperor, derived from the Roman title of Caesar, as is the Slavic title of Czar. ... 1918 was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ... Adolf Hitler (April 20, 1889–April 30, 1945) was the Chancellor of Germany from 1933, and Führer und Reichskanzler (Leader and chancellor) of Germany from 1934, to his death. ... The term National Socialism has been used in self-description by a number of different political groups and ideologies, some of which have no connection with the Nazis; see National socialism. ...

The new republic of the United States of America granted the vote to white, male citizens, and placed reins on government based on the new Constitution and creating a system of checks and balances between the three different branches of government of the legislature, judiciary, and executive headed by a President who won a national election. In a broad definition a republic is a state or country that is led by people who do not base their political power on any principle beyond the control of the people living in that state or country. ... The Elections and Parties Series Democracy Representative democracy History of democracy Referenda Liberal democracy Representation Voting Voting systems Ideology Elections Elections by country Elections by calender Electoral systems Politics Politics by country Political campaigns Political science Political philosophy Related topics Political parties Parties by country Parties by name Parties by... The doctrine and practice of dispersing political power and creating mutual accountability between political entities such as the courts, the president or prime minister, the legislature, and the citizens. ... Chamber of the Estates-General, the Dutch legislature. ... The judiciary, also referred to as the judicature, consists of justices, judges and magistrates among other types of adjudicators. ... President is a title held by many leaders of organizations, companies, universities, and countries. ... The Elections and Parties Series Democracy Liberal democracy History of democracy Referenda Representative democracy Representation Voting Voting systems Elections Elections by country Elections by calender Electoral systems Politics Politics by country Political campaigns Political science Political philosophy Related topics Political parties Parties by country Parties by name Parties by ideology...

Revolutions in science and technology have been no less influential than political revolutions in changing the shape of the modern world. The Scientific revolution, beginning with the discoveries of Kepler and Galileo, and culminating with Newton's Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687), changed the way educated people saw the natural world. In the history of science, the scientific revolution was the period that roughly began with the discoveries of Kepler, Galileo, and others at the dawn of the 17th century, and ended with the publication of the Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica in 1687 by Isaac Newton. ... Newtons own copy of his Principia, with hand written corrections for the second edition. ... Events March 19 - The men under explorer Robert Cavelier de La Salle murder him while searching for the mouth of the Mississippi River. ...

An Industrial Revolution initiated by mechanical automation of the manufacture of cotton cloth and the use of steam engines, commenced in the 18th century in Great Britain, followed in the 19th century by a later series of developments, which saw modern systems of communication and transportation introduced in the form of steamships, railroads and the telegraph. In the late 19th century, a Second Industrial Revolution, prompted by developments in the chemical, petroleum, steel and electrical industries, furthered transformed the modern world. The Industrial Revolution was the major technological, socioeconomic and cultural change in the late 18th and early 19th century resulting from the replacement of an economy based on manual labor to one dominated by industry and machine manufacture. ... The Second Industrial Revolution (1871-1914) involved significant developments within the chemical, electrical, petroleum, and steel industries. ...

The mechanical and scientific inventions that were discovered, studied and implemented changed the way goods were produced and marketed. For example, modern machines in Britain speeded up the manufacture of commodities such as cloth and iron. The horse and ox were no longer needed as beasts of burden. The newly invented engine powered the car, train, ship, and eventually the plane produced rapidly each year. Artificially created energy powered any motor that drove any machine that was invented. Raw goods could be transported in huge quantities over vast distances and manufactured quickly and then marketed all over the world, making Britain into a very wealthy country. The word mechanical can mean one of several things: A device or principle described as mechanical relates to a mechanism or machine, or the realm of Newtonian mechanics. ... For the scientific journal named Science, see Science (journal). ... Wind turbines A machine is any mechanical or organic device that transmits or modifies energy to perform or assist in the performance of tasks. ... The word commodity has a different meaning in business than in Marxian political economy. ... A variety of fabric. ... General Name, Symbol, Number iron, Fe, 26 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 8, 4, d Appearance lustrous metallic with a grayish tinge Atomic mass 55. ... An engine is something that produces some effect from a given input. ... A small variety of cars, the most popular kind of automobile. ... There are various types of trains designed for particular purposes, see rail transport operations. ... Italian ship-rigged vessel Amerigo Vespucci in New York harbor, 1976. ... Fixed-wing aircraft is a term used to refer to what are more commonly known as aeroplanes in Commonwealth English (excluding Canada) or airplanes in North American English. ... A motor is a device that converts energy into mechanical power, and is often synonymous with engine. ... Wind turbines A machine is any mechanical or organic device that transmits or modifies energy to perform or assist in the performance of tasks. ...

Progress continued as Science saw so many new scientific discoveries. The telephone, radio, X-rays, microscopes, electricity all contributed to rapid changes in life-styles and societies. Discoveries of antibiotics such as penicillin brought new ways of combating diseases. Surgery and drugs kept on making progressive improvements in medical care, hospitals, and nursing. New theories such as Evolution and Psychoanalysis changed humanity's "old fashioned" views of itself. // What is science? There are different theories of what science is. ... For the scientific journal named Science, see Science (journal). ... This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ... In the NATO phonetic alphabet, X-ray represents the letter X. An X-ray picture (radiograph) taken by Röntgen An X-ray is a form of electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength approximately in the range of 5 pm to 10 nanometers (corresponding to frequencies in the range 30 PHz... 1852 microscope Compound microscope made by John Cuff in 1750 A microscope (Greek: micron = small and scopos = aim) is an instrument for viewing objects that are too small to be seen by the naked or unaided eye. ... Lightning strikes during a night-time thunderstorm. ... An antibiotic is a drug that kills or slows the growth of bacteria. ... Penicillin is a β-lactam antibiotic used in the treatment of bacterial infections caused by susceptible, usually Gram-positive, organisms. ... A typical modern surgery operation For other meanings of the word, see Surgery (disambiguation) Surgery (from the Greek cheirourgia - lit. ... A drug is any substance that can be used to modify a chemical process or processes in the body, for example to treat an illness, relieve a symptom, enhance a performance or ability, or to alter states of mind. ... See drugs, medication, and pharmacology for substances that are used to treat patients. ... A physician visiting the sick in a hospital. ... Nursing is a discipline focused on assisting individuals, families and communities in attaining, re-attaining and maintaining optimal health and functioning. ... Charles Darwin, father of the theory of evolution by natural selection. ... Psychoanalysis is a family of psychological theories and methods that work to elucidate connections among unconscious components of patients mental processes, and to do so in a systematic way through a process of tracing out associations. ...

Warfare was changed with the advent of new varieties of rifle, cannon, gun, machine gun, armor, tank, plane, jet, and missile. And weapons such as the atomic bomb and the hydrogen bomb, known along with chemical weapons and biological weapons as weapons of mass destruction actually made the devastation of the entire planet Earth possible in minutes. All these are among the markings of the Modern World. A rifle is any long gun which has a rifled barrel. ... A small cast-iron cannon on a carriage A cannon is any large tubular firearm designed to fire a heavy projectile over a considerable distance. ... Look up Gun in Wiktionary, the free dictionary A gun is a mechanical device that fires projectiles at high velocity, using a propellant such as gun powder or compressed air. ... A machine gun is a fully-automatic firearm that is capable of firing bullets in rapid succession. ... Alternative meanings: vehicle armour, Armor (novel) A hoplite wearing a helmet, a breastplate and greaves (and nothing else). ... Fixed-wing aircraft is a term used to refer to what are more commonly known as aeroplanes in Commonwealth English (excluding Canada) or airplanes in North American English. ... See also: Jet (disambiguation) A jet is a stream of fluid produced by discharge through an orifice into free space. ... A missile (British English: miss-isle; U.S. English: missl) is, in general, a projectile—that is, something thrown or otherwise propelled. ... The mushroom cloud of the atomic bombing of Nagasaki, Japan, 1945, rose some 18 km (11 mi) above the epicenter. ... The mushroom cloud of the atomic bombing of Nagasaki, Japan, in 1945 lifted nuclear fallout some 18 km (60,000 feet) above the epicenter. ... Early detection of chemical agents Sociopolitical climate of chemical warfare While the study of chemicals and their military uses was widespread in China, the use of toxic materials has historically been viewed with mixed emotions and some disdain in the West (especially when the enemy were doing it). ... Biological warfare, also known as germ warfare, is the use of any organism (bacteria, virus or other disease_causing organism) or toxin found in nature, as a weapon of war. ... Weapons of mass destruction (WMD) generally include nuclear, biological, chemical and, increasingly, radiological weapons. ... A planet (from the Greek πλανήτης, planētēs which means wanderer or more forcefully vagrant, tramp) is an object in orbit around a star that is not a star in its own right. ... Earth, also known as the Earth, Terra, and (mostly in the 19th century) Tellus, is the third planet outward from the Sun. ...

New attitudes to religion, with the church diminished, and a desire for personal freedoms, induced desires for sexual freedoms, which were ultimately accepted by large sectors of the Western World. Theories of "free love" and uninhibited sex were touted by radicals in the 1960s. A church building is a building used in Christian worship. ... Human sexuality is the expression of sexual feelings. ... The term Western world can have multiple meanings depending on its context. ... Free love is an ideology that love and sexual activities should be shared amongst many, and not be confined to long term relationships. ... Look up Sex in Wiktionary, the free dictionary A sex is one of two specimen categories of species that recombine their genetic material in order to reproduce, a process called genetic recombination. ...

Equality of the sexes in politics and economics, women's liberation movement, gay rights for homosexuals and the freedom afforded by contraception allowed for greater personal choices in these intimate areas of personal life. Feminism is a diverse collection of social theories, political movements, and moral philosophies, largely motivated by or concerning the experiences of women, especially in terms of their social, political, and economic situation. ... The gay rights movement is a collection of loosely aligned civil rights groups, human rights groups, support groups and political activists seeking acceptance, tolerance and equality for non-heterosexual, (homosexual, bisexual), and transgender people - despite the fact that it is typically referred to as the gay rights movement, members also... Since its coining, the term homosexuality has aquired multiple meanings. ...

The combination and confluence of all these evolving extreme political, economic, industrial, scientific, medical, technological, psychological, and cultural changes continue to produce what we know today as the Modern World. Politics is the process and method of decision-making for groups of human beings. ... Economics (deriving from the Greek words οίκω [okos], house, and νέμω [nemo], rules hence household management) is the social science that studies the allocation of scarce resources to satisfy unlimited wants. ... For the scientific journal named Science, see Science (journal). ... See drugs, medication, and pharmacology for substances that are used to treat patients. ... Technology (Gr. ... Psychology (ancient Greek: psyche = soul and logos = word) is the study of mind, thought, and behaviour. ... The word culture comes from the Latin root colere (to inhabit, to cultivate, or to honor). ...

Famous people

The Modern world replaced the Biblically-oriented value system, the monarchical government system, and the feudal economic system, with new democratic and liberal ideas in the areas of politics, science, psychology, sociology, and economics. These new ideas were derived from the writings of such people as: Parts of this article contradict each other. ... Democracy is a form of government under which the power to alter the laws and structures of government lies, ultimately, with the citizenry. ... In politics, the term liberal refers to: an adherent of the ideology of liberalism —an ideology espousing liberty. ... The Elections and Parties Series Democracy Representative democracy History of democracy Referenda Liberal democracy Representation Voting Voting systems Ideology Elections Elections by country Elections by calender Electoral systems Politics Politics by country Political campaigns Political science Political philosophy Related topics Political parties Parties by country Parties by name Parties by... // What is science? There are different theories of what science is. ... Psychology (Classical Greek: psyche = soul or mind, logos = study of) is an academic and applied field involving the study of behaviour, mind and thought and, frequently, the application of such knowledge to various spheres of human activity, including problems of individuals daily lives and the treatment of mental illness. ... Social interactions of people and their consequences are the subject of sociology studies. ... Wikibooks has more about this subject: Economics Wikibooks Wikiversity has more about this subject: School of Economics U.S. Economic Calendar Economics at the Open Directory Project Economics textbooks on Wikibooks The Economists Economics A-Z Institutions and organizations Bureau of Labor Statistics - from the American Labor Department Center...

(Note: The list below is not comprehensive by any means. To name all the thinkers and personalities who helped shape the modern age would be a voluminous undertaking. This selection is meant as a profile of the way major thinkers contributed to the creation of the world as we know it today. They are listed chronologically by year of birth.)

• Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) Refutes geocentric theory, proposes a model placing the Sun at the center of the universe.
• Petrus Apianus (1495 - 1557), astronomer and cartographer. Published the first table of sines.
• Tycho Brahe (1546 - 1601), astronomer, astrologer and alchemist, proposed the Tychonian system in contrast to both the traditional Geocentric model and the new version of Heliocentrism.
• Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) Wrote Starry Messenger reinforced Copernicus' heliocentric theory. Used early telescope to discover planets, mountains on the moon, sun spots, and the Milky Way in space.
• René Descartes (1596-1650) Wrote Meditations on First Philosophy and Discourse on Method. Rejected Aristotelian and Scholastic traditions; Boosted rationalism
• Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677) Elevated scientific pantheism and rationalism
• John Locke (1632-1704) Refutes Divine right of kings Role of tolerance in government
• Isaac Newton (1642-1727) Wrote Philosophiae naturalis principia mathematica or Principia. Revolutionized mathematics, optics, and physics, laid the foundations for modern science
• Voltaire (1694-1778) Wrote Candide opposing Leibniz's "metaphysical optimism". Author and Philosopher freethinker before the French Revolution
• Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790) Wrote Poor Richard's Almanack. Architect of liberty and helped draft the American Declaration of Independence
• Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) Wrote Social Contract :All men are born free and equal, rights of citizens and Will of the people
• Adam Smith (1723-1790) Wrote Wealth of Nations. Father of Classical Economics. Advocated laissez-faire market forces
• Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) Wrote The Critique of Pure Reason in (1781). German philosopher and founder of critical philosophy. Explored role of knowledge and mind. Contributed to metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, and aesthetics.
• Edmund Burke (1729-1797) Free trade and constitutional statesmanship against misgovernmemt
• Georg Hegel (1770-1831) Wrote Elements of the Philosophy of Right (1821). Concepts of dialectics, thesis and antithesis and synthesis central to Hegelian philosophy.
• John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) Wrote Principles of Political Economy advocating greater interaction between Labor and wealth
• Charles Darwin (1809-1882) Wrote On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection. Theory of evolution and homosapiens. Naturalism, botany
• Karl Marx (1818-1883) Wrote Das Kapital, Marxism, Communism. Dictatorship of the proletariat
• Louis Pasteur (1822–1895) Chiral molecules, existence of germs (microorganisms), pasteurization, vaccine against rabies.
• Leo Tolstoy (1828-1910) Wrote War and Peace and chronicled the tumultuous conditions in Russia, its pre-Revolutionary anarchy, nihilism and social turmoil. Preached a form of Christian peace.
• Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900) Wrote Thus Spoke Zarathustra and The Will to Power. Criticized traditional Christian values such as guilt. Preached concept of will to power and doctrine of the Übermensch ("Superman" or "Ultimate Man") that was later twisted and abused by Hitlerian Fascism and the Nazis as a rationale for Germanic anti-Semitism and the genocide of Jews
• Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) Wrote Interpretation of Dreams, The Ego and the Id, Five Lectures on Psycho-Analysis. Medical doctor. Started as neurologist. Father of psychoanalysis. Revealing the hidden subconscious libido and thanatos and the workings of the Ego, Superego and Id on human personality and behavior. Sought cures for modern neurosis and psychosis of neurotic and psychotic patients.
• John Dewey (1859-1952) Wrote Democracy and Education (1916) Philosopher of pragmatism and Social Darwinism.
• Theodor Herzl (1860-1904) Wrote Judenstaat ("Jewish State"). Father of modern Zionism. Laid down the political groundwork for the future State of Israel. Convened First Zionist Congress (1897) in Basel, Switzerland establishing the World Zionist Organization predicting a Jewish state within 50 years.
• Max Weber (1864-1920) Wrote The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1905), Economy and Society (1914), The Methodology of the Social Sciences (Pub. 1949 ). Forming sociology. Father of Social Sciences and study of the social system.
• Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948) Hindu philosopher and lawyer,proponent of non violent protest contributed to the end of British rule in India and Pakistan helping to end the British Empire.
• Bertrand Russell (1872-1970) (together with Alfred North Whitehead (1861-1947)), wrote Principia Mathematica connecting with Pythagoras and Plato. Russell wrote The Problems of Philosophy, Why I Am Not a Christian (1927) and much more. Logician, mathematician philosopher of liberalism and an activist pacifist, in 1958 becomes founding President of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament.
• Winston Churchill (1874-1965) Wrote History of the English-Speaking Peoples. Political saviour of Britain facing Nazism Strategic theoretician of the Atlantic Alliance between Britain and the USA.
• Carl Gustav Jung (1875-1961) Wrote Symbols and Transformation (1912), Psychological Types (1921), Psychology and Religion: West and East, Psycholgy and Alchemy (1944), Practice of Psychotherapy. Role of mythology, religion and God in psychology.
• Albert Einstein (1879-1955) Postulated E=mc². All matter is energy and light. Atomic theories helped the USA build the first atom bomb. Contributed to evolution of atomic energy, the atomic bomb, and nuclear weapons. Peace activist and warned about perils of nuclear war.
• Leon Trotsky (1879-1940) Revolutionary Bolshevik leader and "Father of the Red Army". The Writings of Leon Trotsky shaped Trotskyism.
• John Maynard Keynes (1883-1946) Wrote The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money in (1936) key in modern economics on employment and supply and demand.
• D.H. Lawrence (1885-1930) Wrote Lady Chatterley's Lover and Sons and Lovers Promoted literary eroticism and sexual freedom. Fought efforts by censors objecting to pornography.
• T.S. Eliot (1888-1965) Wrote The waste land in 1922 and The hollow men in 1925 poet describing the frustrations of love and the emptiness of existence.
• Adolf Hitler (1889-1945) German dictator (1933-1945). Wrote Mein Kampf (1925) whilst in prison for a failed putsch, outlining his views which he put into practice. Doctrine of vicious Anti-Semitism, developed Nazism, and wanted genocide against non-Aryan peoples.
• Walt Disney (1901-1966) Creator of animated movies, revolutionized story-telling by introducing fictional Mickey Mouse, Donald Duck, Goofy, Minnie Mouse, and Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs loved and imitated by millions of children and adults. Creator of pop culture.
• George Orwell (1903-1950) Wrote Animal Farm and 1984 warning about the dangers of totalitarianism and the state as Big Brother
• Alexander Solzhenitsyn (1918- ) Wrote The Gulag Archipelago 1918-1956: An Experiment in Literary Investigation. Intellectual who rejected cruelties of communism in the USSR.

Nicolaus Copernicus (in Latin; Polish MikoÅ‚aj Kopernik, German Nikolaus Kopernikus); February 19, 1473 – May 24, 1543) was a Polish astronomer, mathematician and economist who developed the heliocentric (Sun-centered) theory of the solar system in a form detailed enough to make it scientifically useful. ... Events Ottoman sultan Mehmed II defeats the White Sheep Turkmens lead by Uzun Hasan at Otlukbeli Axayacatl, Aztec ruler of Tenochtitlan invades the territory of neighboring Aztec city of Tlatelolco. ... Events February 21 - Battle of Wayna Daga - A combined army of Ethiopian and Portuguese troops defeat the armies of Adal led by Ahmed Gragn. ... The geocentric model (in Greek: geo = earth and centron = centre) of the universe is a paradigm which places the Earth at its center. ... The Sun is the star at the centre of our Solar system. ... The deepest visible-light image of the cosmos. ... Petrus Apianus (real name Peter Bienewitz) (April 16, 1495 - April 21, 1557) was a German astronomer, cartographer and instrument maker. ... Events February 22 - King Charles VIII of France enters Naples to claim the citys throne. ... Events Spain is effectively bankrupt. ... An astronomer or spmething i cant inderstand is a scientist whose area of research is astronomy or astrophysics. ... In mathematics, the trigonometric functions are functions of an angle, important when studying triangles and modeling periodic phenomena. ... Tycho Brahe (December 14, 1546 Knudstrup, Denmark – October 24, 1601 Prague, Bohemia (now Czech Republic)) was a Danish nobleman, well known as an astronomer/astrologer (the two were not yet distinct) and alchemist. ... Events Spanish conquest of Yucatan Peace between England and France Foundation of Trinity College, Cambridge by Henry VIII of England Katharina von Bora flees to Magdeburg Science Architecture Michelangelo Buonarroti is made chief architect of St. ... Bold textItalic textLink titlelink title // Headline text Media:Example. ... An astrological chart (or horoscope) _ Y2K Chart — This particular chart is calculated for January 1, 2000 at 12:01:00 A.M. Eastern Standard Time in New York City, New York, USA. (Longitude: 074W0023 - Latitude: 40N4251) Astrology (from Greek: αστρολογία = άστρον, astron, star + λόγος, logos, word) is... Alchemy is an early protoscientific practice combining elements of chemistry, physics, astrology, art, semiotics, metallurgy, medicine, mysticism, and religion. ... Tychonian system The Tychonian system was an effort by Tycho Brahe to create a model that allows for observations such as the phases of Venus within a geocentric model. ... This drawing from an Icelandic manuscript dated around 1750 illustrates the geocentric model. ... Heliocentric Solar System In astronomy, heliocentrism is the theory that the Sun is at the center of the Universe and/or the Solar System. ... Galileo Galilei (Pisa, February 15, 1564 – Arcetri, January 8, 1642), was a Tuscan astronomer, philosopher, and physicist who is closely associated with the scientific revolution. ... Events March 8 - Naples bans kissing in public under the penalty of death June 22 - Fort Caroline, the first French attempt at colonizing the New World September 10 - The Battle of Kawanakajima Ottoman Turks invade Malta Modern pencil becomes common in England Conquistadors crossed the Pacific Spanish found a colony... Events January 4 - Charles I attempts to arrest five leading members of the Long Parliament, but they escape. ... In astronomy, heliocentrism is the theory that the Sun is at the center of the Universe and/or the Solar System. ... 50 cm refracting telescope at Nice Observatory. ... A planet (from the Greek πλανήτης, planetes or wanderers) is a body of considerable mass that orbits a star and that produces very little or no energy through nuclear fusion. ... Crust composition Oxygen 43% Silicon 21% Aluminium 10% Calcium 9% Iron 9% Magnesium 5% Titanium 2% Nickel 0. ... 400 year sunspot history A sunspot is a region on the Suns surface (photosphere) that is marked by a lower temperature than its surroundings, and intense magnetic activity. ... The Milky Way (a translation of the Latin Via Lactea, in turn derived from the Latin Galaxia Kuklos) is the galaxy in which the Earth is found. ... René Descartes René Descartes (IPA: , March 31, 1596–February 11, 1650), also known as Cartesius, was a French philosopher, mathematician and part-time mercenary. ... Events February 5 - 26 catholics crucified in Nagasaki, Japan. ... // Events June 23 - Claimant King Charles II of England, Scotland and Ireland arrives in Scotland, the only of the three Kingdoms that has accepted him as ruler. ... Meditations on First Philosophy (subtitled In which the existence of God and the real distinction of mind and body, are demonstrated), written by René Descartes (1596 - 1650) and first published in 1641, expands upon Descartes philosophical system, which he first introduced in his Discourse on Method (1637). ... The Discourse on Method is a philosophical and mathematical treatise published by René Descartes in 1637. ... This article needs cleanup. ... Scholastic redirects here. ... Rationalism, also known as the rationalist movement, is a philosophical doctrine that asserts that the truth should be determined by reason and factual analysis, rather than faith, dogma or religious teaching. ... Benedictus de Spinoza (November 24, 1632 – February 21, 1677), was named Baruch Spinoza by his synagogue elders and known as Bento de Spinoza or Bento dEspiñoza in his native Amsterdam. ... See also: 1632 (novel) Events February 22 - Galileos Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems is published July 23 - 300 colonists for New France depart Dieppe November 8 - Wladyslaw IV Waza elected king of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth after Zygmunt III Waza death November 16 - Battle of Lützen... Events First performance of Racines tragedy, Phèdre Sarah Churchill marries John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough Battle of Cassel, Philippe I of Orléans defeats William of Orange Mary II of England marries William of Orange English Statute of frauds is passed into law Battle of Landskrona Elias... Pantheism literally means God is All and All is God. It is the view that everything is of an all-encompassing immanent God; or that the universe, or nature, and God are equivalent. ... Rationalism, also known as the rationalist movement, is a philosophical doctrine that asserts that the truth should be determined by reason and factual analysis, rather than faith, dogma or religious teaching. ... John Locke John Locke (August 29, 1632–October 28, 1704) was a 17th-century philosopher concerned primarily with society and epistemology. ... See also: 1632 (novel) Events February 22 - Galileos Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems is published July 23 - 300 colonists for New France depart Dieppe November 8 - Wladyslaw IV Waza elected king of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth after Zygmunt III Waza death November 16 - Battle of Lützen... Events Building of the Students Monument in Aiud, Romania. ... The Divine Right of Kings is a European political and religious doctrine of political absolutism. ... Tolerance is a social, cultural and religious term applied to the collective and individual practice of not persecuting those who may believe, behave or act in ways of which one may not approve. ... Sir Isaac Newton in Godfrey Knellers 1689 portrait Sir Isaac Newton (25 December 1642 – 20 March 1727 by the Julian calendar in use in England at the time; or 4 January 1643 – 31 March 1727 by the Gregorian calendar) was an English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, philosopher, and alchemist who... Events January 4 - Charles I attempts to arrest five leading members of the Long Parliament, but they escape. ... Events June 11 - George, Prince of Wales becomes King George II of Great Britain. ... Newtons own copy of his Principia, with hand written corrections for the second edition. ... Wikibooks Wikiversity has more about this subject: School of Mathematics Wikiquote has a collection of quotations by or about: Mathematics Look up Mathematics in Wiktionary, the free dictionary Wikimedia Commons has more media related to: Mathematics Bogomolny, Alexander: Interactive Mathematics Miscellany and Puzzles. ... See also list of optical topics. ... The willingness to question previously held truths and search for new answers resulted in a period of major scientific advancements, now known as the Scientific Revolution. ... For the scientific journal named Science, see Science (journal). ... Voltaire François-Marie Arouet (November 21, 1694 – May 30, 1778), better known by the pen name Voltaire, was a French Enlightenment writer, deist and philosopher. ... Events February 6 - The colony Quilombo dos Palmares is destroyed. ... 1778 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... Candide ou lOptimisme (1759) is a novel by the Enlightenment philosopher Voltaire. ... // Metaphysics (Greek words meta = after/beyond and physics = nature) is a branch of philosophy concerned with the study of first principles and being (ontology). ... During the French Revolution (1789–1799) democracy and republicanism overthrew the absolute monarchy in France, and the French portion of the Roman Catholic Church was forced to undergo radical restructuring. ... Benjamin Franklin by Jean-Baptiste Greuze 1777 For the former mayor of Nepean, see Ben Franklin (politician) Dr. Benjamin Franklin (January 17, 1706 – April 17, 1790) was an American printer, journalist, publisher, author, philanthropist, abolitionist, public servant, scientist, librarian, diplomat,Atheist and inventor. ... Events March 27 - Concluding that Emperor Iyasus I of Ethiopia had abdicated by retiring to a monastery, a council of high officials appoint Tekle Haymanot I Emperor of Ethiopia May 23 - Battle of Ramillies November 5 - The Dublin Gazette publishes its first edition. ... 1790 was a common year starting on Friday (see link for calendar). ... Poor Richards Almanac (sometimes Almanack) was a yearly almanac published by Benjamin Franklin, who adopted the pseudonym of Poor Richard or Richard Saunders for the purpose of this work in the title. ... Liberty is generally thought of in English as a condition in which an individual has immunity from the arbitrary exercise of authority; it often also implies the right to exercise political rights such as standing for office. ... A declaration of independence is a proclamation of the independence of a newly formed or reformed independent state, usually from a part or the whole of the territory of another nation, or a document containing such a declaration. ... Jean-Jacques Rousseau Jean Jacques Rousseau (June 28, 1712 - July 2, 1778) was a Swiss-French philosopher, writer, political theorist, and self-taught composer of The Age of Enlightenment Biography of Rousseau The tomb of Rousseau in the crypt of the Panthéon, Paris Rousseau was born in Geneva, Switzerland... // Events Treaty of Aargau signed between Catholic and Protestants. ... 1778 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... For political policies of the same name see Bob Raes Social Contract (Ontario) and Harold Wilsons Social Contract (Britain) Social contract is a phrase used in philosophy, political science, and sociology to denote a real or hypothetical agreement within a state regarding the rights and responsibilities of the... Personal Liberty is one of the meanings of freedom. Statue of Liberty - Societal Liberty is one of the meanings of freedom. For proper-noun uses of Freedom, see Freedom (disambiguation). ... Equality is a social state of affairs in which certain different people have the same status in a certain respect. ... For the direction right, see left and right or starboard. ... Citizenship is membership in a political community (originally a city but now a state), and carries with it rights to political participation; a person having such membership is a citizen. ... Adam Smith Adam Smith, LL.D. , FRS (Baptised June 5, 1723 – July 17, 1790) was a Scottish political economist and moral philosopher. ... Events February 16 - Louis XV of France attains his majority Births February 24 - John Burgoyne, British general (d. ... 1790 was a common year starting on Friday (see link for calendar). ... An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations is the magnum opus of Adam Smith, published in 1776. ... Classical economics is a school of economic thought whose major developers include William Petty, Adam Smith, David Ricardo, Thomas Malthus, and John Stuart Mill, and Johann Heinrich von Thünen. ... Immanuel Kant (April 22, 1724 – February 12, 1804) was a German philosopher and geographer from Prussia, generally regarded as one of Europes most influential thinkers and the last major philosopher of the Enlightenment. ... Events January 14 - King Philip V of Spain abdicates the throne February 20 - The premiere of Giulio Cesare, an Italian opera by George Frideric Handel, takes place in London June 23 - Treaty of Constantinople signed. ... 1804 was a leap year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... The Critique of Pure Reason is widely regarded as the philosopher Immanuel Kants major work, first published in 1781, with a second edition in 1787. ... 1781 was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar). ... Attributed to Immanuel Kant, the critical philosophy movement sees the primary task of philosophy as criticism rather than justification. ... Knowledge is the awareness and understanding of facts, truths or information gained in the form of experience or learning (a posteriori), or through deductive reasoning (a priori). ... The mind is the term most commonly used to describe the higher functions of the human brain, particularly those of which humans are subjectively conscious, such as personality, thought, reason, memory, intelligence and emotion. ... // Metaphysics (Greek words meta = after/beyond and physics = nature) is a branch of philosophy concerned with the study of first principles and being (ontology). ... Epistemology, from the Greek words episteme (knowledge) and logos (word/speech) is the branch of philosophy that deals with the nature, origin and scope of knowledge. ... Ethics is the branch of axiology – one of the four major branches of philosophy, alongside metaphysics, epistemology, and logic – which attempts to understand the nature of morality; to define that which is right from that which is wrong. ... Aesthetics (also esthetics) is the philosophy of beauty and art. ... Edmund Burke The Right Honourable Edmund Burke (January 12, 1729 – July 9, 1797) was an Anglo-Irish statesman, author, orator and political philosopher, who served for many years in the British House of Commons as a member of the Whig party. ... Events July 30 - Baltimore, Maryland is founded. ... 1797 was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... A fruit stand at a market. ... The term statesman is a respectful term used to refer to diplomats, politicians, and other notable figures of state. ... G.W.F. Hegel Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (August 27, 1770 - November 14, 1831) was a German philosopher born in Stuttgart, Württemberg, in present-day southwest Germany. ... 1770 - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia /**/ @import /skins-1. ... 1831 was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ... Hegels Elements of the Philosophy of Right (Grundlinien der Philosophie des Rechts) was published in 1820, though the books original title page dates it to 1821. ... 1821 was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar). ... Broadly speaking, a dialectic (Greek: διαλεκτική) is an exchange of propositions (theses) and counter-propositions (antitheses) resulting in a disagreement. ... A thesis (literally: position from the Greek θέσις) is an intellectual proposition. ... Antithesis (from the Greek anti = against and thesis = position) is a figure of speech involving a seeming contradiction of ideas, words, clauses, or sentences within a balanced grammatical structure. ... Synthesis (from the Greek words syn = plus and thesis = position) is commonly understood to be an integration of two or more pre-existing elements which results in a new creation. ... G.W.F. Hegel Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (August 27, 1770 - November 14, 1831) was a German philosopher born in Stuttgart, Württemberg, in present-day southwest Germany. ... John Stuart Mill (May 20, 1806 – May 8, 1873), aka JS Mill, an English philosopher and political economist, was an influential liberal thinker of the 19th century. ... 1806 was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ... 1873 was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ... Wealth usually refers to money and property. ... Charles Darwin in 1854, five years prior to the publication of The Origin of Species Charles Robert Darwin (12 February 1809–19 April 1882) was a British naturalist who achieved lasting fame as originator of the theory of evolution through natural selection. ... 1809 was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... 1882 was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... The 1859 edition of On the Origin of Species First published in 1859, The Origin of Species (full title On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life) by British naturalist Charles Darwin is one of the pivotal... Natural selection is a process by which biological populations are altered over time, as a result of the propagation of heritable traits that affect the capacity of individual organisms to survive and reproduce. ... Charles Darwin, father of the theory of evolution by natural selection. ... Human beings are defined variously in biological, spiritual, and cultural terms, or in combinations thereof. ... Naturalism refers to a number of different topics: Philosophical naturalism: the view that nothing exists but the world — that there are no supernatural entities. ... Botany is the scientific study of plant life. ... Karl Marx Karl Heinrich Marx (May 5, 1818 Trier, Germany – March 14, 1883 London, UK) was an influential German philosopher, political economist, and revolutionary organizer of the International Workingmens Association, two of whose books in particular, Das Kapital and The Communist Manifesto (the latter with Friedrich Engels), laid the... 1818 is a common year starting on Thursday. ... 1883 was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar). ... Das Kapital (Capital) is a very large treatise of political economy written by Karl Marx in German. ... Marxism is the political practice and social theory based on the works of Karl Marx, a 19th century German philosopher, economist, journalist, and revolutionary, along with Friedrich Engels. ... This article is about communism as a form of society and as a popular movement. ... The proletariat (from Latin proles, offspring) is a term used to identify a lower social class; a member of such a class is called a proletarian. ... Louis Pasteur (December 27, 1822 – September 28, 1895) was a French microbiologist and chemist. ... 1822 was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ... 1895 was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ... In chemistry, a molecule is chiral if is not superimposable on its mirror image regardless of how it is contorted. ... This article is about disease-causing organisms. ... A microorganism or microbe is an organism that is so small that it is microscopic (invisible to the naked eye). ... Pasteurization is the process of heating food for the purpose of killing harmful organisms such as bacteria, viruses, protozoa, molds, and yeasts. ... A bottle and a syringe containing the influenza vaccine. ... Lev Tolstoy, pictured late in life Count Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy   listen? (Russian: Лев Никола́евич Толсто́й; commonly referred to in English as Leo Tolstoy) (September 9, 1828 – November 20, 1910; August 28, 1828 – November 7, 1910, O.S.) was a Russian novelist, social reformer, Christian anarchist, vegetarian, moral thinker and an influential member of... 1828 was a leap year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ... 1910 in topic: Arts Architecture- Art- Film- Literature- Music- Television Science and technology Aviation- Rail transport- Science Other topics Australia- Canada- Ireland- South Africa- Sport Births- Deaths Lists of leaders: State leaders - Religious leaders 1910 was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ... War and Peace (Война и мир [Voyna i mir], in original orthography Война и миръ) is an epic novel of Russian history and society by Leo Tolstoy, first published from 1865 to 1869, which tells the story of Russia during the Napoleonic Era. ... Anarchy (New Latin anarchia, from Greek ανα–, no + αρχη, rule) is a term that has several usages. ... Gods death or nonexistence is a quintessential nihilistic concern. ... Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (October 15, 1844 – August 25, 1900) was an influential German philosopher, psychologist, and philologist. ... 1844 was a leap year starting on Monday (see link for calendar). ... 1900 is a common year starting on Monday. ... Also sprach Zarathustra (Thus Spoke Zarathustra or Thus Spake Zarathustra) is a book started in 1885 by German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche; it is arguably one of the most famous books in philosophy. ... Friedrich Nietzsche, 1882 Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (October 15, 1844 - August 25, 1900) was a highly influential German philosopher. ... Guilt is a concept used in various ways in various contexts. ... In Thus spake Zarathustra (in German, Also sprach Zarathustra), the German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche explains the steps through which man can become an Ãœbermensch ((homo superior): By his will to power, manifested destructively in the rejection of, and rebellion against, old ideals and moral codes; By his will to power... Adolf Hitler Adolf Hitler (April 20, 1889 – April 30, 1945, standard German pronunciation in the IPA) was the Führer (leader) of the National Socialist German Workers Party (Nazi Party) and of Nazi Germany from 1933 to 1945. ... Fascism (in Italian, fascismo), capitalized, was the authoritarian political movement which ruled Italy from 1922 to 1943 under the leadership of Benito Mussolini. ... The Nazi party used a right-facing swastika as their symbol and the red and black colors were said to represent Blut und Boden (blood and soil). ... The Eternal Jew: 1937 German poster. ... Look up Genocide in Wiktionary, the free dictionary Most generally, Genocide is the deliberate destruction of a social identity. ... Sigmund Freud Sigmund Freud (May 6, 1856 – September 23, 1939) was an Austrian psychiatrist and the founder of the psychoanalytic school of psychology, a movement that popularized the theory that unconscious motives control much behavior. ... 1856 was a leap year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ... 1939 was a common year starting on Sunday (link will take you to calendar). ... Dream interpretation is the art of determining the meaning (or alleged meaning) of the symbolic content of a dream. ... See drugs, medication, and pharmacology for substances that are used to treat patients. ... Neurology is the branch of medicine that deals with the nervous system and disorders affecting it. ... Psychoanalysis is a family of psychological theories and methods that work to elucidate connections among unconscious components of patients mental processes, and to do so in a systematic way through a process of tracing out associations. ... Subconscious may refer to: that which is subliminal to consciousness the underlying consciousness see subconsciousness. ... Libido in its common usage means sexual desire, however more technical definitions, such as found in the work of Carl Jung, are more general, referring to libido as the free creative, or psychic, energy an individual has to put toward personal development, or individuation. ... In Greek mythology, Thanatos (θάνατος, death) was the personification of death (Roman equivalent: Mors). ... In his theory of psychoanalysis, Sigmund Freud sought to explain how the unconscious mind operates by proposing that it has a particular structure. ... This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ... Behavior refers to the actions or reactions of an object or organism, usually in relation to the environment. ... The term neurosis was coined by the Scottish doctor, William Cullen in 1769 to refer to “disorders of sense and motion” caused by a “general affection of the nervous system. ... Psychosis - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia /**/ @import /skins-1. ... A neurosis, in psychoanalytic theory, is an ineffectual coping strategy that Sigmund Freud suggested was caused by emotions from past experience overwhelming or interfering with present experience. ... Psychosis is a psychiatric classification for a mental state in which the perception of reality is distorted. ... A patient is the name given to any person who is ill or injured and is being treated by, or in need of treatment by, a physician or other medical professional. ... John Dewey (October 20, 1859 – June 1, 1952) was an American philosopher, psychologist, and educational reformer, whose thought has been greatly influential in the United States and around the world. ... 1859 is a common year starting on Saturday. ... 1952 - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia /**/ @import /skins-1. ... 1916 is a leap year starting on Saturday (link will take you to calendar) // Events January-February January 1 -The first successful blood transfusion using blood that had been stored and cooled. ... Pragmatism is a school of philosophy which originated in the United States in the late 1800s. ... Social Darwinism is a social theory which holds that Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection is not only a model for the development of biological traits in a population, but can also be applied to human social institutions. ... Theodor Herzl, in his middle age. ... 1860 is the leap year starting on Sunday. ... 1904 is a leap year starting on a Friday (link will take you to calendar). ... Der Judenstaat (The Jewish State) is a book written by Theodor Herzl and published in 1896. ... For other meanings, please see Zionism (disambiguation) Zionism is a Jewish political movement, developed in response to 19th century anti-Semitism, which maintains that the Jewish people are entitled to a national homeland in Palestine, the location of the ancient Kingdom of Israel. ... The World Zionist Organization [WZO] was founded as the Zionist Organization [ZO] on September 3, 1897, at the First Zionist Congress held in Basel, Switzerland. ... 1897 was a common year starting on Friday (see link for calendar). ... Location within Switzerland Basel (English traditionally: Basle , German: Basel , French Bâle , Italian Basilea ) is Switzerlands third most populous city (188,000 inhabitants in the canton of Basel-City as of 2004; the 690,000 inhabitants in the conurbation stretching across the immediate cantonal and national boundaries made Basel... The World Zionist Organization [WZO] was founded as the Zionist Organization [ZO] on September 3, 1897, at the First Zionist Congress held in Basel, Switzerland. ... The word Jew (Hebrew: יהודי) is used in a wide number of ways, but generally refers to a follower of the Jewish faith, a child of a Jewish mother, or someone of Jewish descent with a connection to Jewish culture or ethnicity; and often a combination of these attributes. ... Maximilian Weber (April 21, 1864 – June 14, 1920) was a German political economist and sociologist who is considered one of the founders of the modern, antipositivistic study of sociology and public administration. ... 1864 was a leap year starting on Friday (see link for calendar). ... 1920 is a leap year starting on Thursday (link will take you to calendar) // Events January January 7 - Forces of Russian White admiral Kolchak surrender in Krasnoyarsk. ... 1905 was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... 1914 is a common year starting on Thursday. ... 1949 is a common year starting on Saturday. ... Social interactions of people and their consequences are the subject of sociology studies. ... The Social Sciences are a group of academic and research disciples that study the human aspects of the world, that requires the application of the scientific method. ... Social structure (also referred to as a social system) is a system in which people forming the society are organized by a patterns of prelationships. ... Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (or the honorifc title Mahatma Gandhi) (October 2, 1869 – January 30, 1948) (Devanagari: मोहनदास करमचन्द गांधी, Gujarati મોહનદાસ કરમચંદ ગાંધી) was the charismatic leader who brought the fight for Indias independence from British colonial rule to world attention. ... 1869 is a common year starting on Friday (link will take you to calendar). ... 1948 is a leap year starting on Thursday (link will take you to calendar). ... A Hindu is an adherent of Hinduism, the predominant religious, philosophical and cultural system of Bharat (India). ... See Satyagraha (opera) for an account of the opera of that title by Philip Glass. ... The British Empire in 1897, marked in pink, the traditional colour for Imperial British dominions on maps. ... Bertrand Russell Bertrand Arthur William Russell, 3rd Earl Russell, OM (18 May 1872 – 2 February 1970) was an influential British mathematician, philosopher, and logician, working mostly in the 20th century. ... 1872 was a leap year starting on Monday (see link for calendar). ... 1970 was a common year starting on Thursday. ... Alfred North Whitehead Alfred North Whitehead (February 15, 1861, Ramsgate, Kent, UK – December 30, 1947, Cambridge, MA) was a British-American philosopher, physicist and mathematician who worked in logic, mathematics, philosophy of science and metaphysics. ... 1861 is a common year starting on Tuesday. ... 1947 was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will take you to calendar). ... For Isaac Newtons 1687 book containing basic laws of physics, see Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica The Principia Mathematica is a three-volume work on the foundations of mathematics, written by Bertrand Russell and Alfred North Whitehead and published in 1910-1913. ... Pythagoras (582 BC – 496 BC, Greek: Πυθαγόρας) was an Ionian mathematician and philosopher, known best for formulating the Pythagorean theorem. ... Statue of a philosopher, presumably Plato, in Delphi. ... ... 1927 was a common year starting on Saturday (link will take you to calendar). ... The article titled Logicians treats the ancient Chinese philosophers known by that name (with a capital L). List of logicians (with a lower-case l) treats philosophers, mathematicians, and others whose topic of scholarly study is logic. ... A mathematician is a person whose area of study and research is mathematics. ... A philosopher is a person devoted to studying and producing results in philosophy. ... Note: This entry discusses liberalism as a world wide ideology, not its manifestations in any specific country. ... Activism, in a general sense, can be described as involvement in action to bring about change, be it social, political, environmental, or other change. ... Pacifism is opposition to the use of force to settle disagreements, specifically the taking up of arms in war. ... 1958 was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... CND logo In British politics, the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament has been at the forefront of the peace movement in the United Kingdom and claims to be Europes largest single-issue peace campaign. ... The Right Honourable Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill, KG, OM, CH, FRS PC (30 November 1874 – 24 January 1965) was a British statesman, best known as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom during the Second World War. ... 1874 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... 1965 was a common year starting on Friday (link goes to calendar). ... History of the English Speaking Peoples cover A History of the English Speaking Peoples is a four-volume history of Britain and the English speaking nations, written by Winston Churchill, covering the period from the Norman Conquest of Britain (1066) to the beginning of World War I (1914). ... The term National Socialism has been used in self-description by a number of different political groups and ideologies, some of which have no connection with the Nazis; see National socialism. ... NATO 2002 Summit The North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO), sometimes called North Atlantic Alliance, Atlantic Alliance or the Western Alliance, is an international organisation for defence collaboration established in 1949, in support of the North Atlantic Treaty signed in Washington, DC, on April 4, 1949. ... Carl Gustav Jung Carl Gustav Jung (July 26, 1875 – June 6, 1961) was a Swiss psychiatrist and founder of the neopsychoanalytic school of psychology. ... 1875 was a common year starting on Friday (see link for calendar). ... 1961 was a common year starting on Sunday (link will take you to calendar). ... 1912 is a leap year starting on Monday. ... 1921 was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ... 1944 was a leap year starting on Saturday (link will take you to calendar). ... Mythology is the study of myths: stories of a particular culture that it believes to be true and that feature a specific religious or belief system. ... The term God (capitalized in English language as a proper noun) is often used to refer to a Supreme Being. ... Psychology (Classical Greek: psyche = soul or mind, logos = study of) is an academic and applied field involving the study of behaviour, mind and thought and, frequently, the application of such knowledge to various spheres of human activity, including problems of individuals daily lives and the treatment of mental illness. ... Albert Einstein, by Yousuf Karsh Albert Einsteins letter to President Roosevelt in 1939 about his concerns Albert Einstein (March 14, 1879 – April 18, 1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist of Swiss and American citizenship, who is widely regarded as the greatest scientist of the 20th century. ... 1879 was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ... 1955 is a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar. ... E=mc² is a physical equation, first given by Albert Einstein in his 1905 paper Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content? (Ist die Trägheit eines Körpers von seinem Energieinhalt abhängig?), one of the articles now known as his Annus Mirabilis Papers. ... Matter is commonly referred to as the substance of which physical objects are composed. ... Prism splitting light Light is electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength that is visible to the eye or, in a technical or scientific setting, electromagnetic radiation of any wavelength. ... Properties For alternative meanings see atom (disambiguation). ... The mushroom cloud of the atomic bombing of Nagasaki, Japan, in 1945 lifted nuclear fallout some 18 km (60,000 feet) above the epicenter. ... Atomic energy is an outdated phrase which can mean a number of things related to energy produced by atoms: In the late- 19th century through the early- 20th century, it was often used to describe the particles ejected by radioactive elements (especially radium). ... The mushroom cloud of the atomic bombing of Nagasaki, Japan, 1945, rose some 18 km (11 mi) above the epicenter. ... The mushroom cloud of the atomic bombing of Nagasaki, Japan, 1945, rose some 18 km (11 mi) above the epicenter. ... The concept of peace ranks among the most controversial in our time. ... Nuclear war, or atomic war, is war in which nuclear weapons are used. ... 1915 passport photo of Trotsky Leon Davidovich Trotsky (Russian: Лев Давидович Троцкий; also transliterated Leo, Lev, Trotskii, Trotski, Trotskij and Trotzky ) (October 26 (O.S.) = November 7 (N.S.), 1879 – August 21, 1940), born Lev Davidovich Bronstein (Лев Давидович Бронштейн), was a Bolshevik revolutionary and Marxist intellectual. ... 1879 was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ... 1940 was a leap year starting on Monday (link will take you to calendar). ... Bolshevik Party Meeting. ... Trotskyism can refer to either the body of ideas associated with Leon Trotsky or the movement based on those ideas. ... John Maynard Keynes John Maynard Keynes, 1st Baron Keynes of Tilton (pronounced kānz / kAnze), ) (June 5, 1883 – April 21, 1946) was an English economist, whose ideas had a major impact on modern economic and political theory as well as on Franklin D. Roosevelts New Deal. ... 1883 was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar). ... 1946 was a common year starting on Tuesday. ... The General Theory of Employment Interest and Money is generally considered to be the masterwork of the English economist John Maynard Keynes. ... 1936 was a leap year starting on Wednesday (link will take you to calendar). ... Employment is a contract between two parties, one being the employer and the other being the employee. ... The supply and demand model describes how prices vary as a result of a balance between product availability at each price (supply) and the desires of those with purchasing power at each price (demand). ... D. H. Lawrence David Herbert Lawrence (11 September 1885 - 2 March 1930) was one of the most important, certainly one of the most controversial, English writers of the 20th century, who wrote novels, short stories, poems, plays, essays, travel books, and letters. ... 1885 is a common year starting on Thursday. ... 1930 is a common year starting on Wednesday. ... Lady Chatterleys Lover is a sexually explicit novel by D. H. Lawrence written in 1928. ... Sons and Lovers is a novel by D.H. Lawrence which tells the story of Paul Morel, a young man and a budding artist. ... Eroticism is an aesthetic focused on sexual desire, especially the feelings of anticipation of sexual activity. ... Censorship is the use of governmental power to control speech and other forms of human expression. ... Pornography (from Greek πορνογραφια pornographia — literally writing about or drawings of harlots) (also informally referred to as porn or porno) is the representation of the human body or human sexual behaviour with the goal of sexual arousal, similar to, but (according to some) distinct from, erotica. ... Thomas Stearns Eliot (September 26, 1888 - January 4, 1965), was a major Modernist Anglo-American poet, dramatist, and literary critic. ... 1888 is a leap year starting on Sunday (click on link for calendar). ... 1965 was a common year starting on Friday (link goes to calendar). ... T. S. Eliot (by E. O. Hoppe, 1919) The Waste Land is a 433-line poem by T. S. Eliot. ... 1922 was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... 1925 was a common year starting on Thursday (link will take you to calendar). ... Poets are authors of poems, or of other forms of poetry such as dramatic verse. ... A heart, a symbol of love Love has many meanings in English, from something that gives a little pleasure (I loved that meal) to something one would die for (patriotism, pairbonding). ... Adolf Hitler (April 20, 1889–April 30, 1945) was the Chancellor of Germany from 1933, and Führer und Reichskanzler (Leader and chancellor) of Germany from 1934, to his death. ... 1889 was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ... 1945 was a common year starting on Monday (link will take you to calendar). ... Cover of Mein Kampf Mein Kampf (German for My Struggle) is a book written by Adolf Hitler, combining elements of autobiography with an exposition of Hitlers political ideology of Nazism. ... 1925 was a common year starting on Thursday (link will take you to calendar). ... A coup détat, or simply a coup, is the sudden overthrow of a government, usually done by a small group that just replaces the top power figures. ... The Eternal Jew: 1937 German poster. ... The term National Socialism has been used in self-description by a number of different political groups and ideologies, some of which have no connection with the Nazis; see National socialism. ... Look up Genocide in Wiktionary, the free dictionary Most generally, Genocide is the deliberate destruction of a social identity. ... Aryan is an English word derived from the Indian Vedic Sanskrit and Iranian Avestan terms ari-, arya-, ārya-, and/or the extended form aryāna-. The Old Persian ariya- is a cognate as well. ... Walt Disney Walter Elias Walt Disney (December 5, 1901 – December 15, 1966), was an American film producer, director, screenwriter, voice actor, and animator. ... 1901 was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ... 1966 was a common year starting on Saturday (link goes to calendar) // Events January January 1 - In a coup, Colonel Jean-Bédel Bokassa ousts president David Dacko and takes over the Central African Republic. ... Animation refers to the process in which each frame of a film or movie is produced individually, whether generated as a computer graphic, or by photographing a drawn image, or by repeatedly making small changes to a model (see claymation and stop motion), and then photographing the result. ... Mickeys most recognizable look has him wearing red shorts and yellow shoes. ... Donald Duck Donald Duck is an animated cartoon and comic book character best known for his cartoons from Walt Disney Studios. ... Goofy Goofy is a fictional character from the Walt Disneys Mickey Mouse universe. ... Minnie Mouse is a fictional character of the Mickey Mouse universe featured in animated cartoons, comic strips and comic book by The Walt Disney Company. ... Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs is the first animated feature in the Disney animated features canon. ... Popular culture, or pop culture, is the vernacular (peoples) culture that prevails in a modern society. ... George Orwell Eric Arthur Blair (25 June 1903 – 21 January 1950), better known by the pen name George Orwell was a British author. ... 1903 has the latest occurring solstices and equinoxes for 400 years, because the Gregorian calendar hasnt had a leap year for seven years or a century leap year since 1600. ... 1950 was a common year starting on Sunday (link will take you to calendar). ... Animal Farm book cover Animal Farm is a satirical novel (which can also be understood as a modern fable or allegory) by George Orwell, ostensibly about a group of animals who oust the humans from the farm they live on and run it themselves, only to have it corrupted into... 1984 is a leap year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Totalitarianism is a typology employed by political scientists to describe modern regimes in which the state regulates nearly every aspect of public and private behavior. ... Big Brother as portrayed in the BBCs 1954 production of Nineteen Eighty-Four. ... Solzhenitsyn was exiled from the Soviet Union for his book The Gulag Archipelago. ... 1918 was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ... The Gulag Archipelago (Архипелаг ГУЛаг), probably the most powerful and famous book about the Soviet prison system, is a three-volume history written by Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn based on extensive research as well as his own experiences as a prisoner in the Gulag. ... This article is about communism as a form of society and as a popular movement. ...

Partisan use of the term Worldwide

The phrase "Worldwide" has tremendous emotional appeal, and is used in various countries not only by persons from professional historians to self-taught curmudgeons but by political groups which want to impose their view of reality upon their countrymen and even the whole world. The easiest way to do this is to establish a benchmark year and leave the particulars to specialists.

Britain: The Glorious Revolution of 1689 established a king selected by parliament, ending the troubles in that country in the seventeenth century. This was primarily done by the faction called the Whigs, who used the term "modern" for generations thereafter to gain credit. Later generations and political parties did not consider this a sufficient change to merit the term. The term Glorious Revolution refers to the generally popular overthrow of James II of England in 1688. ... Events Louis XIV of France passed the Code Noir, allowing the full use of slaves in the French colonies. ... The debating chamber or hemicycle of the European Parliament in Brussels. ... (16th century - 17th century - 18th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 17th century was that century which lasted from 1601-1700. ... This article is about the British Whig party. ...

France: Although the French still glory in the magnificence of King Louis XIV, the end of his reign in 1715 is considered by them as a handy spot from which to tout the next phase of French glory, the Enlightenment, which they call « l'Age des lumières ». In other words, what happened in Britain does not concern them. After the French Revolution of 1789, they declared that the modern age had been surpassed by the contemporary age. Louis XIV (Louis-Dieudonné) (September 5, 1638 – September 1, 1715) reigned as King of France and King of Navarre from May 14, 1643 until his death. ... // Events September 1 - King Louis XIV of France dies after a reign of 72 years, leaving the throne of his exhausted and indebted country to his great-grandson Louis XV. Regent for the new, five years old monarch is Philippe dOrléans, nephew of Louis XIV. September - First of... The Age of Enlightenment refers to the 18th century in European philosophy, and is often thought of as part of a larger period which includes the Age of Reason. ... During the French Revolution (1789–1799) democracy and republicanism overthrew the absolute monarchy in France, and the French portion of the Roman Catholic Church was forced to undergo radical restructuring. ... Contemporary is an adjective which in its basic form merely means that two individuals, events or movements overlapped in time. ...

Russia: It took some time for the European socialists to conceive that the next great revolution would start someplace other than in France. But the Russians have always compared themselves to the French. After the October revolution, the Communist party of the Soviet Union declared that the "modern age" began with Peter the Great and the "contemporary age" began with this Bolshevik revolution. The color red and particularly the red flag are traditional symbols of Socialism. ... The October Revolution, also known as the Bolshevik Revolution, was the second phase of the Russian Revolution, the first having been instigated by the events around the February Revolution. ... In modern usage, a Communist party is a political party which promotes Communism, a sociopolitical philosophy based on the particular interpretation of Marxism put forth by Vladimir Lenin. ... Portrait of Peter by Paul Delaroche Peter I (Пётр I Алексеевич in Russian, or Pyotr I Alexeevich) (9 June 1672–8 February 1725 [30 May 1672– 28 January 1725] O.S.1]) ruled Russia from 7 May (27 April O.S.) 1682 until his death. ... Bolshevik Party Meeting. ...

The United States of America: A seemingly natural dividing point as far as Spain and the new world are concerned is the voyage of Columbus in 1492. But the need for such an undertaking was underscored by the taking of Constantinople by the Ottoman Empire of the Turks in 1453, so historians once took this as their benchmark. Recently, the notion of political correctness has led historians to take a less-specific date to make it appear general, with worldwide consequences. So the year 1500 is often used. It's also easier for less-studious persons to remember. Carte dAmérique, Guillaume Delisle, c. ... Columbus is a latinized version of the Italian surname Colombo, which means Dove. ... Events January 2 - Boabdil, the last Moorish King of Granada, surrenders his city to the army of Ferdinand and Isabella after a lengthy siege. ... Map of Constantinople. ... The Ottoman Empire at the height of its power Imperial motto Devlet-i Ebed-müddet (Ottoman Turkish for the Eternal State) Official language Ottoman Turkish Capital Constantinople (İstanbul) Imperial anthem Ottoman imperial anthem Sovereigns Padishah of the Osmanli Dynasty Population ca 40 million Area 6. ... Events May 29 - Fall of Constantinople to Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II the Conqueror, marking the end of the Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire). ... Political correctness is the alteration of language to redress real or alleged injustices and discrimination or to avoid offense. ... // Events Europes population was ~60 million. ...