See related article Modernity.

The concept Modern World is recognized by many historians as being the period of time commencing after the Middle Ages and the Early Modern period, after the mid-18th century. Other terms, such as Modern Period, modern times, the Modern Age, or the Modern Era, are commonly used. Some historians also use the terms New World or the Progressive Age to denote the recent period of time in history. Modernity is a term used to describe the condition of being Modern. Since the term Modern is used to describe a wide range of periods, modernity must be taken in context. ... Periodization is the attempt to categorize or divide historical time into discrete named blocks. ... The Middle Ages formed the middle period in a traditional schematic division of European history into three ages: the classical civilization of Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and modern times, beginning with the Renaissance. ... The early modern period is a term used by historians to refer to the period in Western Europe and its first colonies, between the Middle Ages and modern society. ... (17th century - 18th century - 19th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 18th century refers to the century that lasted from 1701 through 1800. ...

Beginning and ending

The beginning of this period is marked by the end of the European Renaissance. Its exact definition depends on the specific usage — for example a historian might be referring to the period 1650-, whilst a musician might be referring to music postdating the romantic era which would date the beginning of modernity to around 1900. World map showing Europe Europe is conventionally considered one of the seven continents which, in this case, is more a cultural and political distinction than a physiogeographic one. ... By region Italian Renaissance Spanish Renaissance Northern Renaissance French Renaissance German Renaissance English Renaissance The Renaissance, also known as Il Rinascimento (in Italian), was an influential cultural movement which brought about a period of scientific revolution, religious reform and artistic transformation, at the dawn of modern European history. ... // Events June 23 - Claimant King Charles II of England, Scotland and Ireland arrives in Scotland, the only of the three Kingdoms that has accepted him as ruler. ... Romanticism was an artistic and intellectual movement that originated in late 18th century Western Europe. ... Modernity is a term used to describe the condition of being Modern. Since the term Modern is used to describe a wide range of periods, modernity must be taken in context. ... 1900 (MCM) is a common year starting on Monday. ...

The modern age may be defined to extend to the present day or else to conclude postmodernism (which may be dated any time from the 1960s to the early 1980s), again depending on the usage. In the case where modern is used in a sense which means "before postmodernism", it may refer specifically to modernism. Another view is that postmodernism may, however, be considered as just the latest development of modernism itself. To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... The 1960s decade refers to the years from 1960 to 1969, inclusive. ... The 1980s decade refers to the years from 1980 to 1989, inclusive. ... Modernism is an artistic and cultural movement that generally includes progressive art and architecture, music and literature emerging in the decades before 1914, as artists rebelled against late 19th century academic and historicist traditions. ...

Characteristics

The concept of the modern world as distinct from an ancient world of historical and outmoded artifacts rests on a sense that the modern world is primarily the product of relatively recent and revolutionary change. Advances in all areas of human activity -- politics, industry, society, economics, commerce, transport, communication, mechanization, automation, science, medicine, technology and culture -- appear to have transformed an "Old World" into the 'Modern or New World. In each case, the identification of a Revolutionary change can be used to demarcate the old and old-fashioned from the modern. Politics is the process by which decisions are made within groups. ... ... Economics (from the Greek οίκος [oikos], house, and νομος [nomos], rule, hence household management) is a social science that studies the production, distribution, trade and consumption of goods and services. ... Commerce is the trading of something of value between two entities. ... Communication is the process of exchanging information, usually via a common protocol. ... Mechanization refers to the use of powered machinery to help a human operator in some task. ... Automation (ancient Greek: = self dictated) or industrial automation is the use of computers to control industrial machinery and processes, replacing human operators. ... Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Science For the scientific journal named Science, see Science (journal). ... See also Medical doctor (BE), Physician (AE), and Medical school. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Culture The neutrality of this article is disputed. ... The Old World consists of those parts of Earth known to Europeans before the voyages of Christopher Columbus: Europe, Asia, and Africa (collectively known as Africa-Eurasia) and the surrounding islands. ...

Politics

In European politics, the transition from feudal institutions to modern institutions has been marked by a series of Revolutions and military conflicts, beginning with the Eighty Years' War, which resulted in Dutch independence, confirmed in the Peace of Westphalia. The Peace of Westphalia (1648) established the modern international system of independent nation-states, ending feudalism in international relations. The English Glorious Revolution (1688) marked the end of feudalism in Great Britain, creating a modern constitutional monarchy. The French Revolution of 1789 overthrew the Ancien Régime in France, and as a result of the Napoleonic Wars, served to introduce political modernity in much of Western Europe. The Eighty Years War, or Dutch Revolt, was the war of secession between the Netherlands and the Spanish king, that lasted from 1568 to 1648. ... The Ratification of the Treaty of Münster by Gerard Terborch (1648) Banquet of the Amsterdam Civic Guard in Celebration of the Peace of Münster by Bartholomeus van der Helst, 1648 The Peace of Westphalia, also known as the Treaties of Münster and Osnabrück, refers to the... // Events Peace treaty signed at Westphalia ends the Thirty Years War. ... // Events A high-powered conspiracy of notables, the Immortal Seven, invite William and Mary to depose James II of England. ... The French Revolution (1789-1799) was a period in the history of France. ... 1789 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... Ancien Régime means Old Rule or Old Order in French; in English, the term refers primarily to the social and political system established in France under the Valois and Bourbon dynasties. ...

The American and French Revolutions limited the powers of the absolute monarchs. Henceforth the world would become a "Modern" place where Democracy, and Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity became the new standards of government and of the rules of society. The Statue of Liberty is a symbol of freedom recognized throughout the world. ... Social equality is a social state of affairs in which certain different people have the same status in a certain respect. ... Brotherhood has multiple meanings: Siblings: The relationship between male offspring, Fraternity: Sodality, or people engaged in a particular occupation; the medical fraternity Brotherhood: The feeling that men should treat one another as brothers Labor union: Union, trade union, brotherhood, an organization of employees formed to bargain with an employer Brotherhood... ...

Men such as the Emperor Napoleon introduced new codes of law in Europe based on merit and achievement, rather than on a class system rooted in Feudalism. The modern political system of Liberalism (derived from the word "Liberty" which means "Freedom") empowered members of the disenfranchised Third Estate. The power of elected bodies supplanted traditional rule by royal decree. A new attachment to one's nation, culture and language produced the powerful forces of Nationalism. This in turn ultimately contributed to new ideologies such as the ideology of Fascism, Socialism and Communism. For other uses, see Napoleon (disambiguation). ... World map showing Europe Europe is conventionally considered one of the seven continents which, in this case, is more a cultural and political distinction than a physiogeographic one. ... This article needs to be wikified. ... Social class describes the relationships between people in hierarchical societies or cultures. ... Roland pledges his fealty to Charlemagne; from a manuscript of a chanson de geste. ... A political system is a social system of politics and government. ... This article discusses liberalism as a major political ideology as it developed and stands currently. ... In France of the ancien régime and the age of the French Revolution, the term Third Estate (tiers état) indicated the generality of people which were not part of the clergy (the First Estate) nor of the nobility (the Second Estate). ... An Order-in-Council is a type of legislation in the United Kingdom and certain Commonwealth countries which is formally made in the name of the Queen (or the Governor-General acting on her behalf) by the Privy Council or the Executive Council the Queen-in-Council or the Governor... One of the most influential doctrines in history is that all humans are divided into groups called nations. ... Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Culture The neutrality of this article is disputed. ... // Nationalism is an ideology which holds that the nation, ethnicity or national identity is a fundamental unit of human social life, and makes certain cultural and political claims based upon that belief; in particular, the claim that the nation is the only legitimate basis for the state, and that each... An ideology is a collection of ideas. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Socialism is an ideology with the core belief that society should exist in which certain not-for-profit popular collectives control the means of power, and therefore the means of production. ... This article is about communism as a form of society and as a political movement. ...

Taken to an extreme, the desire to demolish all vestiges of the past and create a classless society, resulted in the abuses of Communism following the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia, which executed the Tsar and his family, created the Soviet Union, transformed serfdom, and forcibly modernized Mother Russia. In Germany, once the Kaiser had abdicated in 1918, chaos ensued, paving the way for the rise of Adolf Hitler and Nazism. A social class is, at its most basic, a group of people that have similar status. ... This article is about communism as a form of society and as a political movement. ... The October Revolution, also known as the Bolshevik Revolution, was the second phase of the Russian Revolution, the first having been instigated by the events around the February Revolution. ... Look up Tsar in Wiktionary, the free dictionary For the US community of Czar, see Czar, West Virginia. ... Costumes of Slaves or Serfs, from the Sixth to the Twelfth Centuries, collected by H. de Vielcastel, from original Documents in the great Libraries of Europe. ... The history of Russia is essentially that of its many nationalities, each with a separate history and complex origins. ... Kaiser is a German title meaning emperor, derived from the Roman title of Caesar, as is the Slavic title of Tsar. ... 1918 (MCMXVIII) was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar (see link for calendar) or a common year starting on Wednesday of the Julian calendar. ... ▶ (help· info) (April 20, 1889 – April 30, 1945) was Chancellor of Germany from 1933 and Führer (Leader) of Germany from 1934 to his death by suicide. ... The neutrality of this article is disputed. ...

The new republic of the United States of America granted the vote to white, male citizens, and placed reins on government based on the new Constitution and created a system of checks and balances between the three different branches of government, the legislature, judiciary, and executive headed by a President who was elected via a national election. It has been suggested that The republican form of government be merged into this article or section. ... Voting is a method of decision making wherein a group such as a meeting or an electorate attempts to gauge its opinion—usually as a final step following discussions or debates. ... The doctrine and practice of dispersing political power and creating mutual accountability between political entities such as the courts, the president or prime minister, the legislature, and the citizens. ... A legislature is a governmental deliberative assembly with the power to adopt laws. ... The judiciary, also referred to as the judicature, consists of the system of courts of law for the administration of justice and to its principals, the justices, judges and magistrates among other types of adjudicators. ... President is a title held by many leaders of organizations, companies, universities, and countries. ... An election is a decision making process whereby people vote for preferred political candidates or parties to act as representatives in government. ...

Science and technology

Revolutions in science and technology have been no less influential than political revolutions in changing the shape of the modern world. The Scientific revolution, beginning with the discoveries of Kepler and Galileo, and culminating with Newton's Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687), changed the way in which educated people looked at the natural world. In the history of science, the scientific revolution was the period that roughly began with the discoveries of Kepler, Galileo, and others at the dawn of the 17th century, and ended with the publication of the Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica in 1687 by Isaac Newton. ... Johannes Kepler Johannes Kepler (December 27, 1571 – November 15, 1630), a key figure in the scientific revolution, was a German astronomer, mathematician and astrologer. ... Galileo can refer to: Galileo Galilei, astronomer, philosopher, and physicist (1564 - 1642) the Galileo spacecraft, a NASA space probe that visited Jupiter and its moons the Galileo positioning system Life of Galileo, a play by Bertolt Brecht Galileo (1975) - screen adaptation of the play Life of Galileo by Bertolt Brecht... Newtons own copy of his Principia, with hand written corrections for the second edition. ... Events March 19 - The men under explorer Robert Cavelier de La Salle murder him while searching for the mouth of the Mississippi River. ...

Inventions

The mechanical and scientific inventions that were discovered, studied and implemented changed the way in which goods were produced and marketed. For example, modern machines in Britain sped up the manufacture of commodities such as cloth and iron. The horse and ox were no longer needed as beasts of burden. The newly invented engine powered the car, train, ship, and eventually the plane, revolutionizing the way people traveled. Artificially created energy powered any motor that drove any machine that was invented. Raw goods could be transported in huge quantities over vast distances; products could be manufactured quickly and then marketed all over the world, a situation that Britain used to its advantage. The word mechanical can mean one of several things: A device or principle described as mechanical relates to a mechanism or machine, or the realm of Newtonian mechanics. ... For the scientific journal named Science, see Science (journal). ... Wind turbines A machine is any mechanical or organic device that transmits or modifies energy to perform or assist in the performance of tasks. ... The word commodity has a different meaning in business than in Marxian political economy. ... A variety of fabric. ... General Name, Symbol, Number iron, Fe, 26 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 8, 4, d Appearance lustrous metallic with a grayish tinge Atomic mass 55. ... An engine is something that produces some effect from a given input. ... A small variety of cars, the most popular kind of automobile. ... In rail transport, a train consists of a single or several connected rail vehicles that are capable of being moved together along a guideway to transport freight or passengers from one place to another along a planned route. ... Italian ship-rigged vessel Amerigo Vespucci in New York Harbor, 1976 A ship is a large, sea-going watercraft, sometimes with multiple decks. ... Fixed-wing aircraft is a term used to refer to what are more commonly known as airplanes in North American English and aeroplanes in Commonwealth English. ... A motor is a device that converts energy into mechanical power, and is often synonymous with engine. ... Wind turbines A machine is any mechanical or organic device that transmits or modifies energy to perform or assist in the performance of tasks. ...

Progress continued as Science saw so many new scientific discoveries. The telephone, radio, X-rays, microscopes, electricity all contributed to rapid changes in life-styles and societies. Discoveries of antibiotics such as penicillin brought new ways of combating diseases. Surgery and medications kept on making progressive improvements in medical care, hospitals, and nursing. New theories such as Evolution and Psychoanalysis changed humanity's "old fashioned" views of itself. Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Science For the scientific journal named Science, see Science (journal). ... For the scientific journal named Science, see Science (journal). ... The telephone or phone (Greek: tele = far away and phone = voice) is a telecommunications device which is used to transmit and receive sound (most commonly voice and speech) across distance. ... In the NATO phonetic alphabet, X-ray represents the letter X. An X-ray picture (radiograph) taken by Röntgen An X-ray is a form of electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength approximately in the range of 5 pm to 10 nanometers (corresponding to frequencies in the range 30 PHz... It has been suggested that microscopy be merged into this article or section. ... Electricity is a property of matter that results from the presence of electric charge. ... An antibiotic is a drug that kills or slows the growth of bacteria. ... Penicillin is a β-lactam antibiotic used in the treatment of bacterial infections caused by susceptible, usually Gram-positive, organisms. ... A typical modern surgery operation Surgery (from the Greek cheirourgia meaning hand work) is the medical specialty that treats diseases or injuries by operative manual and instrumental treatment. ... A medication is a licenced drug taken to cure or reduce symptoms of an illness or medical condition. ... See drugs, medication, and pharmacology for substances that are used to treat patients. ... A physician visiting the sick in a hospital. ... Nursing is a discipline focused on assisting individuals, families and communities in attaining, re-attaining and maintaining optimal health and functioning. ... A speculatively rooted phylogenetic tree of all living things, based on rRNA gene data, showing the separation of the three domains, bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes, as described initially by Carl Woese. ... Psychoanalysis is a family of psychological theories and methods within the field of psychotherapy that seeks to elucidate connections among unconscious components of patients mental processes, and to do so in a systematic way through a process of tracing out associations. ...

Industry

An Industrial Revolution initiated by mechanical automation of the manufacture of cotton cloth and the use of steam engines, commenced in the 18th century in Great Britain, followed in the 19th century by a later series of developments, which saw modern systems of communication and transportation introduced in the form of steamships, railroads and the telegraph. In the late 19th century, a Second Industrial Revolution, prompted by developments in the chemical, petroleum, steel and electrical industries, furthered transformed the modern world. The Industrial Revolution was the major technological, socioeconomic and cultural change in the late 18th and early 19th century resulting from the replacement of an economy based on manual labour to one dominated by industry and machine manufacture. ... The Second Industrial Revolution (1871-1914) involved significant developments for society and the world. ...

Warfare

Warfare was changed with the advent of new varieties of rifle, cannon, gun, machine gun, armor, tank, plane, jet, and missile. Weapons such as the atomic bomb and the hydrogen bomb, known along with chemical weapons and biological weapons as weapons of mass destruction, actually made the devastation of the entire planet Earth possible in minutes. All these are among the markings of the Modern World. A rifle is a firearm that uses a spiral groove cut into the barrel to spin a projectile (usually a bullet), thus improving accuracy and range of the projectile. ... A small cast-iron cannon on a carriage ????? Cannon also refers to a large, smooth-bored, muzzle-loading gun used before the advent of breech-loading, rifled guns firing explosive shells. ... A gun is a mechanical device that fires projectiles at high velocity, using a propellant such as gun powder or compressed air. ... A machine gun is a fully-automatic firearm that is capable of firing bullets in rapid succession. ... Alternative meanings: vehicle armour, Armor (novel) A hoplite wearing a helmet, a breastplate and greaves (and nothing else). ... Fixed-wing aircraft is a term used to refer to what are more commonly known as airplanes in North American English and aeroplanes in Commonwealth English. ... A jet is a stream of fluid produced by discharge through an orifice into free space. ... A missile (CE pronunciation: ; AmE: ) is, in general, a projectile—that is, something thrown or otherwise propelled. ... The mushroom cloud of the atomic bombing of Nagasaki, Japan, 1945, rose some 18 km (11 mi) above the epicenter. ... The mushroom cloud of the atomic bombing of Nagasaki, Japan, in 1945 lifted nuclear fallout some 18 km (60,000 feet) above the epicenter. ... Early detection of chemical agents Sociopolitical climate of chemical warfare While the study of chemicals and their military uses was widespread in China, the use of toxic materials has historically been viewed with mixed emotions and some disdain in the West (especially when the enemy were doing it). ... Biological warfare, also known as germ warfare, is the use of any organism (bacteria, virus or other disease_causing organism) or toxin found in nature, as a weapon of war. ... Weapons of mass destruction (WMD) generally include nuclear, biological, chemical and, increasingly, radiological weapons. ... A planet is generally considered to be a relatively large mass of accreted matter in orbit around a star that is not a star itself. ... Earth, also known as Terra, and Tellus mostly in the 19th century, is the third-closest planet to the Sun. ...

Culture

New attitudes towards religion, with the church diminished, and a desire for personal freedoms, induced desires for sexual freedoms, which were ultimately accepted by large sectors of the Western World. Theories of "free love" and uninhibited sex were touted by radicals in the 1960s. A church building (or simply church) is a building used in Christian worship. ... Human sexuality is the expression of sexual feelings. ... The term Western world or the West can have multiple meanings depending on its context. ... Free love is an ideology that love and sexual activities should be shared amongst many, and not be confined to long term relationships. ... Sex, in the scope of this article and category, refers to the male and female duality of biology and reproduction. ...

Equality of the sexes in politics and economics, women's liberation movement, gay rights for homosexuals and the freedom afforded by contraception allowed for greater personal choices in these intimate areas of personal life. Feminism is a diverse collection of social theories, political movements, and moral philosophies, largely motivated by or concerning the experiences of women, especially in terms of their social, political, and economic situation. ... The gay rights movement is a collection of loosely aligned civil rights groups, human rights groups, support groups and political activists seeking acceptance, tolerance and equality for non-heterosexual, (homosexual, bisexual), and transgender people - despite the fact that it is typically referred to as the gay rights movement, members also... Since its inception, the word homosexuality has acquired multiple meanings. ...

The Arts

The Modern Age, when used in reference to the arts, is the period from around the beginning of the 20th century, up to the present day. While some art may be described as post-modern, in reality this is just a continuation of the characteristics of modern art. Modern art is typified by self-awareness, and by the manipulation of form or medium as an integral part of the work itself. Whereas pre-modern art merely sought to represent a form of reality, modern art tends to encourage the audience to question its perceptions, and thereby the fundamental nature, of art itself. Key movements in modern art include cubist painting, typified by Pablo Picasso, modernist literature such as that written by James Joyce, Virginia Woolf and Gertrude Stein, and the 'new poetry' headed by Ezra Pound and T. S. Eliot. Young Pablo Picasso Pablo Ruiz Picasso (Full name) (October 25, 1881 in Málaga, Spain – April 8, 1973) was a Spanish painter. ... James Augustine Aloysius Joyce (February 2, 1882 – January 13, 1941) was an expatriate Irish writer and poet, widely considered to be one of the most influential writers of the 20th century. ... Virginia Woolf (January 25, 1882 – March 28, 1941) was a British author and feminist, who is considered to be one of the foremost modernist literary figures of the twentieth century. ... Gertrude Stein, photographed by Carl Van Vechten, 1935 Gertrude Stein (February 3, 1874, in Pittsburgh - July 27, 1946) was an American writer, poet, feminist, playwright and catalyst in the development of modern art and literature, who spent most of her life in France. ... Ezra Pound in 1913. ... T.S. Eliot (by E.O. Hoppe, 1919) Thomas Stearns Eliot, OM (September 26, 1888 – January 4, 1965) was an American-born poet, dramatist, and literary critic, whose works, such as The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock, The Waste Land and Four Quartets, are considered major achievements of twentieth...

Famous people

Much of the Modern world replaced the Biblically-oriented value system, the monarchical government system, and the feudal economic system, with new democratic and liberal ideas in the areas of politics, science, psychology, sociology, and economics. These new ideas were derived from the writings of such people as: The Bible (sometimes The Holy Bible, The Book, Good Book, Word of God, The Word, or Scripture), from Greek (τα) βιβλια, (ta) biblia, (the) books, is the classical name for the Hebrew Bible of Judaism or the combination of the Old Testament and New Testament of Christianity (The Bible actually refers to... Democracy is a form of government under which the power to alter the laws and structures of government lies, ultimately, with the citizenry. ... Look up liberal on Wiktionary, the free dictionary Liberal may refer to: Politics: Liberalism American liberalism, a political trend in the USA Political progressivism, a political ideology that is for change, often associated with liberal movements Liberty, the condition of being free from control or restrictions Liberal Party, members of... Politics is the process by which decisions are made within groups. ... Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Science For the scientific journal named Science, see Science (journal). ... Psychology (ancient Greek: psyche = soul or mind, logos/-ology = study of) is an academic and applied field involving the study of mind and behavior. ... Social interactions of people and their consequences are the subject of sociology studies. ... Economics (from the Greek οίκος [oikos], house, and νομος [nomos], rule, hence household management) is a social science that studies the production, distribution, trade and consumption of goods and services. ...

(Note: The list below is not comprehensive by any means. To name all the thinkers and personalities who helped shape the modern age would be a voluminous undertaking. This selection is meant as a profile of the way major thinkers contributed to the creation of the world as we know it today. They are listed chronologically by year of birth.)

15th century and 16th century

• Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) Refutes geocentric theory, proposes a model placing the Sun at the center of the universe.
• Petrus Apianus (1495 - 1557), astronomer and cartographer. Published the first table of sines.
• Tycho Brahe (1546 - 1601), astronomer, astrologer and alchemist, proposed the Tychonian system in contrast to both the traditional Geocentric model and the new version of Heliocentrism.

(14th century - 15th century - 16th century - other centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 15th century was that century which lasted from 1401 to 1500. ... (15th century - 16th century - 17th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 16th century was that century which lasted from 1501 to 1600. ... Nicolaus Copernicus (MikoÅ‚aj Kopernik) MikoÅ‚aj Kopernik (February 19, 1473 – May 24, 1543), more commonly known by the Latin form Nicolaus Copernicus, was an astrologer, astronomer, mathematician, administrator and economist. ... Events Ottoman sultan Mehmed II defeats the White Sheep Turkmens lead by Uzun Hasan at Otlukbeli Axayacatl, Aztec ruler of Tenochtitlan invades the territory of neighboring Aztec city of Tlatelolco. ... // Events February 21 - Battle of Wayna Daga - A combined army of Ethiopian and Portuguese troops defeat the armies of Adal led by Ahmed Gragn. ... The geocentric model (in Greek: geo = earth and centron = centre) of the universe is a paradigm which places the Earth at its center. ... The Sun is the star at the center of our Solar system. ... The deepest visible-light image of the cosmos. ... Petrus Apianus (real name Peter Bienewitz) (April 16, 1495 - April 21, 1557) was a German astronomer, cartographer and instrument maker. ... 1495 was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Events Spain is effectively bankrupt. ... An astronomer or astrophysicist is a scientist whose area of research is astronomy or astrophysics. ... In mathematics, the trigonometric functions are functions of an angle, important when studying triangles and modeling periodic phenomena. ... Tycho Brahe Tycho Brahe, born Tyge Ottesen Brahe (December 14, 1546 – October 24, 1601), was a Danish nobleman astronomer as well as an astrologer and alchemist. ... // Events Spanish conquest of Yucatan Peace between England and France Foundation of Trinity College, Cambridge by Henry VIII of England Katharina von Bora flees to Magdeburg Science Architecture Michelangelo Buonarroti is made chief architect of St. ... Events February 8 - Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex, rebels against Elizabeth I of England - revolt is quickly crushed February 25 - Robert Devereux beheaded Jesuit Matteo Ricci arrives in China Bad harvest in Russia due to rainy summer Dutch troops drive Portuguese from Málaga Battle of Kinsale, Ireland Births... An astrological chart (or horoscope) _ Y2K Chart — This particular chart is calculated for January 1, 2000 at 12:01:00 A.M. Eastern Standard Time in New York City, New York, USA. (Longitude: 074W0023 - Latitude: 40N4251) Astrology (from Greek: αστρολογία = άστρον, astron, star + λόγος, logos, word) is... Alchemy is an early protoscientific and philosophical discipline combining the elements of chemistry, metallurgy, physics, medicine, astrology, semiotics, mysticism, and art. ... Tychonian system The Tychonian system was an effort by Tycho Brahe to create a model of the solar system which would combine what he saw as the mathematical benefits of the Copernican system with the philosophical and physical benefits of the Ptolemaic system. ... This drawing from an Icelandic manuscript dated around 1750 illustrates the geocentric model. ... Heliocentric Solar System In astronomy, heliocentrism is the theory that the Sun is at the center of the Universe and/or the Solar System. ...

17th century

• Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) Wrote Starry Messenger reinforced Copernicus' heliocentric theory. Used early telescope to discover planets, mountains on the moon, sun spots, and the Milky Way in space.
• René Descartes (1596-1650) Wrote Meditations on First Philosophy and Discourse on Method. Rejected Aristotelian and Scholastic traditions; Boosted rationalism
• Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677) Elevated scientific pantheism and rationalism.
• John Locke (1632-1704) Refutes Divine right of kings Role of tolerance in government

(16th century - 17th century - 18th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 17th century was that century which lasted from 1601-1700. ... Galileo Galilei Galileo Galilei (Pisa, February 15, 1564 – Arcetri, January 8, 1642), was an Italian astrologer, physicist, astronomer, and philosopher who is closely associated with the scientific revolution. ... Events March 8 — Naples bans kissing in public under the penalty of death June 22 — Fort Caroline, the first French attempt at colonizing the New World September 10 — The Battle of Kawanakajima Ottoman Turks invade Malta Modern pencil becomes common in England Conquistadors crossed the Pacific Spanish founded a colony... Events January 4 - Charles I attempts to arrest five leading members of the Long Parliament, but they escape. ... In astronomy, heliocentrism is the theory that the Sun is at the center of the Universe and/or the Solar System. ... 50 cm refracting telescope at Nice Observatory. ... A planet (from the Greek πλανήτης, planetes or wanderers) is a body of considerable mass that orbits a star and that produces very little or no energy through nuclear fusion. ... Crust composition Oxygen 43% Silicon 21% Aluminium 10% Calcium 9% Iron 9% Magnesium 5% Titanium 2% Nickel 0. ... 400 year sunspot history A sunspot is a region on the Suns surface (photosphere) that is marked by a lower temperature than its surroundings, and intense magnetic activity. ... A NASA artists conception of what the Milky Way would look like if seen off-axis. ... For other things named Descartes, see Descartes (disambiguation). ... Events February 5 - 26 catholics crucified in Nagasaki, Japan. ... // Events June 23 - Claimant King Charles II of England, Scotland and Ireland arrives in Scotland, the only of the three Kingdoms that has accepted him as ruler. ... Meditations on First Philosophy (subtitled In which the existence of God and the real distinction of mind and body, are demonstrated), written by René Descartes (1596 - 1650) and first published in 1641, expands upon Descartes philosophical system, which he first introduced in his Discourse on Method (1637). ... The Discourse on Method is a philosophical and mathematical treatise published by René Descartes in 1637. ... This article needs cleanup. ... Scholastic redirects here. ... Rationalism, also known as the rationalist movement, is a philosophical doctrine that asserts that the truth can best be discovered by reason and factual analysis, rather than faith, dogma or religious teaching. ... Benedictus de Spinoza (November 24, 1632 – February 21, 1677), was named Baruch Spinoza by his synagogue elders and known as Bento de Espinosa or Bento dEspiñoza in his native Amsterdam. ... See also: 1632 (novel) Events February 22 - Galileos Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems is published July 23 - 300 colonists for New France depart Dieppe November 8 - Wladyslaw IV Waza elected king of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth after Zygmunt III Waza death November 16 - Battle of Lützen... Events First performance of Racines tragedy, Phèdre Sarah Churchill marries John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough Battle of Cassel, Philippe I of Orléans defeats William of Orange Mary II of England marries William of Orange English Statute of frauds is passed into law Battle of Landskrona Elias... Pantheism literally means God is All and All is God. It is the view that everything is of an all-encompassing immanent God; or that the universe, or nature, and God are equivalent. ... Rationalism, also known as the rationalist movement, is a philosophical doctrine that asserts that the truth can best be discovered by reason and factual analysis, rather than faith, dogma or religious teaching. ... John Locke (August 29, 1632–October 28, 1704) was a 17th-century English philosopher. ... See also: 1632 (novel) Events February 22 - Galileos Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems is published July 23 - 300 colonists for New France depart Dieppe November 8 - Wladyslaw IV Waza elected king of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth after Zygmunt III Waza death November 16 - Battle of Lützen... Events Building of the Students Monument in Aiud, Romania. ... The Divine Right of Kings is a European political and religious doctrine of political absolutism. ... The cross of the war memorial and a menorah for Hanukkah coexist in Oxford. ...

18th century

• Isaac Newton (1642-1727) Wrote Philosophiae naturalis principia mathematica or Principia. Revolutionized mathematics, optics, and physics, laid the foundations for modern science
• Voltaire (1694-1778) Wrote Candide opposing Leibniz's "metaphysical optimism". Author and Philosopher freethinker before the French Revolution
• Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790) Wrote Poor Richard's Almanack. Architect of liberty and helped draft the American Declaration of Independence
• Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) Wrote Social Contract :All men are born free and equal, rights of citizens and Will of the people
• Adam Smith (1723-1790) Wrote Wealth of Nations. Father of Classical Economics. Advocated laissez-faire market forces
• Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) Wrote The Critique of Pure Reason in (1781). German philosopher and founder of critical philosophy. Explored role of knowledge and mind. Contributed to metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, and aesthetics.
• Edmund Burke (1729-1797) Free trade and constitutional statesmanship against misgovernmemt

(17th century - 18th century - 19th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 18th century refers to the century that lasted from 1701 through 1800. ... Sir Isaac Newton, PRS (4 January [O.S. 25 December 1642] 1643 – 31 March [O.S. 20 March] 1727) was an English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, alchemist, inventor and natural philosopher who is regarded by many as the most influential scientist in history. ... Events January 4 - Charles I attempts to arrest five leading members of the Long Parliament, but they escape. ... Events June 11 - George, Prince of Wales becomes King George II of Great Britain. ... Newtons own copy of his Principia, with hand written corrections for the second edition. ... Mathematics is often defined as the study of topics such as quantity, structure, space, and change. ... See also: List of optical topics Optics (appearance or look in ancient Greek) is a branch of physics that describes the behavior and properties of light and the interaction of light with matter. ... A black hole concept drawing by NASA. Physics (from the Greek, φυσικός (physikos), natural, and φύσις (physis), nature) is the science of the natural world dealing with the fundamental constituents of the universe, the forces they exert on one another, and the results produced by these forces. ... For the scientific journal named Science, see Science (journal). ... The last of Voltaires statues by Jean-Antoine Houdon (1781). ... Events February 6 - The colony Quilombo dos Palmares is destroyed. ... 1778 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... Candide, ou lOptimisme, (English: Candide, or Optimism) (1759) is a picaresque novel by the Enlightenment philosopher Voltaire. ... Metaphysics (Greek words meta = after/beyond and physics = nature) is a branch of philosophy concerned with the study of first principles and being (ontology). ... The French Revolution (1789-1799) was a period in the history of France. ... Ben Franklin redirects here. ... Events March 27 - Concluding that Emperor Iyasus I of Ethiopia had abdicated by retiring to a monastery, a council of high officials appoint Tekle Haymanot I Emperor of Ethiopia May 23 - Battle of Ramillies September 7 - The Battle of Turin in the War of Spanish Succession - forces of Austria and... 1790 was a common year starting on Friday (see link for calendar). ... Poor Richards Almanac (sometimes Almanack) was a yearly almanac published by Benjamin Franklin, who adopted the pseudonym of Poor Richard or Richard Saunders for the purpose of this work in the title. ... ... A declaration of independence is a proclamation of the independence of a newly formed or reformed independent state, usually from a part or the whole of the territory of another nation, or a document containing such a declaration. ... Jean-Jacques Rousseau Jean Jacques Rousseau (June 28, 1712 - July 2, 1778) was a Swiss-French philosopher, writer, political theorist, and self-taught composer of The Age of Enlightenment Biography of Rousseau The tomb of Rousseau in the crypt of the Panthéon, Paris Rousseau was born in Geneva, Switzerland... // Events Treaty of Aargau signed between Catholic and Protestants. ... 1778 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... Social contract (or contractarianism) is a phrase used in philosophy, political science and sociology to denote a real or hypothetical agreement within a state regarding the rights and responsibilities of the state and its citizens, or more generally a similar concord between a group and its members, or between individuals. ... The Statue of Liberty is a symbol of freedom recognized throughout the world. ... Social equality is a social state of affairs in which certain different people have the same status in a certain respect. ... For the direction right, see left and right or starboard. ... Citizenship is membership in a political community (originally a city but now a state), and carries with it rights to political participation; a person having such membership is a citizen. ... Adam Smith, FRSE (Baptised June 5, 1723 – July 17, 1790) was a Scottish political economist and moral philosopher. ... Events February 16 - Louis XV of France attains his majority Births February 24 - John Burgoyne, British general (d. ... 1790 was a common year starting on Friday (see link for calendar). ... An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations is the magnum opus of Adam Smith, published in 1776. ... Classical economics is a school of economic thought whose major developers include William Petty, Adam Smith, David Ricardo, Thomas Malthus, and John Stuart Mill, and Johann Heinrich von Thünen. ... It has been suggested that Kantianism be merged into this article or section. ... Events January 14 - King Philip V of Spain abdicates the throne February 20 - The premiere of Giulio Cesare, an Italian opera by George Frideric Handel, takes place in London June 23 - Treaty of Constantinople signed. ... 1804 was a leap year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... The Critique of Pure Reason is widely regarded as the philosopher Immanuel Kants major work, first published in 1781, with a second edition in 1787. ... 1781 was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar). ... Attributed to Immanuel Kant, the critical philosophy movement sees the primary task of philosophy as criticism rather than justification. ... The Gettier problem: Justified true belief? Theory of Knowledge: The Gettier problem The Duality of Knowledge Philosophy of Knowledge Glossary Wharton Knowledge Project - aimed to offer free access to course materials for students, teachers, and self-learners. ... The mind is the term most commonly used to describe the higher functions of the human brain, particularly those of which humans are subjectivel // holaMedia:Example. ... Metaphysics (Greek words meta = after/beyond and physics = nature) is a branch of philosophy concerned with the study of first principles and being (ontology). ... Epistemology, from the Greek words episteme (knowledge) and logos (word/speech) is the branch of philosophy that deals with the nature, origin and scope of knowledge. ... Ethics (from Greek ethikos) is the branch of axiology – one of the four major branches of philosophy, alongside metaphysics, epistemology, and logic – which attempts to understand the nature of morality; to define that which is right from that which is wrong. ... Aesthetics is another meaning for visual style, such examples are Realism , Documentary realism, Psychological realism, Expressionism, and Surrealism // Aesthetics in History and Philosophy Thinkers and sages have pondered beauty and art all over the world for millennia, but the subject was formally distinguished as an independent philosophical discipline in the... Edmund Burke The Right Honourable Edmund Burke (January 12, 1729 – July 9, 1797) was an Anglo-Irish statesman, author, orator and political philosopher, who served for many years in the British House of Commons as a member of the Whig party. ... Events July 30 - Baltimore, Maryland is founded. ... 1797 was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... A fruit stand at a market. ... The term statesman is a respectful term used to refer to diplomats, politicians, and other notable figures of state. ...

19th century

• Georg Hegel (1770-1831) Wrote Elements of the Philosophy of Right (1821). Concepts of dialectics, thesis and antithesis and synthesis central to Hegelian philosophy.
• John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) Wrote Principles of Political Economy advocating greater interaction between Labor and wealth
• Charles Darwin (1809-1882) Wrote On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection. Theory of evolution and homosapiens. Naturalism, botany
• Karl Marx (1818-1883) Wrote Das Kapital, Marxism, Communism. Dictatorship of the proletariat
• Louis Pasteur (1822–1895) Chiral molecules, existence of germs (microorganisms), pasteurization, vaccine against rabies.
• Leo Tolstoy (1828-1910) Wrote War and Peace and chronicled the tumultuous conditions in Russia, its pre-Revolutionary anarchy, nihilism and social turmoil. Preached a form of Christian peace.
• Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900) Wrote Thus Spoke Zarathustra and The Will to Power. Criticized traditional Christian values such as guilt. Preached concept of will to power and doctrine of the Übermensch ("Superman" or "Ultimate Man") that was later twisted and abused by Hitlerian Fascism and the Nazis as a rationale for Germanic anti-Semitism and the genocide of Jews.
• Theodor Herzl (1860-1904) Wrote Judenstaat ("Jewish State"). Father of modern Zionism. Laid down the political groundwork for the future State of Israel. Convened First Zionist Congress (1897) in Basel, Switzerland establishing the World Zionist Organization predicting a Jewish state within 50 years.

Alternative meaning: Nineteenth Century (periodical) (18th century — 19th century — 20th century — more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 19th century was that century which lasted from 1801-1900 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar. ... Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (August 27, 1770–November 14, 1831) was a German philosopher born in Stuttgart, Württemberg, in present-day southwest Germany. ... 1770 was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar). ... 1831 was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ... Hegels Elements of the Philosophy of Right (Grundlinien der Philosophie des Rechts) was published in 1820, though the books original title page dates it to 1821. ... 1821 was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar). ... Broadly speaking, a dialectic (Greek: διαλεκτική) is an exchange of propositions (theses) and counter-propositions (antitheses) resulting in a disagreement. ... A thesis (literally: position from the Greek θέσις) is an intellectual proposition. ... Antithesis (Greek for setting opposite, from anti = against and thesis = position) means a direct contrast or exact opposition to something. ... Synthesis (from the Greek words syn = plus and thesis = position) is commonly understood to be an integration of two or more pre-existing elements which results in a new creation. ... Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (August 27, 1770–November 14, 1831) was a German philosopher born in Stuttgart, Württemberg, in present-day southwest Germany. ... In 1851 Mill married Harriet Taylor after 21 years of an at times intense friendship and love affair. ... 1806 was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ... 1873 was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calaber). ... Wealth is an abundance of items of economic value, or the state of controlling or possessing such items, and encompasses money, real estate and personal property. ... In his lifetime Charles Darwin gained international fame as an influential scientist examining controversial topics. ... 1809 was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... 1882 was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... The 1859 edition of On the Origin of Species First published in 1859, The Origin of Species (full title On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life) by British naturalist Charles Darwin is one of the pivotal... Natural selection is the name Charles Darwin gave to the principal process through which new species emerge, or evolve. ... A speculatively rooted phylogenetic tree of all living things, based on rRNA gene data, showing the separation of the three domains, bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes, as described initially by Carl Woese. ... Human beings are defined variously in biological, spiritual, and cultural terms, or in combinations thereof. ... Naturalism refers to a number of different topics: Naturalism (philosophy): the view that nothing exists but the natural universe, either methodologically or ontologically — that there are no supernatural entities or at least no observations that show them to exist. ... Botany is the scientific study of plant life. ... Karl Heinrich Marx (May 5, 1818 Trier, Germany – March 14, 1883 London) was an influential philosopher, political economist, and revolutionary organizer of the International Workingmens Association. ... 1818 is a common year starting on Thursday. ... 1883 was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar). ... Das Kapital (Capital) is a very large treatise of political economy written by Karl Marx in German. ... Marxism is the social theory and political practice based on the works of Karl Marx, a 19th century German philosopher, economist, journalist, and revolutionary, along with Friedrich Engels. ... This article is about communism as a form of society and as a political movement. ... The proletariat (from Latin proles, offspring) is a term used to identify a lower social class; a member of such a class is proletarian. ... Louis Pasteur (December 27, 1822 – September 28, 1895) was a French microbiologist, chemist and humanist. ... 1822 was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ... 1895 was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ... In chemistry, a molecule is chiral if it is not superimposable on its mirror image regardless of how it is contorted. ... Germ is an informal term for a disease-causing organism, particularly bacteria (as in germ warfare). ... ... Pasteurization is the process of heating food for the purpose of killing harmful organisms such as bacteria, viruses, protozoa, molds, and yeasts. ... A vaccine is an antigenic preparation used to produce active immunity to a disease, in order to prevent or ameliorate the effects of infection by any natural or wild strain of the organism. ... Leo Tolstoy, pictured late in life Count Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy (?) (Russian: Лев Никола́евич Толсто́й; commonly referred to in English as Leo Tolstoy) (September 9, 1828 – November 20, 1910, N.S.; August 28, 1828 – November 7, 1910, O.S.) was a Russian novelist, social reformer, pacifist, Christian anarchist, vegetarian, moral thinker and an influential... 1828 was a leap year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ... -1... War and Peace (Война и мир [Voyna i mir], in original orthography Война и миръ) is an epic Russian novel by Leo Tolstoy, first published from 1865 to 1869, which tells the story of Russian society during the Napoleonic Era. ... In the realist theory of International Relations, the anarchical system that all states find themselves in is the lack of clear organisation of states into a hieracical order that is found within states. ... The nonexistence of God is a quintessential nihilistic concern. ... Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (IPA:) (October 15, 1844 – August 25, 1900) was a German philosopher, whose critiques of contemporary culture, religion, and philosophy centered around a basic question regarding the foundation of values and morality. ... 1844 was a leap year starting on Monday (see link for calendar). ... 1900 (MCM) is a common year starting on Monday. ... The cover for the first part of the first edition. ... Friedrich Nietzsche, 1882 Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (October 15, 1844 - August 25, 1900) was a highly influential German philosopher. ... Guilt is a word describing many concepts related to an emotion or condition caused by actions which are, or are believed to be, morally wrong. ... In Thus Spake Zarathustra (in German, Also sprach Zarathustra), the German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche explains the steps through which man can become an Ãœbermensch (homo superior; the equivalent English translation would be super-human): By his will to power, manifested destructively in the rejection of, and rebellion against, old ideals... Adolf Hitler Adolf Hitler (April 20, 1889 – April 30, 1945, standard German pronunciation in the IPA) was the Führer (leader) of the National Socialist German Workers Party (Nazi Party) and of Nazi Germany from 1933 to 1945. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... The Nazi party used a right-facing swastika as their symbol and the red and black colors were said to represent Blut und Boden (blood and soil). ... The Eternal Jew: 1937 German poster. ... Genocide is defined by the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (CPPCG) article 2 as any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnic, racial or religious group, as such: Killing members of the group; Causing... Theodor Herzl, in his middle age. ... 1860 is the leap year starting on Sunday. ... 1904 (MCMIV) is a leap year starting on a Friday (link will take you to calendar). ... Der Judenstaat (The Jewish State) is a book written by Theodor Herzl and published in 1896. ... For other meanings, please see Zionism (disambiguation) Poster promoting a film about Jewish settlement in Palestine, 1930s: Toward a New Life (in Romanian),The Promised Land (in Hungarian) 1844 Discourse on the Restoration of the Jews by Mordecai Noah, page one. ... The World Zionist Organization [WZO] was founded as the Zionist Organization [ZO] on September 3, 1897, at the First Zionist Congress held in Basel, Switzerland. ... 1897 was a common year starting on Friday (see link for calendar). ... Location within Switzerland Basel (English traditionally: Basle , German: Basel , French: Bâle , Italian: Basilea ) is Switzerlands third most populous city (166,563 inhabitants (2004); 690,000 inhabitants in the conurbation stretching across the immediate cantonal and national boundaries made Basel Switzerlands second-largest urban area as of 2003). ... The World Zionist Organization, or WZO, was founded as the Zionist Organization, or ZO, on September 3, 1897, at the First Zionist Congress held in Basel, Switzerland. ... The word Jew (Hebrew: יהודי transliterated: Yehudi) is used in many ways but generally refers to a follower of Judaism, a child of a Jewish mother, or someone of Jewish descent with a connection to Jewish culture or ethnicity; and often a combination of these attributes. ...

20th century

• Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) Wrote Interpretation of Dreams, The Ego and the Id, Five Lectures on Psycho-Analysis. Medical doctor. Started as neurologist. Father of psychoanalysis. Revealing the hidden subconscious libido and thanatos and the workings of the Ego, Superego and Id on human personality and behavior. Sought cures for modern neurosis and psychosis of neurotic and psychotic patients.
• John Dewey (1859-1952) Wrote Democracy and Education (1916) Philosopher of pragmatism and Social Darwinism.
• Max Weber (1864-1920) Wrote The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1905), Economy and Society (1914), The Methodology of the Social Sciences (Pub. 1949 ). Forming sociology. Father of Social Sciences and study of the social system.
• Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948) Hindu philosopher and lawyer,proponent of non violent protest contributed to the end of British rule in India and Pakistan helping to end the British Empire.
• Bertrand Russell (1872-1970) (together with Alfred North Whitehead (1861-1947)), wrote Principia Mathematica connecting with Pythagoras and Plato. Russell wrote The Problems of Philosophy, Why I Am Not a Christian (1927) and much more. Logician, mathematician philosopher of liberalism and an activist pacifist, in 1958 becomes founding President of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament.
• Winston Churchill (1874-1965) Wrote History of the English-Speaking Peoples. Political saviour of Britain facing Nazism Strategic theoretician of the Atlantic Alliance between Britain and the USA.
• Carl Gustav Jung (1875-1961) Wrote Symbols and Transformation (1912), Psychological Types (1921), Psychology and Religion: West and East, Psycholgy and Alchemy (1944), Practice of Psychotherapy. Role of mythology, religion and God in psychology.
• Albert Einstein (1879-1955) Postulated E=mc². All matter is energy and the Theory of relativity. Atomic theories helped the USA build the first atom bomb. Contributed to evolution of atomic energy, the atomic bomb, and nuclear weapons. Peace activist and warned about perils of nuclear war.
• Leon Trotsky (1879-1940) Revolutionary Bolshevik leader and "Father of the Red Army". The Writings of Leon Trotsky shaped Trotskyism.
• John Maynard Keynes (1883-1946) Wrote The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money in (1936) key in modern economics on employment and supply and demand.
• D.H. Lawrence (1885-1930) Wrote Lady Chatterley's Lover and Sons and Lovers Promoted literary eroticism and sexual freedom. Fought efforts by censors objecting to pornography.
• T.S. Eliot (1888-1965) Wrote The waste land in 1922 and The hollow men in 1925 poet describing the frustrations of love and the emptiness of existence.
• Adolf Hitler (1889-1945) German dictator (1933-1945). Wrote Mein Kampf (1925) whilst in prison for a failed putsch, outlining his views which he put into practice. Doctrine of vicious Anti-Semitism, developed Nazism, and wanted genocide against non-Aryan peoples.
• Walt Disney (1901-1966) Creator of animated movies, revolutionized story-telling by introducing fictional Mickey Mouse, Donald Duck, Goofy, Minnie Mouse, and Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs loved and imitated by millions of children and adults. Creator of pop culture.
• George Orwell (1903-1950) Wrote Animal Farm and 1984 warning about the dangers of totalitarianism and the state as Big Brother
• Alexander Solzhenitsyn (1918- ) Wrote The Gulag Archipelago 1918-1956: An Experiment in Literary Investigation. Intellectual who rejected cruelties of communism in the USSR.

(19th century - 20th century - 21st century - more centuries) Decades: 1900s 1910s 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s As a means of recording the passage of time, the 20th century was that century which lasted from 1901–2000 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar (1900–1999 in the... Sigmund Freud Sigmund Freud [] (May 6, 1856–September 23, 1939) was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of the psychoanalytic school of psychology, based on his theory that human development is best understood in terms of changing objects of sexual desire; that the unconscious often represses wishes (generally of a... 1856 was a leap year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ... 1939 (MCMXXXIX) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will take you to calendar). ... Dream interpretation is the art of determining the meaning (or alleged meaning) of the symbolic content of a dream. ... See drugs, medication, and pharmacology for substances that are used to treat patients. ... Neurology is the branch of medicine that deals with the nervous system and disorders affecting it. ... Psychoanalysis is a family of psychological theories and methods within the field of psychotherapy that seeks to elucidate connections among unconscious components of patients mental processes, and to do so in a systematic way through a process of tracing out associations. ... Subconscious may refer to: that which is subliminal to consciousness the underlying consciousness see subconsciousness. ... Libido in its common usage means sexual desire, however more technical definitions, such as found in the work of Carl Jung, sex is when the mans penis (normally very big) goes in to the womans vagina opening. ... In Greek mythology, Thanatos (θάνατος, death) was the personification of death (Roman equivalent: Mors). ... In his theory of psychoanalysis, Sigmund Freud sought to explain how the unconscious mind operates by proposing that it has a particular structure. ... It has been suggested that Personality psychology be merged into this article or section. ... Behavior (or behaviour in Commonwealth English) refers to the actions or reactions of an object or organism, usually in relation to the environment. ... In modern psychology, the term neurosis, also known as psychoneurosis or neurotic disorder, is a general term that refers to any mental imbalance that causes distress, but does not interfere with rational thought or an individuals ability to function in daily life. ... This article is about the mental state. ... A neurosis, in psychoanalytic theory, is an ineffectual coping strategy that Sigmund Freud suggested was caused by emotions from past experience overwhelming or interfering with present experience. ... Psychosis is a psychiatric classification for a mental state in which the perception of reality is distorted. ... A patient is the name given to any person who is ill or injured and is being treated by, or in need of treatment by, a physician or other medical professional. ... John Dewey (October 20, 1859 – June 1, 1952) was an American philosopher, psychologist, and educational reformer, whose thought has been greatly influential in the United States and around the world. ... 1859 is a common year starting on Saturday. ... 1952 (MCMLII) was a [[leap year starting on Tueday] (link will take you to calendar). ... 1916 (MCMXVI) is a leap year starting on Saturday (link will take you to calendar) // Events January-February January 1 -The first successful blood transfusion using blood that had been stored and cooled. ... Pragmatism is belief of the teaching of philosophy which originated in the United States in the late 1800s. ... Social Darwinism is a term used to describe a style or trend in social theory which holds that Darwins theory of evolution of biological traits in a population by natural selection can also be applied to human social institutions. ... Maximilian Weber (April 21, 1864 – June 14, 1920) was a German political economist and sociologist who is considered one of the founders of the modern, antipositivistic study of sociology and public administration. ... 1864 was a leap year starting on Friday (see link for calendar). ... 1920 (MCMXX) is a leap year starting on Thursday (link will take you to calendar) // Events January January 7 - Forces of Russian White admiral Kolchak surrender in Krasnoyarsk. ... 1905 (MCMV) was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... 1914 (MCMXIV) is a common year starting on Thursday. ... 1949 (MCMXLIX) is a common year starting on Saturday. ... Social interactions of people and their consequences are the subject of sociology studies. ... The social sciences are a group of academic disciplines that study the human aspects of ice cream cones and fairy dances. ... Social structure (also referred to as a social system) is a system in which people forming the society are organized by a patterns of prelationships. ... Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (Devanagari/Hindi: मोहनदास करमचन्द गांधी; Gujarati: મોહનદાસ કરમચંદ ગાંધી; October 2, 1869 – January 30, 1948) was the spiritual and political leader of India who led the struggle for Indian independence from the British Empire, empowered by tens of millions of Indians. ... 1869 is a common year starting on Friday (link will take you to calendar). ... 1948 (MCMXLVIII) is a leap year starting on Thursday (link will take you to calendar). ... A Hindu (archaic Hindoo) is an adherent of philosophies and scriptures of Hinduism, also known as Sanatan (सनातन) Dharma or Vedic Dharma. ... See Satyagraha (opera) for an account of the opera of that title by Philip Glass. ... The British Empire was the worlds first global power and the largest empire in history. ... The Right Honourable Bertrand Arthur William Russell, 3rd Earl Russell, OM, FRS (18 May 1872 – 2 February 1970), was an influential British logician, philosopher, and mathematician, working mostly in the 20th century. ... 1872 was a leap year starting on Monday (see link for calendar). ... 1970 (MCMLXX) was a common year starting on Thursday. ... Alfred North Whitehead, OM (February 15, 1861, Ramsgate, Kent, UK – December 30, 1947, Cambridge, MA) was a British mathematician who evolved into a philosopher. ... 1861 is a common year starting on Tuesday. ... 1947 (MCMXLVII) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will take you to calendar). ... The Principia Mathematica is a three-volume work on the foundations of mathematics, written by Alfred North Whitehead and Bertrand Russell and published in 1910-1913. ... This topic is considered to be an essential subject on Wikipedia. ... Plato Plato (Greek: Πλάτων Plátōn) (ca. ... Why I Am Not a Christian is an essay by the British philosopher Bertrand Russell in which he explains why he is not a Christian. ... 1927 (MCMXXVII) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will take you to calendar). ... A logician is a philosopher, mathematician, or other whose topic of scholarly study is logic. ... This article is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... A philosopher is a person devoted to studying and producing results in philosophy. ... This article discusses liberalism as a major political ideology as it developed and stands currently. ... Activism, in a general sense, can be described as involvement in action to bring about change, be it social, political, environmental, or other change. ... Pacifism is opposition to war. ... 1958 (MCMLVIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament logo In British politics, the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament has been at the forefront of the peace movement in the United Kingdom and claims to be Europes largest single-issue peace campaign. ... The Right Honourable Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill, KG, OM, CH, TD, FRS (30 November 1874 – 24 January 1965) was a British statesman, best known as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom during the Second World War. ... 1874 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... 1965 (MCMLXV) was a common year starting on Friday (link goes to calendar). ... History of the English Speaking Peoples cover A History of the English Speaking Peoples is a four-volume history of Britain and the English speaking nations, written by Winston Churchill, covering the period from the Norman Conquest of Britain (1066) to the beginning of World War I (1914). ... The neutrality of this article is disputed. ... NATO 2002 Summit The North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO), sometimes called North Atlantic Alliance, Atlantic Alliance or the Western Alliance, is an international organisation for defence collaboration established in 1949, in support of the North Atlantic Treaty signed in Washington, DC, on April 4, 1949. ... Carl Gustav Jung Carl Gustav Jung (July 26, 1875 – June 6, 1961) was a Swiss psychiatrist and founder of the neopsychoanalytic school of psychology. ... 1875 was a common year starting on Friday (see link for calendar). ... 1961 (MCMLXI) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will take you to calendar). ... 1912 (MCMXII) was a leap year starting on Monday in the Gregorian calendar (or a leap year starting on Tuesday in the 13-day-slower Julian calendar). ... 1921 (MCMXXI) was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ... 1944 (MCMXLIV) was a leap year starting on Saturday (link will take you to calendar). ... ... God is the term used to denote the Supreme Being ascribed by monotheistic religions to be the creator, ruler and/or the sum total of, existence. ... Psychology (ancient Greek: psyche = soul or mind, logos/-ology = study of) is an academic and applied field involving the study of mind and behavior. ... Albert Einstein photographed by Oren J. Turner in 1947. ... 1879 was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ... 1955 (MCMLV) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar. ... The theoretical physics equation E = mc2 states a relationship between energy (E), in whatever form, and mass (m). ... Matter is commonly referred to as the substance of which physical objects are composed. ... This article is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... Properties An atom (Greek άτομον from ά: non and τομον: divisible) is a submicroscopic structure found in all ordinary matter. ... The mushroom cloud of the atomic bombing of Nagasaki, Japan, in 1945 lifted nuclear fallout some 18 km (60,000 feet) above the epicenter. ... Atomic energy is an outdated phrase which can mean a number of things related to energy produced by atoms: In the late- 19th century through the early- 20th century, it was often used to describe the particles ejected by radioactive elements (especially radium). ... The mushroom cloud of the atomic bombing of Nagasaki, Japan, 1945, rose some 18 km (11 mi) above the epicenter. ... The mushroom cloud of the atomic bombing of Nagasaki, Japan, 1945, rose some 18 km (11 mi) above the epicenter. ... The concept of peace ranks among the most controversial in our time. ... Nuclear war, or atomic war, is war in which nuclear weapons are used. ... Leon Trotsky â–¶ (help· info) (Russian: Лев Давидович Троцкий; also transliterated Leo, Lev, Trotskii, Trotski, Trotskij and Trotzky) (October 26 (O.S.) = November 7 (N.S.), 1879 – August 21, 1940), born Lev Davidovich Bronstein (Лев Давидович Бронштейн), was a Bolshevik revolutionary and Marxist theorist. ... 1879 was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ... 1940 (MCMXL) was a leap year starting on Monday (link will take you to calendar). ... Leaders of the Bolshevik Party and the Communist International, a painting by Malcolm McAllister on the Pathfinder Mural in New York City and on the cover of the book Lenin’s Final Fight published by Pathfinder. ... Trotskyism is the theory of Marxism as advocated by Leon Trotsky. ... John Maynard Keynes, 1st Baron Keynes of Tilton (pronounced kānz / kAnze), ) (June 5, 1883 – April 21, 1946) was an English economist, whose ideas had a major impact on modern economic and political theory as well as on American and British fiscal policies. ... 1883 was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar). ... 1946 (MCMXLVI) was a common year starting on Tuesday. ... The General Theory of Employment Interest and Money is generally considered to be the masterwork of the English economist John Maynard Keynes. ... 1936 (MCMXXXVI) was a leap year starting on Wednesday (link will take you to calendar). ... Employment is a contract between two parties, one being the employer and the other being the employee. ... The supply and demand model describes how prices vary as a result of a balance between product availability at each price (supply) and the desires of those with purchasing power at each price (demand). ... D. H. Lawrence David Herbert Lawrence (11 September 1885 - 2 March 1930) was one of the most important, certainly one of the most controversial, English writers of the 20th century, who wrote novels, short stories, poems, plays, essays, travel books, and letters. ... 1885 is a common year starting on Thursday. ... 1930 (MCMXXX) is a common year starting on Wednesday. ... Lady Chatterleys Lover is a novel by D. H. Lawrence written in 1928. ... Sons and Lovers is the third published novel of D.H. Lawrence. ... Eroticism is an aesthetic focused on sexual desire, especially the feelings of anticipation of sexual activity. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards and appeal to a wider international audience, this article may require cleanup. ... Pavonazzeto marble sculpture, see Erotic art in Pompeii Pornography (from Greek πορνογραφία pornographia — literally writing about or drawings of prostitutes) (also informally referred to as porn or porno) is the representation of the human body or human sexual behaviour with the goal of sexual arousal, similar to, but distinct from, erotica. ... Thomas Stearns Eliot (September 26, 1888 - January 4, 1965), was a major Modernist Anglo-American poet, dramatist, and literary critic. ... 1888 is a leap year starting on Sunday (click on link for calendar). ... 1965 (MCMLXV) was a common year starting on Friday (link goes to calendar). ... T. S. Eliot (by E. O. Hoppe, 1919) The Waste Land is a highly influential 433-line poem by T. S. Eliot. ... 1922 (MCMXXII) was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... 1925 (MCMXXV) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will take you to calendar). ... Poets are authors of poems, or of other forms of poetry such as dramatic verse. ... It has been suggested that True love be merged into this article or section. ... â–¶ (help· info) (April 20, 1889 – April 30, 1945) was Chancellor of Germany from 1933 and Führer (Leader) of Germany from 1934 to his death by suicide. ... 1889 was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ... 1945 (MCMXLV) was a common year starting on Monday (link will take you to calendar). ... Cover of Mein Kampf Mein Kampf (German for My Struggle) is a book written by Adolf Hitler, combining elements of autobiography with an exposition of Hitlers political ideology of Nazism. ... 1925 (MCMXXV) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will take you to calendar). ... A coup détat, or simply a coup, is the sudden overthrow of a government, usually done by a small group that just replaces the top power figures. ... The Eternal Jew: 1937 German poster. ... The neutrality of this article is disputed. ... Genocide is defined by the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (CPPCG) article 2 as any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnic, racial or religious group, as such: Killing members of the group; Causing... Aryan is an English word derived from the Indo-Aryan Vedic Sanskrit and Iranian Avestan terms ari-, arya-, ārya-, and/or the extended form aryāna-. The Old Persian ariya- is a cognate as well. ... Walt Disney Walter Elias Disney (December 5, 1901 – December 15, 1966), was an American film producer, director, screenwriter, voice actor, and animator. ... 1901 (MCMI) was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ... 1966 (MCMLXVI) was a common year starting on Saturday (link goes to calendar) // Events January January 1 - In a coup, Colonel Jean-Bédel Bokassa ousts president David Dacko and takes over the Central African Republic. ... Animation refers to the process in which each frame of a film or movie is produced individually, whether generated as a computer graphic, or by photographing a drawn image, or by repeatedly making small changes to a model (see claymation and stop motion), and then photographing the result. ... Mickey Mouse Mickey Mouse is a comic animal cartoon character who has become a symbol for The Walt Disney Company. ... Donald Duck Donald Duck is an animated cartoon and comic-book character from Walt Disney Productions. ... Goofy Goofy is a fictional character from the Walt Disneys Mickey Mouse universe. ... Minnie Mouse Minnie Mouse is a fictional character of the Mickey Mouse universe featured in animated cartoons, comic strips and comic book by The Walt Disney Company. ... Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs is the first animated feature in the Disney animated features canon. ... Popular culture, or pop culture, is the vernacular (peoples) culture that prevails in a modern society. ... Eric Arthur Blair (June 25, 1903–January 21, 1950), better known by the pen name George Orwell, was a British author and journalist. ... 1903 (MCMIII) was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... 1950 (MCML) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will take you to calendar). ... Animal Farm book cover Animal Farm is a satirical novel (which can also be understood as a modern fable or allegory) by George Orwell, ostensibly about a group of animals who oust the humans from the farm they live on and run it themselves, only to have it corrupted into... 1984 (MCMLXXXIV) is a leap year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Totalitarianism is a typology employed by political scientists, especially those in the field of comparative politics, to describe modern regimes in which the state regulates nearly every aspect of public and private behavior. ... Big Brother as portrayed in the BBCs 1954 production of Nineteen Eighty-Four. ... Solzhenitsyn was exiled from the Soviet Union for his book The Gulag Archipelago. ... 1918 (MCMXVIII) was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar (see link for calendar) or a common year starting on Wednesday of the Julian calendar. ... The Gulag Archipelago (Архипелаг ГУЛаг), probably the most powerful and famous book about the Soviet prison system, is a three-volume history written by Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn based on extensive research as well as his own experiences as a prisoner in the Gulag. ... This article is about communism as a form of society and as a political movement. ...

21st century

• Osama bin Laden (1957- ) Infamous Islamic terrorist widely held responsible for the September 11, 2001, attacks on the World Trade Center and Pentagon.

The 21st century is the century that began on 1 January 2001 and will last to 31 December 2100. ... Osama bin Laden in a photo from the 1990s Usāmah bin Muhammad bin `Awad bin Lādin (born March 10, 1957; Arabic: ), commonly known as Osama bin Laden, or Usama bin Laden, (Arabic: ), is the founder of the terrorist organization al-Qaeda. ... 1957 (MCMLVII) was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar. ...

Partisan use of the term Worldwide

The phrase "Worldwide" has tremendous emotional appeal, and is used in various countries not only by persons from professional historians to self-taught curmudgeons but by political groups which want to impose their view of reality upon their countrymen and even the whole world. The easiest way to do this is to establish a benchmark year and leave the particulars to specialists.

Britain: The Glorious Revolution of 1688 established a king selected by parliament, ending the troubles in that country in the seventeenth century. This was primarily done by the faction called the Whigs, who used the term "modern" for generations thereafter to gain credit. Later generations and political parties did not consider this a sufficient change to merit the term. The term Glorious Revolution refers to the generally popular overthrow of James II of England in 1688 by a conspiracy between some parliamentarians and the Dutch stadtholder William III of Orange-Nassau. ... // Events A high-powered conspiracy of notables, the Immortal Seven, invite William and Mary to depose James II of England. ... An aerial view of Parliament of India at New Delhi. ... (16th century - 17th century - 18th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 17th century was that century which lasted from 1601-1700. ... While the Whigs (along with the Tories) are often described as one of the two political parties in late 17th to mid 19th century Great Britain, it is more accurate to describe them as loose political groupings or tendencies. ...

France: Although the French still glory in the magnificence of King Louis XIV, the end of his reign in 1715 is considered by them as a handy spot from which to tout the next phase of French glory, the Enlightenment, which they call « l'Age des lumières ». In other words, what happened in Britain does not concern them. After the French Revolution of 1789, they declared that the modern age had been surpassed by the contemporary age. For the musical group of the same name, see Louis XIV (band). ... // Events July 24 - Spanish treasure fleet of ten ships under admiral Ubilla leave Havana, Cuba for Spain. ... The Age of Enlightenment refers to the 18th century in European philosophy, and is often thought of as part of a larger period which includes the Age of Reason. ... The French Revolution (1789-1799) was a period in the history of France. ... Contemporary is an adjective which in its basic form merely means that two individuals, events or movements overlapped in time. ...

Russia: It took some time for the European socialists to conceive that the next great revolution would start someplace other than in France. But the Russians have always compared themselves to the French. After the October revolution, the Communist party of the Soviet Union declared that the "modern age" began with Peter the Great and the "contemporary age" began with this Bolshevik revolution. The color red and particularly the red flag are traditional symbols of Socialism. ... The October Revolution, also known as the Bolshevik Revolution, was the second phase of the Russian Revolution of 1917, the first having been instigated by the events around the February Revolution. ... In modern usage, a communist party is a political party which promotes communism, a sociopolitical philosophy based on the particular interpretation of Marxism put forth by Vladimir Lenin. ... Portrait of Peter by Paul Delaroche Peter I (Russian: ) (10 June 1672–8 February 1725 [30 May 1672– 28 January 1725 O.S.] ) ruled Russia from 7 May (27 April O.S.) 1682 until his death. ... Leaders of the Bolshevik Party and the Communist International, a painting by Malcolm McAllister on the Pathfinder Mural in New York City and on the cover of the book Lenin’s Final Fight published by Pathfinder. ...

Other countries do not use the terms the same as the French and Russians, especially if their languages are non-Indo-European. The Japanese call the dynasties previous to the Tokugawa dynasty as medieval, and the Meiji Restoration of 1858 is considered equivalent to the French Revolution of 1789, but haven't assimilated a form of the word modern for Tokugawa. As for the Third World, the obvious benchmarks are colonization by European imperial powers and the subsequent decolonization in the twentieth century. But "modern" and "contemporary" are not used for this purpose. Proto-Indo-European Indo-European studies Indo-European is originally a linguistic term, referring to the Indo-European language family. ... The Meiji Restoration (Japanese: 明治維新, Meiji-ishin), also known as the Meiji Ishin, Revolution or Renewal, was a chain of events that led to a change in Japans political and social structure. ...

The United States of America: A seemingly natural dividing point as far as Spain and the new world are concerned is the voyage of Columbus in 1492. But the need for such an undertaking was underscored by the taking of Constantinople by the Ottoman Empire of the Turks in 1453, so historians once took this as their benchmark. Many contemporary historians, however, use a less-specific date, such as 1500, to avoid reference to a specific event that was not as important everywhere in the world. Carte dAmérique, Guillaume Delisle, c. ... Columbus is a latinized party of the Italian surname Colombo, which means Dove. ... 1492 was a leap year starting on Friday (see link for calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Map of Constantinople. ... Imperial motto (Ottoman Turkish) Devlet-i Ebed-müddet (the Eternal State) The Ottoman Empire at the height of its power Official language Ottoman Turkish Capital Bursa (1335 - 1365), Edirne (1365-1453), İstanbul (1453-1922) Imperial anthem Ottoman imperial anthem Sovereigns Padishah of the Osmanli Dynasty Population ca 40 million... Events May 29 - Fall of Constantinople to Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II the Conqueror, marking the end of the Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire). ... 1500 was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ...

See also

• Modern Europe

This article is confusing for some readers, and needs to be edited for clarity. ...

External links

• China and Europe