It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Mongol invasions of Syria. (Discuss)

It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Mongol conquests and Jerusalem. (Discuss)

The factual accuracy of this article is disputed. Please see the relevant discussion on the talk page.

Towards the end of the Crusades, there were several attempted Mongol invasions of Syria, with a certain amount of success in 1260 and 1300. On both of these occasions, there existed a period of time of a few months during which the Mongols successfully defeated the Muslims, and before they were beaten back a few months later, the Mongols were able to launch some raids southward into Palestine, reaching as far as Gaza. Image File history File links Merge-arrow. ... Image File history File links Merge-arrows. ... Image File history File links Emblem-important. ... This article is about the medieval crusades. ... The magnificent Cathedral of Chartres was dedicated in 1260. ... Events February 22 - Jubilee of Pope Boniface VIII. March 10 - Wardrobe accounts of King Edward I of Englanddo (aka Edward Longshanks) include a reference to a game called creag being played at the town of Newenden in Kent. ... Not to be confused with the Spanish name Garza or the Egyptian town of Giza. ...

Mongol campaigns of 1260

In 1258, the Mongols under the leader Hulagu, on their quest to further expand their empire, successfully captured the center of power in the Islamic world, the city of Baghdad, effectively destroying the Abbasid dynasty. After Baghdad, the Mongol forces, including some Christians from the previously conquered territories of Georgia, Cilician Armenia, and Antioch, then went on to conquer Syria, domain of the Ayyubid dynasty. They took the city of Aleppo, and on March 1, 1260, conquered Damascus,^[1][2][3][4] destroying the Ayyubid Dynasty as well. Hulagu Khan (also known as Hülegü, and Hulegu) (1217–8 February 1265) was a Mongol ruler who conquered much of Southwest Asia. ... Baghdad (Arabic: ) is the capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate. ... Abbasid provinces during the caliphate of Harun al-Rashid Abbasid was the dynastic name generally given to the caliphs of Baghdad, the second of the two great Sunni dynasties of the Muslim empire. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Antakya. ... The Ayyubid or Ayyoubid Dynasty was a Muslim dynasty of Kurdish[1] origins which ruled Egypt, Syria, Yemen (except for the Northern Mountains), Diyar Bakr, Mecca, Hejaz and northern Iraq in the 12th and 13th centuries. ... Aleppo (or Halab Arabic: , ) is a city in northern Syria, capital of the Aleppo Governorate. ... Nickname: The Seal of the Damascus Governorate Syria Syria Governorates Damascus Governorate Government  - Governor Bishr Al Sabban Area  - City 573 km²  (221. ... The Ayyubid or Ayyoubid Dynasty was a Muslim dynasty of Kurdish[1] origins which ruled Egypt, Syria, Yemen (except for the Northern Mountains), Diyar Bakr, Mecca, Hejaz and northern Iraq in the 12th and 13th centuries. ...

With the Islamic power centers of Baghdad and Damascus gone, the center of Islamic power transferred to the Egyptian Mamluks in Cairo. The Mongols probably would have continued on through Palestine towards Egypt, but had to stop their invasion because of an internal conflict in Turkestan. Hulagu departed with the bulk of his forces, leaving only about 10,000 Mongol horsemen in Syria under his Nestorian Christian general Kitbuqa, to occupy the conquered territory.^[5] From this base, the Mongols engaged in raids southward towards Egypt, reaching as far as Ascalon and Jerusalem, and a Mongol garrison of about 1,000 was placed in Gaza,^[6][7][8] with another garrison located in Nablus.^[9] Most historians agree that Jerusalem itself was probably subject to at least one Mongol raid at this time, but was not otherwise occupied or formally conquered.^[10] An Ottoman Mamluk, from 1810 Mamluks (or Mameluks) (the Arabic word usually translates as owned, singular: مملوك plural: مماليك) comprised slave soldiers used by the Muslim Caliphs and the Ottoman Empire, and who on more than one occasion seized power for... Nickname: Egypt: Site of Cairo (top center) Coordinates: , Government  - Governor Dr. Abdul Azim Wazir Area  - City 214 km²  (82. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... The term Nestorianism is eponymous, even though the person who lent his name to it always denied the associated belief. ... Kitbuqa Noyen was the Christian lieutenant and confidant of Hulagu Khan, assisting him in his conquests in Persia and the Middle East. ... The name Ascalon can refer to a number of possible topics: a middle-eastern city, more usually called Ashkelon the lance (or in some versions of the story, sword) that St George used to slay the dragon, named after the city Ashkelon the British WW2 aeroplane used by Winston Churchill... For other uses, see Jerusalem (disambiguation). ... Not to be confused with the Spanish name Garza or the Egyptian town of Giza. ... Map of the West Bank, with Nablus in the center north. ...

Battle of Ain Jalut (1260)

Main article: Battle of Ain Jalut

After retreating from Syria to Cairo, the Egyptian Mamluks negotiated a passive alliance with the Franks of Acre, which allowed the Mamluk troops to come north through the Crusader territory unharmed. The Mamluks were thus able to amass a sizable force to confront the remains of the Mongol army in September 1260, at the historic battle of Ain Jalut in Galilee. The Mamluks achieved a major victory, which was important not only for the region, but also in that it was the first time that the Mongol Army had suffered a major defeat. After this battle, the Mongols would again attempt several invasions of Syria, but would not be successful until 1300, when again they would only hold territory for a few months. // Combatants Egyptian Mamluks Mongols Commanders Saif ad-Din Qutuz Baibars Kitbuqa † Strength About 120,000 10-30,000 Casualties light all the force died or was captured The Battle of Ain Jalut (or Ayn Jalut, in Arabic: عين جالوت, the Eye of Goliath or the Spring of Goliath) took place on September... An acre is the name of a unit of area in a number of different systems, including Imperial units and United States customary units. ... The Battle of Ain Jalut (or Ayn Jalut, the Spring of Goliath) took place on September 3, 1260 between the Mameluks and the Mongols in Palestine. ... Galilee (Arabic al-jaleel الجليل, Hebrew hagalil הגליל), meaning circuit, is a large area overlapping with much of the North District of Israel. ...

Sidon incident (1260)

With Mongol territory now bordering the Franks, a few incidents occurred, one of them leading to large-scale trouble in Sidon. Julian de Grenier, Lord of Sidon and Beaufort, described by his contemporaries as irresponsible and light-headed, took the opportunity to raid and plunder the area of the Bekaa in Mongol territory. When the Mongol general Kitbuqa sent his nephew with a small force to obtain redress, they were ambushed and killed by Julian. Kitbuqa responded forcefully by raiding the city of Sidon, although the Castle of the city was left unattained.^[11][12] View of the new city the Sea Castle. ... The Lordship of Sidon was one of the four major seigneuries of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, according to the 13th-century writer John of Ibelin. ... Location of Beaufort Castle, Lebanon Beaufort or Belfort (Arabic: ‎, Qalaat ash-Shqif, Hebrew: ‎, Mivtsār hāBōfōr) is a Crusader fortress in Nabatiye Governorate, southern Lebanon, about 1 kilometer (0. ... Kitbuqa Noyen was the Christian lieutenant and confidant of Hulagu Khan, assisting him in his conquests in Persia and the Middle East. ...

Mongol campaigns of 1299-1300

James II of Aragon complimented Ghazan for his victories in 1300.

In the summer of 1299, King Hetoum II of Armenia sent a message to the Mongol khan of Persia, Ghâzân to obtain his support. In response, Ghazan marched with his forces towards Syria and sent letters to the Franks of Cyprus (the King of Cyprus, and the heads of the Knights Templar, the Hospitallers and the Teutonic Knights), inviting them to come join him in his attack on the Mamluks in Syria. Ghazan's first letter was sent on October 21, which arrived 15 days later. He sent a second letter in November.^[13] Image File history File links Size of this preview: 485 × 599 pixelsFull resolution (760 × 939 pixel, file size: 121 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) Chaime II, rei dAragón por Manuel Aguirre y Monsalbe (1885) Rei En Jaume el Just, I de Sicília, II dAragó, de Catalunya... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 485 × 599 pixelsFull resolution (760 × 939 pixel, file size: 121 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) Chaime II, rei dAragón por Manuel Aguirre y Monsalbe (1885) Rei En Jaume el Just, I de Sicília, II dAragó, de Catalunya... James II of Aragon James II, King of Aragon (10 August 1267 – 2 November 1327), in Spanish Jaime II, in Aragonese Chaime II, in Catalan Jaume II, also James II of Barcelona, called The Just (Aragonese: Lo Chusto, Catalan: El Just) was the second son of Peter III of Aragon... Mahmud Ghazan (original Mongol name: Ghazan Khan, b. ... The Poor Fellow-Soldiers of Christ and of the Temple of Solomon (Latin: Pauperes commilitones Christi Templique Solomonici), popularly known as the Knights Templar or the Order of the Temple, were among the most famous of the Christian military orders. ... The Knights Hospitaller (the or Knights of Malta or Knights of Rhodes) is a tradition which began as a Benedictine nursing Order founded in the 11th century based in the Holy Land, but soon became a militant Christian Chivalric Order under its own charter, and was charged with the care... For the state, see Monastic state of the Teutonic Knights. ...

There is no record of any reply, but Ghazan moved ahead, and the Mongols successfully took the city of Aleppo. There, Ghazan was joined by King Hetoum, whose forces included some Templars and Hospitallers from the kingdom of Armenia, who participated in the rest of the offensive.^[14] The Mongols and their allies defeated the Mamluks in the Battle of Wadi al-Khazandar, on December 23 or 24, 1299.^[15] and one group of Mongols then split off from Ghazan's army, and pursued the retreating Mamluk troops as far as Gaza,^[16] pushing them back to Egypt. The bulk of Ghazan's forces then proceeded on to Damascus, which surrendered somewhere between December 30, 1299, and January 6, 1300, though its Citadel resisted.^[17][18] A contemporary Arab writer mentions the exactions in Damas of the Armenian and Georgian Christians together with the Mongols.^[19] Ghazan then retreated most of his forces in February, probably because their horses needed fodder. Aleppo (or Halab Arabic: , ) is a city in northern Syria, capital of the Aleppo Governorate. ... Combatants Ilkhanate, Georgia and Armenia Mamluks of Egypt Commanders Ghazan Khan Sultan Abdalmalik an-Nasir Strength 60,000 Mongol troops, 40,000 Georgian and Armenian auxialliaries + 12,000 Maronite and Druze bowmen 20,000-30,000 Mamluks Casualties 5,000-14,000 Mongols 200-1,000 Mamluks (Army Routed) // In...

In the meantime the remaining forces of the Mongols, about 10,000 horsemen under the Mongol general Mulay, ruled over Syria,^[20] and engaged in raids as far south as Jerusalem and Gaza.^{[21][22][23][24]}

Also in early 1300, two Frank rulers, Guy d'Ibelin and Jean II de Giblet, had moved in with their troops from Cyprus in response to Ghazan's earlier call, and established a base in the castle of Nefin in Gibelet on the Syrian coast with the intention of joining him, but Ghazan was already gone.^[25][26] They also started to besiege the new city of Tripoli, but in vain.^[27] They soon had to reembark for Cyprus. Byblos was a city of Phoenicia, in ancient times. ...

In July, the Crusader forces from Cyprus attempted to assist, engaging in coastal raids that stretched from Alexandria in Egypt, up to Tortosa. The ships then returned to Cyprus, and prepared for an attack on Tortosa in late 1300. James II of Aragon also sent a congratulation letter to Ghazan for his victories.^[28] James II of Aragon James II, King of Aragon (10 August 1267 – 2 November 1327), in Spanish Jaime II, in Aragonese Chaime II, in Catalan Jaume II, also James II of Barcelona, called The Just (Aragonese: Lo Chusto, Catalan: El Just) was the second son of Peter III of Aragon...

The fate of Jerusalem in 1300

Main article: Mongol raids on Jerusalem

Despite pervasive contemporary European rumours to the contrary, there is little evidence the Mongols occupied Jerusalem around this time. After the Mamluk forces retreated south to Egypt, the main Mongol forces retreated north in February, and Ghazan left his general Mulay to rule in Syria.^[29] Accordingly, there existed a period of about four months from February to May 1300, when the Mongol il-Khan was the "de facto" lord of the Holy Land.^[30] But even that small force had to retreat when the Mamluks returned in May 1300.^[31][32] Ghazan also promised to return in the winter of 1300-1301 to attack Egypt.^[33]

Phillips, in The Medieval Expansion of Europe, states that "Jerusalem had not been taken or even besieged."^[34] In The Crusades, Riley-Smith chalked up any stories of a capture of Jerusalem, to rumors.^[35] Schein, in her 1979 article "Gesta Dei per Mongolos", stated "The alleged recovery of the Holy Land never happened,"^[36] David Morgan in The Mongols, using Schein as a reference, agrees that of the taking of Jerusalem, "this had not in fact happened."^[37]

However, in The Crusaders and the Crusader States, Andrew Jotischky used Schein's 1979 article and later 1991 book to state, "after a brief and largely symbolic occupation of Jerusalem, Ghazan withdrew to Persia"^[38] (though it should be noted that Schein never confirmed that Ghazan was in Jerusalem, but merely said that that was one of the rumors around that time). Steven Runciman in "A History of the Crusades, III" stated that Ghazan penetrated as far as Jerusalem, but not until the year 1308.^[39]

Notes

Byblos was a city of Phoenicia, in ancient times. ... The double County of Jaffa and Ascalon was one of the four major seigneuries of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, according to 13th-century commentator John of Ibelin. ...

References

Ancient sources

• Adh-Dhababi, Record of the Destruction of Damascus by the Mongols in 1299-1301 Translated by Joseph Somogyi. From: Ignace Goldziher Memorial Volume, Part 1, Online (English translation).
• Jean de Joinville, The Memoirs of Lord of Joinville, translated by Ethel Wedwood Online (English translation).
• Le Templier de Tyr (circa 1300). Chronicle du Templier de Tyr, Online (Original French).
• Hayton of Corycus (1307). Flowers of the Histories of the East, Online (English translation).
• Guillaume de Tyr (circa 1300). History of Deeds Done Beyond the Sea, Online (Original French).
• Kirakos (circa 1300). History of the Armenians, Online, (English translation).
• The history and Life of Rabban Bar Sauma (translated from the Syriac by Budge, Sir E.A.Wallis).  (online)

Jean de Joinville (1224 - December 24, 1317) was one of the great chroniclers of medieval France. ...

Modern sources

• Amitai, Reuven (1987). "Mongol Raids into Palestine (AD 1260 and 1300)". JRAS: 236-255. 
• Barber, Malcolm (2001). The Trial of the Templars, 2nd edition, University Press, Cambridge. ISBN 978-0-521-67236-8. 
• Bournoutian, George A. (2002). A Concise History of the Armenian People: From Ancient Times to the Present. Mazda Publishers. ISBN 1568591411. 
• "The Monks of Kublai Khan Emperor of China", Sir E. A. Wallis Budge. Online
• Grousset, René (1935). Histoire des Croisades III, 1188-1291" (in French). Editions Perrin. ISBN 2-262-02569-X. 
• Encyclopedia Iranica, Article on Franco-Persian relations
• Foltz, Richard (2000). "Religions of the Silk Road : overland trade and cultural exchange from antiquity to the fifteenth century". New York: St. Martin's Griffin. ISBN 0-312-23338-8.
• Demurger, Alain (2007). Jacques de Molay (in French). Editions Payot&Rivages. ISBN 2228902357. 
• Hazard, Harry W. (editor) (1975). Volume III: The Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries, Kenneth M. Setton, general editor, A History of the Crusades, The University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 0-299-06670-3. 
• Jackson, Peter (2005). The Mongols and the West: 1221-1410. Longman. ISBN 978-0582368965. 
• Lebédel, Claude (2006). Les Croisades, origines et conséquences (in French). Editions Ouest-France. ISBN 2737341361. 
• Maalouf, Amin (1984). The Crusades Through Arab Eyes. New York: Schocken Books. ISBN 0-8052-0898-4. 
• Maalouf, Amin (1983). Les croisades vues par les Arabes. JC Lattes. 
• Michaud, Yahia (Oxford Centre for Islamic Studies) (2002). Ibn Taymiyya, Textes Spirituels I-XVI (in French). "Le Musulman", Oxford-Le Chebec. 
• Newman, Sharan (2006). Real History Behind the Templars. Berkley Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-425-21533-3. 
• Nicolle, David (2001). The Crusades, Essential Histories. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84176-179-4. 
• Phillips, John Roland Seymour (1998). The Medieval Expansion of Europe. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198207409. 
• Prawdin, Michael (pseudonym for Charol, Michael) (1940/1961). Mongol Empire. Collier-Macmillan Canada. ISBN 1412805198. 
• Prawer, Joshua (1972). The Crusaders' Kingdom: European Colonialism in the Middle Ages. Praeger. ISBN 9780297993971. 
• Richard, Jean (1996). Histoire des Croisades. Fayard. ISBN 2-213-59787-1. 
• Riley-Smith, Jonathan (1987, 2005). The Crusades: A History, 2nd edition, Yale Nota Bene. ISBN 0-300-10128-7. 
• Riley-Smith, Jonathan (1996, 2005). Atlas des Croisades (in French). Autrement. ISBN 2862605530. 
• Riley-Smith, Jonathan (2002). The Oxford History of the Crusades. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0192803123. 
• Runciman, Steven (1987 (first published in 1952-1954)). A history of the Crusades 3. Penguin Books. ISBN 9780140137057. 
• Saunders, J. J. (2001). The History of the Mongol Conquests. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0812217667. 
• Schein, Sylvia (October 1979). "Gesta Dei per Mongolos 1300. The Genesis of a Non-Event". The English Historical Review 94 (373): 805-819. 
• Schein, Sylvia (1991). Fideles Crucis: The Papacy, the West, and the Recovery of the Holy Land. Clarendon. ISBN 0198221657. 
• Schein, Sylvia (2005). Gateway to the Heavenly City: crusader Jerusalem and the catholic West. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.. ISBN 075460649X. 
• Sinor, Denis (1999). "The Mongols in the West". Journal of Asian History 33 (1). 
• Stewart, Angus Donal. The Armenian Kingdom and the Mamluks: War and Diplomacy During the Reigns of Het'Um II (1289-1307). BRILL. ISBN 9004122923. 
• Turnbull, Stephen (1980). The Mongols. Osprey Publishing Ltd.. ISBN 9780850453720. 
• Weatherford, Jack (2004). Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World. Three Rivers Press. ISBN 0-609-80964-4. 
• Wood, Frances (2002). The Silk Road. University of California Press. ISBN 0520243404. 

Malcolm Barber is a scholar of medieval history, described as the worlds leading expert on the Knights Templar. ... Sir James Cochran Stevenson Runciman (7 July 1903 - 1 November 2000) was a British historian known for his work on the Middle Ages. ...

External links

• (French) Alain Demurger interview, "La Chute du Temple". Le Point (11/08/2005). Retrieved on 2007-09-25.