Mountain warfare refers to warfare in the mountains. This type of warfare is also called Alpine warfare (from the Alps mountains) where this warfare was first noticed. Mountain warfare is one of the most dangerous, as it involves fighting not only the enemy but also the extreme cold and inaccessible heights. The problems multiply due to avalanches of snow or rocks, either natural or induced by the enemy. Many of the authors that served in various real-life wars (and survived) wrote stories that are at least somewhat based on their own experiences. ... This is a partial list of battles that have entries in Wikipedia. ... This is a list of civil wars. ... . ... This is a list of both successful and repelled international invasions ordered by date. ... This is a list of missions, operations, and projects. ... The 1453 Siege of Constantinople (painted 1499) A siege is a prolonged military assault and blockade on a city or fortress with the intent of conquering by force or attrition. ... This page contains a list of military raids, not including air raids, sorted by the date at which they started: 1259 Mongol raid into Lithuania 1565, August 26th Chaseabout Raid 1575, July 7th Raid of the Redeswire 1582, August 27th Raid of Ruthven 1667, June 6th Raid on the Medway... This page contains a list of military tactics: // Principles Identification of objectives Concentration of effort Exploiting prevailing weather Exploiting night Maintenance of a reserve Economy of Force Force protection Dispersal or spacing Camouflage Deception Electronic Counter Measures Electronic Counter Counter Measures Radio silence Use of fortifications Fieldworks (entrenchments) Over Head... See also list of military writers. ... This is a list of lists of wars, sorted by country, date, region, and type of conflict. ... This list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it. ... . ... There are a bewildering array of weapons, far more than would be useful in list form. ... This is a list of military writers, alphabetical by last name. ... A mountain is a landform that extends above the surrounding terrain in a limited area. ... The West face of the Petit Dru above the Chamonix valley near the Mer de Glace. ... This article refers to the natural event known as an avalanche. ... Animation of snowcover changing with the seasons. ...

Typical white color clothes of a soldier trained for mountain warfare. Here a US Marines skier is seen in one made out of cotton

The long nights and great distances on huge, snow-covered peaks at sub-zero degree temperatures demands much endurance and patience. Winning the warfare essentially boils down to holding the high ground in the battle. Attacking an enemy position entrenched in a mountain warfare scenario requires a greater ratio of attacking soldiers to defending soldiers, than would be needed on the plains.^[1] Mountains, at any time of year, are dangerous -- lightning, high wind, rock fall, extreme cold, or falls into crevasses and cliffs all being able to cause death. In war, the dangers multiply exponentially. Movement, medical evacuation and reinforcements up steep slopes, often where even mules cannot go, involves an enormous exertion of energy. Image File history File links USMarineskier. ... Image File history File links USMarineskier. ... The United States Marine Corps (USMC) is a branch of the U.S. military responsible for providing power projection from the sea,[1] utilizing the mobility of the U.S. Navy to rapidly deliver combined-arms task forces to global crises. ... Skiing is the activity of gliding over snow using skis (originally wooden planks, now usually made from fiberglass or related composites) strapped to the feet with ski bindings. ... Cotton ready for harvest. ... Please wikify (format) this article or section as suggested in the Guide to layout and the Manual of Style. ... Measuring snowpack in a crevasse on the Easton Glacier, North Cascades, USA A crevasse is a crack or fissure in a glacier or snow field. ... The Trango Towers in Pakistan have the highest cliffs in the world In geography, a cliff is a significant vertical, or near vertical, rock exposure. ... In its common modern meaning, a mule is the offspring of a male donkey and a female horse. ...

The term mountain warfare is said to have came about in the medieval age, after the monarchies of Europe found it difficult to fight the Swiss armies in the Alps. This was because the Swiss were able to fight in smaller units and took vantage points against a huge unmaneuverable army. Similar styles of attack and defence were later employed by guerrillas, partisans and freedom fighters who hid in the mountains after an attack, making it challenging for the army to fight back. The Middle Ages formed the middle period in a traditional schematic division of European history into three ages: the classical civilization of Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and modern times. ... World map showing Europe A satellite composite image of Europe Europe is one of the six inhabited continents of the Earth. ... Look up guerrilla in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Look up partisan on Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... The Contras were often referred to as Freedom Fighters by US President Ronald Reagan. ...

World War I

Mountain warfare came to the fore once again, during World War I, when some of the nations involved in the war had mountain divisions that had hitherto not been tested. The Austro-Hungarian defence repelled the Italians as they took advantage of the mostly mountainous terrain, where more people succumbed to frostbite and avalanches than to bullets. In December of 1914, another offensive was launched by the Turkish supreme commander Enver Pasha with 95,000-190,000 troops against the Russians in the Caucasus. Insisting on a frontal attack against Russian positions in the mountains in the heart of winter, the end result was devastating and Enver lost 86% of his force. Combatants Allied Powers: British Empire France Italy Russia United States Central Powers: Austria-Hungary Bulgaria Germany Ottoman Empire Commanders Ferdinand Foch Georges Clemenceau Joseph Joffre Victor Emmanuel III Luigi Cadorna Armando Diaz Nicholas II Aleksei Brusilov Herbert Henry Asquith Douglas Haig John Jellicoe Woodrow Wilson John Pershing Wilhelm II Paul... Austria-Hungary, also known as the Dual monarchy (or: the k. ... Frostbite (congelatio in medical terminology) is the medical condition where damage is caused to skin and other tissues due to extreme cold. ... Ismail Enver Ismail Enver, known to Europeans during his political career as Enver Pasha ( Istanbul, November 22, 1881 - August 4, 1922) was a military officer and a leader of the Young Turk revolution in the closing days of the Ottoman Empire. ... The Ethnolinguistic patchwork of the modern Caucasus - CIA map Russia Georgia Azerbaijan (Azer. ...

Kashmir conflict

Further information: Kashmir conflict

However, the most dangerous and volatile of all mountain conflicts involves the ongoing one between India and Pakistan over the Kashmir region. Since the partition in 1947, both countries have been constantly locked in skirmishes and wars mainly revolving around this mountainous region. The first hostilities between the two nations in the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947 showed that both were ill-equipped to fight in biting cold, let alone on the highest mountain region in the world, the Himalayas. Later wars were mainly fought on the valleys than in the mountains. This changed in the Kargil War when Indian forces were faced with the huge task of flushing out the infiltrators. This proxy warfare became the only modern war that was fought exclusively on the mountains. Since Pakistan-backed forces held the high ground and battles took place in peaks as high as 5,025 metres, it proved an immensely difficult task for the Indian Army, supported by massed artillery, to regain the heights and win the war. On a related note, the Siachen Glacier was named the highest battleground in the world with both the countries holding their respective positions at nearly 7 km above sea level. More than 4000 people have died in this inhospitable terrain, mostly due to weather extremities and the natural hazards of mountain warfare. The disputed areas of the region of Kashmir. ... Kashmir (or Cashmere) may refer to: Kashmir region, the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent India, Kashmir conflict, the territorial dispute between India, Pakistan, and the China over the Kashmir region. ... Britains holdings on the Indian subcontinent were granted independence in 1947 and 1948, becoming four new independent states: India, Burma (now Myanmar), Ceylon (now Sri Lanka), and Pakistan (including East Pakistan, modern-day Bangladesh). ... 1947 (MCMXLVII) was a common year starting on Wednesday (the link is to a full 1947 calendar). ... Combatants India Pakistan Commanders General K M Cariappa, Lt Gen S M Shrinagesh, Maj Gen K S Thimayya, Maj Gen Kalwant Singh Maj Gen Akbar Khan Casualties 1,104 killed[1](Indian army) 684 KIA(State Forces)[2] [3] 3,152 wounded [1] 1,500 - 5,000 killed[4] (Pakistan... Perspective view of the Himalayas and Mount Everest as seen from space looking south-south-east from over the Tibetan Plateau. ... Combatants India Pakistan, Kashmiri secessionists Strength 30,000 5,000 Casualties Indian Official Figures: 527 killed,[1][2][3] 1,363 wounded[4] 1 POW Pakistani Estimates: 357–4,000+ killed[5][6] (Pakistan troops) 665+ soldiers wounded[5] 8 POWs. ... The Indian Army is the largest branch of the Armed Forces of India and has the primary responsibility of conducting land-based military operations. ... The Siachen Glacier is marked in orange The Siachen Glacier is located in the East Karakoram/Himalaya, at approximately . ...

Other countries

At present, many major armies have a specialised alpine division. India, Russia, Italy, Israel, Turkey and the USA are among the many countries with such divisions. In the Summer of 2004, various US special forces teams went to India to study the lessons learned by Indian Army units during the Kargil War. The United States Special Operations Forces is the official category where the United States Department of Defense lists the U.S. military units that have a training specialisation in unconventional warfare and special operations. ... Combatants India Pakistan, Kashmiri secessionists Strength 30,000 5,000 Casualties Indian Official Figures: 527 killed,[1][2][3] 1,363 wounded[4] 1 POW Pakistani Estimates: 357–4,000+ killed[5][6] (Pakistan troops) 665+ soldiers wounded[5] 8 POWs. ...

Other armies and military organisations also have units trained in mountain and cold weather warfare.

In the United Kingdom the Royal Marines are the principal regular unit trained in mountain and cold weather warfare and have a specialised instructor cadre: the Mountain Leader Training Cadre. The capability is fielded by 3 Commando Brigade. The British Army also have the Mountain Troops of Special Air Service squadrons. His/Her Majestys Royal Marines, also known as the Royal Marines (RM), are the Royal Navys Light Infantry, the United Kingdoms amphibious force and specialists in Arctic and Mountain Warfare. ... The Mountain Leader Training Cadre is a training element of the Royal Marines providing expertise in Mountain Warfare, cold weather survival and operations, and cliff assault. ... 3 Commando Brigade is the main manoeuvre force of the British Royal Marines. ... The Special Air Service Regiment (SAS) is the principal special forces organisation of the British Armed Forces. ...

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