Mountaintop removal coal mining at Kayford Mountain, West Virginia.

Mountaintop removal (MTR) is a relatively new form of coal mining that involves the mass restructuring of earth in order to reach minerals as deep as 1,000 feet below the surface. MTR requires that the targeted land be clear-cut and then leveled by use of explosives. The debris created is typically scraped into a valley fill. Most mountaintop removal in the United States occurs in West Virginia and Eastern Kentucky.^[1] Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (1280x331, 191 KB) Summary File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (1280x331, 191 KB) Summary File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Minerals are natural compounds formed through geological processes. ... Deforestation is the conversion of forested areas to non-forest land use such as arable land, urban use, logged area or wasteland. ... Debris (French, pronounced (IPA) dibri) is a word used to describe the remains of something that has been otherwise destroyed. ... Official language(s) English Capital Charleston Largest city Charleston Area  Ranked 41st  - Total 24,244 sq mi (62,809 km²)  - Width 130 miles (210 km)  - Length 240 miles (385 km)  - % water 0. ... Official language(s) English[1] Capital Frankfort Largest city Louisville Area  Ranked 37th  - Total 40,444 sq mi (104,749 km²)  - Width 140 miles (225 km)  - Length 379 miles (610 km)  - % water 1. ...

The Process

In mountaintop removal mining, the targeted land is clear-cut of all trees. Miners then use explosives to remove the overburden (the rock and soil that lies above a coal seam), exposing the coal. The overburden is pushed into a nearby valley or hollow, creating a pile below called valley fill. Meanwhile, machinery removes the coal, and it is transported to a processing plant and washed. Millions of gallons of waste from coal processing, called slurry, is often stored nearby in open pools restrained by earthen dams. Because coal usually exists in multiple seams separated by rock, miners can repeat this process over a dozen times on a single mountain, lowering its height with each seam mined. Kentucky, Wyoming and West Virginia, the three leading coal-producing states, each use more than 1000 tons of high explosives per day for surface mining.^[2] Overburden is the term used in mining to describe material that lies above the area of economic interest. ... Coal Coal (IPA: ) is a fossil fuel extracted from the ground by underground mining or open-pit mining (surface mining). ...

Economics

Half the electricity in the United States is produced by coal-burning generating plants.

Mountaintop removal and similar forms of surface mining allow easy access to coal in certain geologic areas. It is often used to retrieve low-sulfur coal, which became very desirable as a result of amendments to the Clean Air Act that tightened emissions limits on high-sulfur coal processing. Wyoming strip mine Surface mining is a type of mining used to extract deposits of mineral resources that are close to the surface. ... General Name, Symbol, Number sulfur, S, 16 Chemical series nonmetals Group, Period, Block 16, 3, p Appearance lemon yellow Atomic mass 32. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Clean Air Act. ...

Unlike more traditional underground mining, which usually requires hundreds of miners to extract minerals, mountaintop removal is lucrative for coal companies because the use of explosives and large machinery greatly reduces the need for workers. The industry lost 10,000 jobs from 1990 to 1997, as MTR became widespread.^[3] However, with fewer miners connected to MTR, labor unions have less representation, and the United Mine Workers of America have criticized anti-union practices often associated with MTR. They have also called for additional legal measures to protect communities from the degradation that results from nearby blasting.^[4] Sub-surface mining or underground mining refers to a group of techniques used for the extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials from the earth. ... A union (labor union in American English; trade union, sometimes trades union, in British English; either labour union or trade union in Canadian English) is a legal entity consisting of employees or workers having a common interest, such as all the assembly workers for one employer, or all the workers... United Mine Workers of America seal The United Mine Workers (UMW or UMWA) is a United States labor union that represents workers in mining. ...

In many locations, mountaintop removal is the most cost-effective method of extracting coal for the mine operator. But opponents blame MTR for severe economic debasement in the communities where it occurs. The counties that host MTR are often the poorest in Appalachia. For instance, in McDowell County, West Virginia, which produces the most coal in the state, over 37% of residents live below the poverty line.^[5] Critics also point to decreased economic growth in local communities, especially where mining waste pollutes groundwater and wells that supply drinking water, and where valley fills bury waterways frequented by tourists. This article is about the modern area called Appalachia. ... McDowell County is a county located in the state of West Virginia. ... Map of countries showing percentage of population who have an income below the national poverty line The poverty line is the level of income below which one cannot afford to purchase all the resources one requires to live. ... Groundwater is water located beneath the ground surface in soil pore spaces and in the fractures of geologic formations. ...

The coal industry also asserts that it is safer to mine coal through surface mining techniques, such as mountaintop removal, than by sending miners underground.^[6]

Each year, federal and state agencies in the United States issue new permits to allow mountaintop removal mining on 25,000 or more acres of forested mountains.^{[citation needed]}

Legislation

In the United States, mountaintop removal is allowed by section 515(c)(1) of the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (SMCRA). Although most coal mining sites must be reclaimed to the land's pre-mining contour and use, regulatory agencies can issue waivers to allow mountaintop removal.^[7] In such cases, SMCRA dictates that reclamation must create "a level plateau or a gently rolling contour with no highwalls remaining."^[8] It has been suggested that Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act be merged into this article or section. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Land rehabilitation is the process of returning the land in a given area to some degree of its former self, after some process (business, industry, natural disaster etc. ...

Coal miners also must obtain permits to deposit valley fill into streams. A federal judge has twice ruled issuance of these permits in violation of the Clean Water Act.^[9] The Bush administration appealed and overturned this ruling in 2003 because the Act does not explicitly define "fill material."^[10] A bill in the House of Representatives, H.R. 2719, would specify that waste does not constitute fill material.^[11] The Clean Water Act, 33 U.S.C.A. § 1251 et seq. ... The Bush administration includes President George W. Bush, Vice President Richard Cheney, Bushs Cabinet, and other select officials and advisors. ... 2003 (MMIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Seal of the House of Representatives The United States House of Representatives (or simply the House) is one of the two chambers of the United States Congress, the other being the Senate. ...

Criticism

Mountaintop removal in West Virginia. Photo by V. Stockman www.ohvec.org [1]

Critics contend that mountaintop removal is a disastrous practice that benefits a small number of corporations at the expense of local communities and the environment. The deposition of valley fill is extremely controversial because the valleys adjacent to mountaintop removal mines often contain streams. A U.S. Environmental Protection Agency environmental impact statement finds that streams near valley fills from mountaintop removal contain high levels of minerals in the water and decreased aquatic biodiversity.^[12] Image File history File links Template:PF File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Image File history File links Template:PF File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Local community is a geographically defined community, a group of people living close to each other. ... EPA redirects here. ... According to the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) whenever the U.S. Federal Government takes a major Federal action significantly affecting the quality of the human environment it must first consider the environmental impact in a document called an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS). ... Rainforests are among the most biodiverse ecosystems on earth Biodiversity or biological diversity is the diversity of life. ...

Mountaintop removal sites also generate slurry (also called coal sludge) as coal processing waste, which is usually stored in a dam on-site. Many slurry impoundments in West Virginia exceed 500 million gallons in volume, and some, including the Brushy Fork impoundment in Raleigh County, exceed 7 billion gallons.^[13] Such impoundments can be hundreds of feet high and have close proximity to schools or private residences.^[14] A slurry is a mixture, which comes in different varieties: Metal Slurry can be used in pipe fitting and other welding tasks, as well as slurry based bombs like the BLU-82. ... Raleigh County is a county located in the state of West Virginia. ...

High-profile disasters associated with these slurry impoundments have called into question the safety of mountaintop removal. In 1972, a slurry impoundment outside of Logan County, West Virginia burst (see Buffalo Creek Flood); the resulting rush of 130 million gallons of toxic water killed 125 people and caused 50 million dollars in damages. Despite evidence of negligence, the Pittston Company, which owned the compromised dam, called the event an "Act of God."^[15] In 2002, a 900-foot high, 2,000-foot long fill in Lyburn, West Virginia burst, generating a large wave of sediment that destroyed several cars and houses.^[16] 1972 (MCMLXXII) was a leap year starting on Saturday. ... Logan County is a county located in the state of West Virginia. ... Aerial View of Buffalo Creek area taken the day after impoundment dam #3 failed. ... Toxic redirects here, but this is also the name of a song by Britney Spears; see Toxic (song) Look up toxic and toxicity in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... The Brinks Company NYSE: BCO is a security and protection company headquarted in Richmond, Virginia, United States. ... Act of God is a common legal term for events outside of human control, such as sudden floods or other natural disasters, for which no one can be held responsible. ... For album titles with the same name, see 2002 (album). ... Lyburn is an unincorporated mining community in Logan County, West Virginia, USA. In 2002, a slurry pond break in the head of a hollow past Lyburn Post Office Road flooded more than ten residences. ...

Blasting at a mountaintop removal mine expels dust from coal and overburden into the air, which then settles onto private property nearby. This dust contains sulfur compounds, which corrodes structures and tombstones. Some MTR opponents allege that the dust is also a public health hazard.^[17]

Critics also point to the destruction of various strata of rock and the subsequent elimination of water tables. They cite that this destruction will prohibit future re-growth of forests and any type of plant life larger than grasses. The large ponds of slurry are said to leak, poisoning ground water. They also point to the increased levels of heavy metals to argue that human habitation of regions that have been mined by the process of mountaintop removal will be immensely difficult. Critics state that the only way humans will be able to inhabit these regions is by having drinking water pumped in from outside of the region.^{[citation needed]} Strata is a comic science fiction novel by Terry Pratchett. ... Cross section showing the water table varying with surface topography as well as a perched water table The water table or phreatic surface is the surface where the water pressure is equal to atmospheric pressure. ... The term heavy metal may have various more general or more specific meanings. ...

Although MTR sites are usually reclaimed after mining is complete, reclamation has traditionally focused on stabilizing rock and controlling erosion, but not reforesting the area with trees. Quick-growing, non-native grasses, planted to quickly provide vegetation on a site, compete with tree seedlings, and trees have difficulty establishing root systems in compacted backfill.^[12] Consequently, biodiversity suffers in a region of the United States with numerous endemic species.^[18] Erosion also increases, which can intensify flooding. In the Eastern United States, the Appalachian Regional Reforestation Initiative works to promote the use of trees in mining reclamation.^[19] Secondary Forest refers to a forest or woodland area which has re-grown after being deforested. ... The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a biocentric view. ... An area of grass-like plants Grass generally describes a monocotyledonous green plant in the family Poaceae, botanically regarded as true grasses. ... Rainforests are among the most biodiverse ecosystems on earth Biodiversity or biological diversity is the diversity of life. ... This article is about the ecological meaning of endemic. See also endemic (epidemiology). ... Severe soil erosion in a wheat field near Washington State University, USA. Erosion is the displacement of solids (soil, mud, rock and other particles) by the agents of wind, water or ice, by downward or down-slope movement in response to gravity or by living organisms (in the case of... A flood (in Old English flod, a word common to Teutonic languages; compare German Flut, Dutch vloed from the same root as is seen in flow, float) is an overflow of water, an expanse of water submerging land, a deluge. ...

See also

• Coal mining
• Massey Energy
• Mountain Party

This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Massey Energy Company is a large coal producer with substantial operations in West Virginia, Kentucky, and Virginia. ... Mountain Party Party platform The Mountain Party is a minor political party in the state of West Virginia. ... The examples and perspective in this article or section may not represent a worldwide view. ... Wyoming strip mine Surface mining is a type of mining used to extract deposits of mineral resources that are close to the surface. ... El Chino, located near Silver City, New Mexico, is an open-pit copper mine Open-pit mining, or opencast mining, refers to a method of extracting rock or minerals from the earth by their removal from an open pit or borrow. ... A small cinder quarry A dimension stone quarry A quarry is a type of open-pit mine from which rock or minerals are extracted. ... Strip mining is the practice of mining a seam of mineral ore by first removing all of the soil and rock that lies on top of it. ... A sluice box used in placer mining Placer mining (pronounced plass-er) is a open-pit or open-cast form of mining by which certain valuable minerals are extracted from the earth without tunneling. ... Sub-surface mining or underground mining refers to a group of techniques used for the extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials from the earth. ... Drift mining is a method of accessing valuable geological material, such as coal, by cutting into the side of the earth, rather than tunneling straight downwards (see shaft mine). ... Slope mining according to [1]: Slope mining occurs when an inclined opening is used to tap the coal seam (or seams). ... Shaft mining is a type of underground mining done by use of a mine shaft. ... Hard rock mining refers to various techniques used to mine ore bodies by creating underground rooms or stopes supported by surrounding pillars of standing rock. ... Borehole Mining (BHM) is a remote operated method of extracting (mining) of mineral resources through boreholes by means of high pressure water jets. ...

External links

• Appalachian Voices A grassroots organization working with coalfield residents and legislators to end Mountaintop Removal. Lots of facts and resources for learning more about Mountaintop Removal
• Black Diamonds: Mountaintop Removal and the Fight for Coalfield Justice (2006 feature-length video documentary)
• I Love Mountains An "End Mountaintop Removal" Resource and Action Center
• Mountaintop Mining & Valley Fills in Appalachia: Final Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement (Final PEIS)
• Kentuckians For The Commonwealth (KFTC) - a grassroots activist organization that fights against Mountaintop Removal mining.
• Economic Impact of Mountaintop Removal on Coal-mining Communities -- an article by Kristin Johannsen
• Mountain Justice Summer Campaign
• Satellite photographs of Mountaintop Removal sites in Kentucky
• Mountaintop Removal Mining Index
• Ohio Valley Environmental Coalition (OVEC)
• Sludge Safety Project
• Mountaintop Removal Photo Gallery
• Friends of Coal - Political Action Committee and advocacy group that defends the positions of the coal mining industry and argues for less government regulation; the site has no page specifically dealing with mountaintop removal.
• Kentucky Coal Association (KCA) "the association represents its member companies in innovative ways designed to educate the citizens of Kentucky..."
• Kentucky Coal Education This state-funded, pro-coal website contains "Fun Stuff" for kids as well as lesson plans and other resources for teachers and the public.
• West Virginia Coal Association West Virginia's pro-business, pro-coal site. The Resources section is especially useful. The site contains many statistics on production and employment.
• US Government Office of Surface Mining index to government documents and records related to surface mining
• The Cost of Coal, by NOW with Bill Moyers
• West Virginia photo gallery
• Missing Mountains: We Went to the Mountaintop But it Wasn't There -- 35 Kentucky writers explore mountaintop removal mining.
• Marshall University's Center for Business and Economic Research has conducted studies of Mountaintop Removal and Financing of Environmental Reclamation
• Bringing Down the Mountains: the Impact of Mountaintop Removal Surface Coal Mining on Southern West Virginia Communities, 1970-2004 A Ph.D. dissertation that is the first historical treatment of mountaintop removal coal mining and its various effects on southern West Virginia communities by WV Univ. alumnus Shirley Stewart Burns.

NOW is a PBS newsmagazine especially covering social and political issues. ...

References

1. ^ Where Coal from Mountaintop Removal Is Used. Appalachian Voices. Retrieved on September 18, 2006.
2. ^ U.S. Geological Survey report on consumption of explosivies.
3. ^ McFerrin. An Odd Partnership: UMW, Coal Association arm in arm.
4. ^ Statement of United Mine Workers of America on Mountaintop Removal (2003-07-24).
5. ^ What Are the Economic Consequences of Mountaintop Removal in Appalachia?.
6. ^ Banerjee, Neela. "Taking On a Coal Mining Practice as a Matter of Faith", The New York Times, 2006-10-28. Retrieved on 2006-10-28.
7. ^ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Mountaintop Removal/Valley Fill.
8. ^ Public Law 95-87 Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 (1977-08-03).
9. ^ "Key players react cautiously to mountaintop removal decision", The Charleston Gazette, 2002-05-10.
10. ^ Lazaroff, Cat. "Appeals Court Upholds Mountaintop Removal Mining", Environment News Service, 2003-02-03.
11. ^ Clean Water Protection Act. Library of Congress (2005-26-05). Retrieved on September 18, 2006.
12. ^ ^{a b} U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2005-10-25). Mountaintop Mining/Valley Fills in Appalachia: Final Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement. Retrieved on August 20, 2006.
13. ^ Brian Vanneman (2004). Tearing Up Appalachia. Sierra Club. Retrieved on September 4, 2006.
14. ^ Marsh Fork Elementary, Massey Energy's Shumate Coal Sludge Impoundment and Goals Coal Prep Plant. Retrieved on July 31, 2006.
15. ^ Environmental Justice Case Study: Buffalo Creek Disaster. Retrieved on October 10, 2006.
16. ^ Massey Valley Fill Disaster, Lyburn, WV (2002-07-19). Retrieved on April 3, 2005.
17. ^ Jessica Tzerman. "Blast Rites", Grist, 2006-08-03. Retrieved on September 4.
18. ^ Biology: Plants, Animals, & Habitats - We live in a hot spot of biodiversity. Apalachicola Region Resources on the Web. Retrieved on September 18, 2006.
19. ^ Appalachian Regional Reforestation Initiative. Retrieved on September 5, 2006.