Page of Beato de Valladolid, representing the Apocalypse. X century.

The Mozarabs (in Spanish: mozárabes; in Portuguese: moçárabes; from Arabic: musta'rib"مستعرب", “arabicized”‎) were Iberian Christians who lived under Muslim rule in Al-Andalus. Their descendants remained unconverted to Islam, but did however adopt elements of Arabic language and culture. For the city in Mexico, see Valladolid, Yucatán. ... Arabic redirects here. ... The Iberian Peninsula, or Iberia, is located in the extreme southwest of Europe, and includes modern day Spain, Portugal, Andorra and Gibraltar. ... For other uses, see Christian (disambiguation). ... There is also a collection of Hadith called Sahih Muslim A Muslim (Arabic: مسلم, Persian: Mosalman or Mosalmon Urdu: مسلمان, Turkish: Müslüman, Albanian: Mysliman, Bosnian: Musliman) is an adherent of the religion of Islam. ... Al-Andalus is the Arabic name given the Iberian Peninsula by its Muslim conquerors; it refers to both the Caliphate proper and the general period of Muslim rule (711–1492). ... For people named Islam, see Islam (name). ... For other uses, see Arab (disambiguation). ...

Most of the Mozarabs were descendants of the ancient Romano-Gothic Christians who became Arabic speakers under Islamic rule. Many were also what the Arabist Mikel de Epalza calls "Neo-Mozarabs", that is Northern Europeans who had come to the Spanish frontier and picked up Arabic, thereby entering the Mozarabic community. Some were Arab and Berber Christians coupled with Muslim converts who as Arabic speakers naturally were at home among the original Mozarabs. A prominent example of Muslims who became Mozarabs by embracing Christianity is the Andalsuian rebel and Anti-Umayyad military leader, Umar ibn Hafsun. Some Mozarabs were even Converso Jews who likewise became part of the Mozarabic milieu. The Courtyard of the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, one of the grandest architectural legacies of the Umayyads. ... Converso (Spanish and Portuguese for a convert, from Latin conversus, converted, turned around) and its feminine form conversa referred to Jews or Muslims or the descendants of Jews or Muslims who had converted to Catholicism in Spain and Portugal, particularly during the 1300s and 1400s. ...

Separate Mozarab enclaves were located in the large Muslim cities, especially Toledo, Córdoba, Zaragoza, and Seville.^{[citation needed]} The façade of Toledo cathedral Toledo is a city located in central Spain, the capital of the province of Toledo and of the autonomous community of Castile-La Mancha. ... Location Coordinates : , , Time zone : CET (GMT +1) - summer : CEST (GMT +2) General information Native name Córdoba (Spanish) Spanish name Córdoba Founded 8th century BC Postal code 140xx Website http://www. ... For other uses, see Zaragoza (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Seville (disambiguation). ...

Status

As Christians were regarded by the Muslims as dhimmi or tolerated non-Muslims living under the rule of a Muslim government, they and Jews were allowed among Muslims if they paid the jizyah, a personal tax. For other uses, see Christian (disambiguation). ... This article is about dhimmi in the context of Islamic law. ... It has been suggested that toleration be merged into this article or section. ... In Islamic law, jizyah (Arabic: جزْية) is a per capita tax required of adult males of other faiths under Muslim rule in exchange for the protection of the Muslim community. ...

As the universal nature of Roman law was eroded and replaced by Islamic law in the Iberian Peninsula, religious pluralism allowed most ethnic groups in the medieval Islamic world to be judged by their own judges, under their own law: Mozarabs had their own tribunals and authorities. Some of them even held high offices in the Islamic administration. A prominent example being that of Rabi ibn Zayd, a palace official who wrote the famous Calender of Córdoba for Abd ar-Rahman III, undertook various diplomatic missions in Germania and Byzantium and was rewarded with the bishopric of Elvira. Furthermore, in 1064 Al-Muqtadir of Zaragoza sent Paterno, the Mozarab bishop of Tortosa, as an envoy to Fernando I in Santiago, while the Christian Abu Umar ibn Gundislavus served the same taifa ruler as the wazir (prime minister). Using the term Roman law in a broader sense, one may say that Roman law is not only the legal system of ancient Rome but the law that was applied throughout most of Europe until the end of the 18th century. ... Sharia (Arabic: transliteration: ) is the body of Islamic religious law. ... The Iberian Peninsula, or Iberia, is located in the extreme southwest of Europe, and includes modern day Spain, Portugal, Andorra and Gibraltar. ... This article is about religious pluralism. ... During the Islamic Golden Age, usually dated from the 8th century to the 13th century,[1] engineers, scholars and traders of the Islamic world contributed enormously to the arts, agriculture, economics, industry, literature, navigation, philosophy, sciences, and technology, both by preserving and building upon earlier traditions and by adding many... Abd-ar-Rahman III, Emir and Caliph of Cordoba (912 - 961) was the greatest and the most successful of the princes of the Ummayad dynasty in Spain. ... Prince-Bishop was the title given bishops who held secular powers, beside their inherent clerical power. ... Events Sunset Crater Volcano first erupts. ... For other uses, see Zaragoza (disambiguation). ... Fernando I, ninth king of Portugal (Eng. ... Santiago is one of the names and/or surnames by which Saint James is known in the Spanish- and Portuguese-speaking world. ... The Spanish and Portuguese term taifa (from Arabic: taifa, plural طوائف tawaif) in the history of Iberia refers to an independent Muslim-ruled principality, an emirate or petty kingdom, of which a number formed in the Al-Andalus (Moorish Iberia) after the final collapse of the Umayyad Caliphate of...

Conversion to Islam was encouraged by the Ummayad caliphs and emirs of Córdoba. Apostasy, however, for one who had been raised as a Muslim or had embraced Islam, was a crime punishable by death. Forced conversion is not part of Islamic teachings. ... The Umayyad Dynasty (Arabic الأمويون / بنو أمية umawiyy; in Turkish, Emevi) was the first dynasty of caliphs of the Prophet Muhammad who were not closely related to Muhammad himself, though they were of the same Meccan tribe, the Quraish. ... The interior of the Great Mosque in Córdoba, now a Christian cathedral. ... Apostasy in Islam (Arabic: ارتداد, irtidād or ridda) is commonly defined as the rejection of Islam in word or deed by a person who has been a Muslim. ...

Until the mid-ninth century, relations between Muslims and the Christian population of Al-Andalus, still in the majority, were cordial. Christian resistance to the first wave of Muslim conquerors was unsuccessful. In Murcia, a single surviving capitulation document must stand for many such agreements to render tribute in exchange for the protection of traditional liberties; in it, Theodomirus (Todmir in Arabic), count of Orihuela agrees to recognize Abd al-Aziz as overlord and to pay tribute consisting of a yearly cash payment supplemented with specific agricultural products. In exchange, Theodomir received Abd al-Aziz' promise to respect both his property and his jurisdiction in the province of Murcia (Wolf). There was no change in the composition of the people on the land, and in cases like this one, even their Visigothic lords remained. Al-Andalus is the Arabic name given the Iberian Peninsula by its Muslim conquerors; it refers to both the Caliphate proper and the general period of Muslim rule (711–1492). ... This article is about the Spanish city. ... Surrender is when soldiers give up fighting and become prisoners of war, either as individuals or when ordered to by their officers. ... Theodemir or Theudimer[1] (died 743) was a Visigothic comes (count) prominent in the southeast of Baetica (the region around Murcia[2]) during the last decades of the Visigothic kingdom and for several years after the Moorish conquest. ... Orihuela is a city and municipality located in the province of Alicante, Spain. ... Sultan Abd-ul-Aziz Abd-ul-aziz (February 9, 1830 – 1876) was the sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1861 to May 30, 1876. ... This article is about the Spanish city. ... Migrations The Visigoths were one of two main branches of the Goths, an East Germanic tribe (the Ostrogoths being the other). ...

The Arab geographer Ibn Hawqal, who visited the country in the middle of the 10th century, spoke of frequent revolts by Mozarab peasants employed on large estates, probably those of the ruling aristocracy. There is also substantial evidence that Mozarabs fought in the defence of the Thaghr, participating in raids against Christian neighbours and struggles between Muslim factions. For instance, in 936, a significant number of Christians holed up in Calatayud with the rebel Mutarraf, only to be massacred in a desperate stand against the Caliphate forces. 10th century map of the World by Ibn Hawqal. ... Events King Taejo of Goryeo (Wanggeon) defeats Hubaekje. ...

There is very little evidence of any Christian resistance at Al-Andalus in the 9th century. Evidence points to a rapid attrition in the North. For instance, during the first centuries of Muslim rule, the Mozarab community of Lleida was apparently ruled by a qumis (count) and had its own judiciary, but there is no evidence of any such administration in the later period. Location Coordinates : Time Zone : CET (GMT +1) - summer: CEST (GMT +2) General information Native name Lleida (Catalan) Spanish name Lérida Founded 6th century BC Postal code 25XXX Website http://www. ...

Although Mozarab merchants traded in Andalusi markets, they were neither influential nor numerous before the middle of the 12th century. This was owed to commercial disinterest and disorganization in the early middle ages rather than any specific or religious impediments stet up by the Muslim rulers. Unlike Andalusi Muslims and Jews, Mozarabs had little interest in commerce because of their general perception of trade as lowly and despicable. This was in stark contrast to the greater respect accorded to merchants in Jewish and Muslim societies, where trade was frequently combined with other callings, such as politics, scholarship, or medicine.

It is often mistakenly assumed that Mozarab merchants forged a vital commercial and cultural link between the north and south across the Iberian frontier. Mozarab refugees may have had influence in northern Spanish trade at places like Toledo, but there is no reason to believe that they engaged in commerce with their abandoned homeland. Most traffic between Al-Andalus and Christian regions remained in the hands of Jewish and Muslim traders until the dramatic shifts initiated by European commercial expansion throughout the 11th and 12th centuries. With the development of Italian maritime power and southward expansion of the Spanish conquests, Andalusi international trade came increasingly into the control of Christian traders from northern Spain, southern France, or Italy and by the middle of the 13th century was an exclusively Christian concern.

There were frequent contacts between the Mozarabs in Al-Andalus and their co-religionists both in the kingdom of the Asturias and in the territory under Frankish influence to the northeast. The level of literary culture among the northern Christians was inferior to that of their Mozarab brethren in the historic cities to the south. For that reason, Christian refugees from Al-Andalus were always welcolmed in the north, where their descendants came to form an influential element. Though impossible to quantify, the immigration of Mozarabs from the south was probably a significant factor in the growth in the Christian principalities of northern Spain.

For most of the 9th and 10th centuries, Spanish Christian culture in th north was stimulated, probably dominated, by the learning of Mozarab immigrants, who helped to accentuate its Christian identity and apparently played a major role in development of the Spanish Christian ideology. The Mozarab scholars and clergy eagerly sought manuscripts, relics and traditions from the towns and monasteries of central and southern Spain that had been the heartland of Visigothic Catholicism. Many Mozarabs also took part in the many regional revolts that formed the great fitna or unnrest in the late 9th century.

The ability of the Mozarabs to assimilate into Moorish culture while maintaining their Christian faith have often caused them to be depicted by Western scholars as having a strong allegiance to Roman Catholicism and its cause. However, the historian Jaime Vicens Vives offers another view of the Mozarabs. He states that one of the Emperor Charlemagne's major offensives was to annihilate the Moorish frontier by taking Zaragoza, which was an important Mozarab stronghold. However, the offensive failed because the Mozarabs of the city refused to cooperate with the Catholic emperor. Vives concludes that the Mozarabs were primarily a self-absorbed group. They understood that they could gain a great deal by remaining in close contact with the Moors. The Roman Catholic Church, most often spoken of simply as the Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with over one billion members. ... For other uses, see Charlemagne (disambiguation). ...

There was a steady rate of decline among the Mozarab population of Al-Andalus towards the end of the Reconquista. This was mainly caused by conversions, emigration towards the northern part of the peninsula during the upheavels of the 9th and early 10th centuries and also by the ethno-religious conflicts of the same period. The American historian R.W. Bulliet, in a stimulating work based on the quantitative use of the onomastic data as furnished by scholarly biographical dictionaries, concluded that it was only in the 10th century when the Andalusi emirate was firmly established and developed into the greatest power of the western Meditteranean under Caliph Abd ar-Rahman III, that the numerical ratio of Muslims and Christians in Al-Andalus was reversed in favour of the former. The expansion of the Caliphate had come primarily through conversion and absorption, and only secondarily through immigration. The remaining Mozarab community shrank into an increasingly fossilized remnant. For other uses, see Reconquista (disambiguation). ... Abd-ar-Rahman III, Emir and Caliph of Cordoba (912 - 961) was the greatest and the most successful of the princes of the Ummayad dynasty in Spain. ...

Relatively large numbers of Mozarab communities did, however, continue to exist up to the end of the taifa kingdoms; there were several parishes in Toledo when the Christians occupied the city in 1085, and abundant documentation in Arabic on the Mozarabs of this city is preserved. An apparently still significant Mozarab group, which is the subject of a number of passages in the Arabic chronicles dealing with El Cid's dominion over Valencia, was also to be found there during this same period. Similarly, the memoirs of the Emir of Granada clearly indicate the existence of a relatively large rural Christian population in some parts of the Malaga region towards the end of the 11th century. Until the reconquest of Seville by the Christians in 1248, a Mozarab community existed there, though in the course of the 12th century Almoravid persecution had forced many Mozarabs in Al-Andalus to flee northward. The Spanish and Portuguese term taifa (from Arabic: taifa, plural طوائف tawaif) in the history of Iberia refers to an independent Muslim-ruled principality, an emirate or petty kingdom, of which a number formed in the Al-Andalus (Moorish Iberia) after the final collapse of the Umayyad Caliphate of... The façade of Toledo cathedral Toledo is a city located in central Spain, the capital of the province of Toledo and of the autonomous community of Castile-La Mancha. ... April 2 - Emperor Zhezong became emperor of Song Dynasty. ... Statue of El Cid in Burgos. ... Look up Valencia in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... For other uses, see Granada (disambiguation). ... Málaga, a port town in the province of Málaga in Andalusia, Southern Spain Malaga, a fortified wine originating in Málaga. ... For broader historical context, see 1240s and 13th century. ...

Restrictions

Christians never enjoyed equal rights under Islamic rule, and their original guarantees, at first fairly broad, steadily diminshed. They were still allowed to practise their own religion in private, but found their cultural autonomy increasingly reduced. Mozarabs inevitably lost more and more status, but they long maintained their dignity and the integrity of their culture, and they never lost personal and cultural contact with the Christian world.

In the generations that followed the conquest, Muslim rulers promulgated new statutes clearly disadvantageous to dhimmi. The construction of new churches and the sounding of church bells were eventually forbidden. But when Eulogius recorded the martyrology of the Martyrs of Córdoba during the decade after 850, it was apparent that at least four Christian basilicas remained in the city, including the church of St. Acisclus that had sheltered the only holdouts in 711, and nine monasteries and convents in the city and its environs (Wolf); nevertheless, their existence soon became precarious. This article is about dhimmi in the context of Islamic law. ... A bell is a simple sound-making device. ... The hagiography of the forty-eight Martyrs of Córdoba was developed in Christian Spain, describing in detail their executions for capital violations of Muslim law in al-Andalus. ... Events April 20 - Guntherus becomes Bishop of Cologne. ... See also: phone number 711. ...

Restrictions that forbade Christians to occupy any position in control of Muslims did encourage Christian slaves to gain their freedom by declaring conversion to Islam; this had a dampening effect on the Christian position in the social structure. Eulogius comments repeatedly on the burdensome tax that Christians bore.

Mozarab mural painting from San Baudelio de Berlanga, now in the Prado Museum

The Arabization of the Christians was vehemently opposed by the Christian priest Eulogius, who called for a more purely Christian culture stripped of Arab influences. To this end, he led a revolt of the Mozarabs at Córdoba in which Christians martyred themselves to protest against Arab Muslim rule. Download high resolution version (400x602, 26 KB)Romanesque painting of a war elephant. ... Download high resolution version (400x602, 26 KB)Romanesque painting of a war elephant. ... The Museo del Prado is a world class museum and art gallery located in Madrid, Spain. ... Location Coordinates : , , Time zone : CET (GMT +1) - summer : CEST (GMT +2) General information Native name Córdoba (Spanish) Spanish name Córdoba Founded 8th century BC Postal code 140xx Website http://www. ...

Eulogius's writings documenting stories of the Córdoba martyrs of 851-59, encouraged by him to defy Muslim authorities with blasphemies and embrace martyrdom, contrast these Christians with the earlier official Christianity of Reccared, by Visigothic, the previous bishop of Córdoba, who counseled tolerance and mutual forbearance with the Muslim authorities. However, Christians became increasingly alienated not only because they could not build new churches or ring church bells, but primarily because they were excluded from most positions of political, military, or social authority and suffered many other indignities as unequals under the Islamic law. By the mid-ninth century, as the episode of the Córdoba martyrs reveals, there was a clear Christian opposition against the systematic pressure by a variety of legal and financial instruments of Islam, resisting their conversion and absorption into Muslim culture. For other uses, see Martyr (disambiguation). ...

The initial official reaction to the Córdoba martyrs was to round up and imprison the leaders of the Christian community. Towards the end of the decade of the martyrs, Eulogius's martyrology begins to record the closing of Christian monasteries and convents, which to Muslim eyes had proved to be a hotbed of disruptive fanaticism rather than a legitimate response against a slow but systematic elimination of Christianity.

As previously with the Muslims, so as the Reconquista advanced, the Mozarabs integrated into the Christian kingdoms, where the kings privileged those who settled the frontier lands. They also migrated north to the Frankish kingdom in times of persecution. For other uses, see Reconquista (disambiguation). ... Statue of Charlemagne (also called Karl der Große, Charles the Great) in Frankfurt, Germany. ...

Significantly large numbers of Mozarabs settled in the Ebro valley. Alfonso I induced Mozarab settlers by promising them lands and rewards. His importation of Mozarab settlers from Al-Andalus was very unusual because of its startling nature. According to the Anglo-Norman historian Orderic Vitalis, some 10,000 Mozarabs were sent by Alfonso for settlement on the Ebro. Mozarabs were scarce in Tudela or Zaragossa , but were more common in a place such as Calahorra, conquered by the Navarrese in 1045. Alfonso VI (before June 1040 – July 1, 1109), nicknamed the Brave, was King of León from 1065 to 1109 and King of Castile since 1072 after his brothers death. ... Tudela is a town and municipality in Spain, in the northern province of Navarra. ... For alternative meanings, see Zaragoza (disambiguation). ... Coat-of-arms of Calahorra, featuring the names of Saints Emeterius and Celedonius Calahorra, La Rioja, Spain is located in the comarca of La Rioja Baja, near the border with Navarre on the right bank of the Ebro. ... Events Emperor Go-Reizei ascends the throne of Japan. ...

Language

Main article: Mozarabic language

During the early stages of Romance language development in Iberia, a set of closely-related Romance dialects was spoken in Muslim areas of the Peninsula by the general population. These are known as the Mozarabic language, though there never was a common standard. Mozarabic was a continuum of closely related Iberian Romance dialects spoken in Muslim dominated areas of the Iberian Peninsula during the early stages of the Romance languages development in Iberia. ... This article is about a subdivision of the Romance language family. ... Al-Andalus is the Arabic name given the Iberian Peninsula by its Muslim conquerors; it refers to both the Caliphate proper and the general period of Muslim rule (711–1492). ... Mozarabic was a continuum of closely related Iberian Romance dialects spoken in Muslim dominated areas of the Iberian Peninsula during the early stages of the Romance languages development in Iberia. ...

This archaic Romance language is first documented in writing in the Peninsula in the form of choruses (kharjas) in Arabic and Hebrew lyrics called muwashshahs. As they were written in Arabic and Hebrew alphabets the vowels have had to be reconstructed. A kharja (spanish jarcha) is a special piece of a popular song which was appended to Arabic and Hebrew poems (muwashakhas) in Medieval Spain. ... Arabic redirects here. ... Hebrew redirects here. ... Muwashshah is an Arab poetic form and an eastern secular musical genre which uses muwashshah texts for lyrics. ... Arabic can mean: From or related to Arabia From or related to the Arabs The Arabic language; see also Arabic grammar The Arabic alphabet, used for expressing the languages of Arabic, Persian, Malay ( Jawi), Kurdish, Panjabi, Pashto, Sindhi and Urdu, among others. ... The word Hebrew most likely means to cross over, referring to the Semitic people crossing over the Euphrates River. ... An alphabet is a complete standardized set of letters—basic written symbols—each of which roughly represents a phoneme of a spoken language, either as it exists now or as it may have been in the past. ...

Mozarab had a significant impact in the formation of Portuguese, Spanish and Catalan, transmitting to these many words of Andalusi Arabic origin. The northward migration of Mozarabs explains the presence of Arabic toponyms in places where the Muslim presence did not last long. Catalan IPA: (català IPA: or []) is a Romance language, the national language of Andorra, and a co-official language in the Spanish autonomous communities of Balearic Islands, Catalonia and Valencia, and in the city of LAlguer in the Italian island of Sardinia. ... Andalusi Arabic was a dialect of the Arabic language spoken in Al-Andalus, the regions of Spain under Muslim rule. ...

The cultural language of Mozarabs continued to be Latin, but as time passed, young Mozarabs studied and even excelled at Arabic. The implantation of Arabic as the vernacular by the Arab and Berber conquerors led the Christian polemicist Petrus Alvarus of Córdoba to famously lament the decline of spoken latin among the local Christians. For other uses, see Latins and Latin (disambiguation). ...

The use of Arabic cognomens by the Mozarab communities of Al-Andalus is emblematic of the adoption by the Christians of the outward manifestations of Arab Islamic culture. The Mozarabs employed Arabic-style names such as Zaheid ibn Zafar, Pesencano ibn Azafar, and Ibn Gafif in purely Christian contexts. This demonstrates that they had acculturated thoroughly and that their Oriental names were not mere aliases adopted to facilitate their movement within Muslim society. Conversely, some Christian names such as Lope and Fortun entered the local Arabic lexicon (Lubb and Fortun), and others were adopted in translated form (such as Sa'ad for Felix). In the witness lists, Mozarabs identified themselves with undeniably Islamic names such as al-Aziz and Ibn Uthman.

Culture and Religion

There are but few remains of Christian scholarly discourse in Muslim Spain. What remains in Arabic are translations of the Gospels and the Pslams, anti-Islamic tracts and a translation of a church history. To this should be added literary remains in Latin which remained the language of the liturgy.

There is a some evidence of a limited cultural borrowing from the Mozarabs by the Muslim community in Al-Andalus. For instance, the Muslims adoption of the Christian solar calendar and holidays was an exclusively Andalusi phenomenon. In Al-Andalus, the Islamic lunar calendar was supplemented by the local solar calendar, which were more useful for agricultural and navigational purposes. Like the local Mozarabs, the Muslims of Al-Andalus were notoriously heavy drinkers. Muslims also celebrated traditional Christian holidays sometimes with the sponsorship of their leaders, despite the fact that such fraternisation was generally opposed by the Ulema. A solar calendar is a calendar whose dates indicate the position of the earth on its revolution around the sun (or equivalently the apparent position of the sun moving on the celestial sphere). ... A lunar calendar is a calendar that is based on cycles of the moon phase. ...

In the earliest period of Muslim domination of Iberia, there is evidence of extensive interaction between the two communities attested to by shared cementeries and churches, bilingual coinage, and the continuity of late Roman pottery types. Furthermore, in the peninsula the conquerors did not settle in the amsar, the self contained and deliberately isolated city camps set up alongside existing settelements elsewhere in the Muslim world with the intention of protecting Arab settlers from corrupting indigenous influences. The name Iberia refers to two distinct regions of the old world: The Iberian Peninsula, in Southwest Europe, location of modern-day Spain and Portugal, home to the pre-Roman Iberians. ...

The Arab and Berber immigrants who settled in the existing towns were drawn into broad contact with natives. Their immigration, though limited in numbers, introduced new agricultural and hydrolic technologies, new craft industries, and Levantine techniques of Shipbuilding. They were accompanied by an Arabic-language culture that brought with it the higher learning and science of the classical and post-classical Levantine world. The Emir of Córdoba, Abd ar-Rahman I's policy of allowing the ethnic Arab politico-military elite to practise agriculture further encouraged economic and cultural contact and Cohesion. Moreover, the convivencia of foreign and native elements, fostered by intermarriage and contact in day-to-day commercial and social life rapidly stimulated acculturation and drew many Iberian Christains towards Islam. Entrance to the emirs palace in Bukhara. ... Location Coordinates : , , Time zone : CET (GMT +1) - summer : CEST (GMT +2) General information Native name Córdoba (Spanish) Spanish name Córdoba Founded 8th century BC Postal code 140xx Website http://www. ... Abd ar-Rahman I Arabic: (عبد الرحمن الداخل), (known as the Falcon of Andalus or The Falcon of the Quraish)[1] (born 731; ruled from 756 through his death circa 788) was the founder of a Muslim dynasty that ruled the greater part of Iberia for nearly three centuries. ...

The heterodox features of Mozarabic culture inevitably became more prominent. However, Christian women often married Muslim men and their children were raised as Muslims. Even within Mozarab families, legal divorce eventually came to be practised along Islamic lines. Ordination of the clergy ultimately drifted far from canonical norms, and various Muslim sources claim that concubinage and fornication among the clergy was extremely widespread.

Conversion to Islam opened new social horizons to Mozarabs^{[citation needed]}. . Some Christian authorities (Álvaro and Eulogius of Córdoba) were scandalized at how the young ones preferred the Arabic culture and language and, in 851, tried to raise confrontation by publicly offending Islam. They expected that, by becoming martyrs, they would draw attention to the conflict. They became known as the Martyrs of Córdoba and were celebrated throughout Christendom as witness to the savage tyrannies of the Muslims. However, the senior bishop of Al-Andalus, Reccafred of Seville, denounced their acts as false on the grounds that they had been sought deliberately. He was publicly reviled for doing so. Events Vikings plunder London Charles the Bald, Louis the German and Lothar meet in Meersen Oldest known mention of the Andaman Islands Garcia Iñiguez succeeds his father Iñigo Arista as king of Navarra Births Deaths March 7 - Nominoe, Duke of Brittany Categories: 851 ... For the black metal band, see Blasphemy (band). ... The hagiography of the forty-eight Martyrs of Córdoba was developed in Christian Spain, describing in detail their executions for capital violations of Muslim law in al-Andalus. ...

There executions of Christians continued until 11 March 859. The Islamic authorities, however, often chose to consider them as madmen, thus deflecting tensions. is the 70th day of the year (71st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Events Battle of Abelda: Asturias beats the Muslims. ...

The Mozarab population was badly affected by the hardening of relations between the Christians and the Muslims during the Almoravid period. In 1099, the people of Granada, by order of the Almoravid Emir Yusuf ibn Tashfin acting on the advice of his Ulema, symbolically destroyed the main Mozarab church of the Christian community. Almoravides (From Arabic المرابطون sing. ... 1099 also refers to a United States tax form used for, among other purposes, reporting payments made to independent Contractors. ... For other uses, see Granada (disambiguation). ... Ulema (, transliteration: , singular: , transliteration: , scholar) (The people of Islamic Knowledge) refers to the educated class of Muslim legal scholars engaged in the several fields of Islamic studies. ...

The Mozarabs remained apart from the influence of French monks^{[citation needed]} and conserved in their masses the Visigothic rite, also known as the Mozarabic rite. The Christian kingdoms of the north, though, changed to the Latin rite (Castile in 1080) and appointed northerners as bishops for the reconquered sees. Nowadays, the Mozarabic rite is allowed by a papal privilege at the Mozarab Chapel of the Cathedral of Toledo, where it is held daily. Poor Clare Nuns church in Madrid, La Inmaculada y San Pascual, also holds weekly Mozarabic masses. A Mozarab brotherhood is still active in Toledo. Since Toledo was the most deeply rooted centre where they remained firm, the Gothic rite was identified and came to be known as the "Toledan rite". A votive crown belonging to Reccesuinth (653–672) The Visigoths (Latin: ) were one of two main branches of the Goths, an East Germanic tribe, the Ostrogoths being the other. ... The Mozarabic rite is a form of Catholic worship within the Latin Rite of the Catholic Church. ... The Latin Rite is one of the 23 sui iuris particular Churches within the Catholic Church. ... Coat of arms Kingdom of Castile in the 15th century. ... Events William I of England, in a letter, reminds the Bishop of Rome that the King of England owes him no allegiance. ... Façade of the Cathedral of Toledo The Cathedral of Saint Mary of Toledo, also called Primate Cathedral of Toledo, Spain, seat of the Archdiocese of Toledo, is one of the three 13th century High Gothic cathedrals in Spain and is considered to be the magnum opus of the Gothic... This article is about the Spanish capital. ... For other uses, see Toledo (disambiguation). ...

The Mozarabs of Toledo felt at home only in an Islamic milieu, having prefferd to remain in Toledo in early times when other Mozarabs had emigrated to Castille and Leon. From the beginning of the Castillian rule, a conflict over numerous estates abandoned by the Muslims erupted between the Mozarabs and Christian immigrants who flocked to the city after its capture. Castille IT (Pty) Ltd. ... Leon or Léon or León may refer to: // Léon, Landes, a commune of the Landes département, France Léon (viscounty), Brittany, France Léon (diocese), Brittany, France Greek: , two sites: a point on the south coast of Crete, now called Liondas. ...

Obsessed with wiping out what he considered the "Toledan heresy", Pope Gregory VII called the council of Burgos in 1080, where it was agreed to unify the Latin rite in all Christian lands. In 1085, Toledo was reconquered and it was attempted to introduce the ecumenical ideas of Rome. The reaction of the Toledan people was such that the king refused to implement it, and in 1101 enacted the "Fuero (Code of laws) of the Mozarabs", which awarded them privileges. He specified that it applied only to the Castillians, Mozarabs, and Franks of the city. Pope Gregory VII (c. ... Events William I of England, in a letter, reminds the Bishop of Rome that the King of England owes him no allegiance. ... April 2 - Emperor Zhezong became emperor of Song Dynasty. ... For other uses, see Rome (disambiguation). ... Events A second wave of crusaders arrives in the newly established Kingdom of Jerusalem, after being heavily defeated by Kilij Arslan I at Heraclia. ...

During both his first marriage to Agnes of Aquitaine and his second marriage to Constance of Burgundy, both of whom were devout Roman Catholics, Alfonso VI was under constant pressure to eradicate the Mozarab rite. A popular legend states that Alfonso VI submitted the Mozarab liturugy and its Roman counterpart to ordeal by fire, putting the fix in for the Catholic rite. Hence, the Mozarab liturugy was abolished in 1086. Alfonso VI (before June 1040 – July 1, 1109), nicknamed the Brave, was King of León from 1065 to 1109 and King of Castile since 1072 after his brothers death. ... Events Domesday Book is completed in England Emperor Shirakawa of Japan starts his cloistered rule Imam Ali Mosque is rebuilt by the Seljuk Malik Shah I after being destroyed by fire. ...

In 1126, a great number of Mozarabs and Moriscos (crypto-Muslims) were expelled to North Africa by the Almoravids. Other Mozarabs fled to Northern Spain. This constituted the end of the Mozarabic culture in Al-Andalus. For a while, both in North Africa and in Northern Spain, the Mozarabs managed to maintain their own separate cultural identity. However, in North Africa they were eventually Islamized. Events Rutherglen becomes one of the first Royal Burghs in Scotland. ... Morisco (Spanish Moor-like) or mourisco (Portuguese) is a term referring to a kind of New Christian in Spain and Portugal. ...  Northern Africa (UN subregion)  geographic, including above North Africa or Northern Africa is the northernmost region of the African continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan Africa. ...

Over the course of the 12th and 13th centuries, there unrolled a steady process of the impoverishment of Mozarab cultivators, as more and more land came under control of magnates and ecclesiastical corporations. The latter, under the influence of the intolerant Cluniac bishop Bernard and Rodrigo Ximenez de Rada, the primate archbishop, who was himself the principal buyer of Mozarab property in the early 13th century fomented a segregationalist policy under the cloak of religious nationalism. Ximenez de Rada's bias is symbolized in his coining of the semi-erudite etymology of the word Mozarab from Mixti Arabi, connoting the contamination of this group by overexposure to infidel customs, if not by migration.

Unlike Alfonso VI at Toledo, King Alfonso I did not recognize the Mozarabs as a separate legal community, and thus accentuated a steady decline which led to the complete absorption of the Mozarabs by the general community by the end of the 15th century. As a result, the Mozarabic culture had been practically lost. Cardical Cisneros, aware of the Mozarabic liturugy historical value and liturugical richness, undertook the task of guaranteeing its continuation, and to this end gathered all the codices and texts to be found in the city. After they had been carefully studied by specialists, they were classified and in 1502 the Missal and Breviary were printed. They revitalised the faith and a Chapel was institued at the Cathedral, with its own priests which still exists today. Alfonso VI (before June 1040 – July 1, 1109), nicknamed the Brave, was King of León from 1065 to 1109 and King of Castile since 1072 after his brothers death. ... 1502 was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ...

The Mozarab Missal of Silos is the oldest Western manuscript on paper, written in the eleventh century. The Mozarab coommunity in Toledo continues to thrive to this day. It is made of 1,300 families whose genealogies can be traced back to the ancient Mozarabs. The Missal of Silos is the oldest known paper document created in Europe (paper was invented in China around 2nd century and in Egypt much earlier). ... For other uses, see Paper (disambiguation). ...

See also

• Mozarabic art
• Afariqa (Christian Berbers in North Africa)

References

• Kenneth Baxter Wolf, Christian Martyrs in Muslim Spain, ch 1 "Christians in Muslim Córdoba"
• Thomas E. Burman, Religious polemic and the intellectual history of the Mozarabs, c. 1050-1200, Leiden 1994
• P Chalmeta, "The Mozarabs", in Encyclopedia of Islam, 2nd edition, Leiden
• Juan Gil (ed.), Corpus scriptorum Muzarabicorum, Madrid 1973
• Heinrich Goussen, Die christliche-arabische Literatur der Mozaraber, 1909
• Mikel de Epalza, "Mozarabs: an emblematic Christian minority in Islamic al-Andalus", in Jayyusi (ed.) The legacy of Muslim Spain (1994), 148-170.
• Hanna Kassis, "Arabic-speaking Christians in al-Andalus in an age of turmoil (fifth/eleventh century until A.H. 478/A.D. 1085)", in Al-Qantarah, vol. 15/1994, 401-450.
• H D Miller & Hanna Kassis, "The Mozarabs", in Menocal, Scheindlin & Sells (eds.) The literature of al-Andalus, Cambridge (2000), 418-434.
• Leopoldo Peñarroja Torrejón, Cristianos bajo el islam: los mozárabes hasta la reconquista de Valencia, Madrid, Credos, 1993
• Rageh Omaar, An Islamic History of Europe. video documentary , BBC Four [1]: August 2005.