Imprint of seal stamped on letters sent by Muhammad. Reads "Muhammad Rasul Allah", lit. "Muhammad, messenger of Allah"

Muhammad (c.570-632), the prophet of Islam, is documented to have engaged in diplomacy through various means during his call to Islam and leadership over the growing Muslim community. He established a method of communication with other tribal or national leaders through letters, assigned envoys, or by visiting them personally: such as at at-Ta'if. Instances of written correspondance include letters to Heraclius, the Negus and the Chosroes. Although it is likely that Muhammad had assumed contact with other leaders within the Arabian peninsula, some have questioned whether letters had been sent beyond these boundaries.^[1] The period of Muhammad before Medina started with his birth and ended in 622 with the Migration to Medina in 622. ... The period when Muhammad in Medina started with the Migration to Medina in 622 and ended with the Conquest of Mecca in 630. ... The period when Muhammad in Medina started with the Conquest of Mecca in 630 and ended with the his death in 632. ... The factual accuracy of this article is disputed. ... Muhammad (c. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Islamic views of Muhammad. ... There is no coherent non-Muslim view of Muhammad, expect that most (with a few exceptions) do not regard him as a true prophet of God. ... Depictions of Muhammad usually refer to drawings of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and can be a contentious matter. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Events First mention of the Spear of Destiny (approximate date). ... Events Abu Bakr becomes first caliph or Successor of the Prophet, leader of Islam Abu Bakr defeats Mosailima in the Battle of Akraba. ... For other uses, including people named Islam, see Islam (disambiguation). ... A Muslim (Arabic: مسلم, Turkish: Müslüman, Persian and Urdu: مسلمان) is an adherent of Islam. ... Umma (Arabic: ) is an Arabic word meaning community or nation. ... Look up letter in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Until the early 19th Century, each European nation had its own system of diplomatic rank. ... Heraclius and his sons Heraclius Constantine and Heraclonas. ... Negus is the Amharic word for king. The term negus negust means king of kings, or Emperor. ... Khosrau, Khusrau, Khosru and also Khusraw (Kasrâ in Arabic; Chosroes or Chosroës in Greek) was the name of a mythical Persian leader, in the Avesta known as Kavi Haosravah, with the meaning with good reputation. A number of rulers of Persia and the Middle East were known by this name. ... The Arabian Peninsula The Arabian Peninsula (in Arabic: شبه الجزيرة العربية, or جزيرة العرب) is a peninsula in Southwest Asia at the junction of Africa and Asia consisting mainly of desert. ...

The arrival of Muhammad at Medina in 622 saw him altering the political and social landscape of a city that had been stricken by decades of tribal feuding, mainly between the Aws and Khazraj. One of the ways this was achieved was through the Constitution of Medina, a document established by Muhammad through which relations between varying social elements were regulated, to which the respective parties signed. This was in contrast to his time spent in Mecca previously, where he had only been a religious figure. The result was the eventual formation of a united community in Medina, as well as the political ascendancy of Muhammad.^[2][3] Medina (Arabic: ‎ or المدينة ; also transliterated into English as Madinah) is a city in the Hejaz region of western Saudi Arabia. ... Events Hijra - Muhammad and his followers withdraw from Mecca to Medina - year one of the Islamic calendar. ... Politics is the process by which decisions are made within groups. ... // The Unobservable Although the term social is a crucial category in social science and often used in public discourse, its meaning is often vague, suggesting that it is a fuzzy concept. ... AWS can mean: Abyss Web Server Ada Web Server Advanced Wireless Services Apple Workgroup Server Automatic Warning System for railway use. ... The Banu Khazraj (Arabic:?) was one of the tribes of Arabia during Muhammads era. ... The Constitution of Medina is the earliest known written constitution. ... Mecca IPA: or Makkah (in full: Makkah al-Mukarramah; Arabic: ‎, Turkish: Mekke) is the capital city of Saudi Arabias Makkah province, in the historic Hijaz region. ...

There are occasions where Muhammad had also participated in agreements, pledges and in the signing of formal documents. Examples include the "Pledges of al-`Aqaba", the Treaty of Hudaybiyya, and the "Pledge under the Tree". A silver seal was reportedly used by Muhammad on outgoing correspondence to other notable leaders.^[4] The nature of his communication with leaders was broadly to establish correspondence on the premise of calling them to accept Islam.^[5] Treaty of Hudaybiyya (628) In the name of Allah. ... Seal on envelope A seal is an impression printed on, embossed upon, or affixed to a document (or any other object) in order to authenticate it, in lieu of or in addition to a signature. ... This article is about the Muslim concept. ...

Muslim migration to Abyssinia

Map of Abyssinia as of 1891.

Muhammad's commencement of public preaching brought him stiff opposition from the leading tribe of Mecca, the Quraish. Although Muhammad himself was safe from persecution due to protection from his uncle, Abu Talib (a leader of Banu Hashim), some of his followers were not in such a position. A number of Muslims were mistreated by the Quraish, some reportedly beaten, imprisoned, or starved.^[6] It was then, in 615, that Muhammad resolved to send fifteen Muslims to emigrate to Abyssinia to receive protection under the Christian ruler, the Negus.^[7] Emigration was a means through which some of the Muslims could escape the difficulties and persecution faced at the hands of the Quraish,^[2] although it also opened up new trading prospects.^[8] Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1248x1314, 463 KB) Summary Excerpt (2 of 2) from 1891 map of Upper Nubia and Habesh (Abyssinia), focusing on Abyssinia. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1248x1314, 463 KB) Summary Excerpt (2 of 2) from 1891 map of Upper Nubia and Habesh (Abyssinia), focusing on Abyssinia. ... A tribe, viewed historically or developmentally, consists of a social group existing before the development of, or outside of, states, though some modern theorists hold that contemporary tribes can only be understood in terms of their relationship to states. ... Mecca IPA: or Makkah (in full: Makkah al-Mukarramah; Arabic: ‎, Turkish: Mekke) is the capital city of Saudi Arabias Makkah province, in the historic Hijaz region. ... Quraish (Arabic: ‎ translit: ) is the Meccan tribe that the Islamic prophet Muhammad belonged to before he received the revelations of Islam. ... Abu Talib ibn Abd al-Muttalib (d. ... Banu Hashim (Arabic: بنو هاشم) is a clan in the Quraish tribe. ... Events The Edict of Paris grants extensive rights to the Frankish nobility. ... This article needs cleanup. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Christianity. ... Negus is the Amharic word for king. The term negus negust means king of kings, or Emperor. ...

Quraish, on hearing the attempted emigration, dispatched a group led by Amr ibn al-Aas and Abdullah ibn Abi Rabia ibn Mughira in order to pursue the fleeing Muslims. They were unsuccessful in their chase however as the Muslims had already reached safe territory, and so approached the Negus (named Ashmaha), appealing to him to return the Muslim migrants. Summoned to an audience with the Negus and his bishops as a representative of Muhammad and the Muslims, Ja'far ibn Abi Talib spoke of Muhammad's achievements and quoted Qur'anic verses related to Islam and Christianity, including some from Surah Maryam.^[9] Ja'far is quoted according to Islamic tradition as follows: Amr ibn al-Ās (Arabic: عمرو بن العاص) (d. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Ayah ( , plural Ayat ) is the Arabic word for sign or miracle. ... Christianity is a monotheistic[1] religion centered on Jesus of Nazareth, and on his life and teachings as presented in the New Testament. ... Sura Maryam (Arabic: سورة مريم ) (Mary) is the 19th sura of the Quran and is a Makkan sura. ... Hadith (Arabic: ‎ translit: ) are traditions relating to the words and deeds of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. ...

O king! We were plunged in the depth of ignorance and barbarism; we adored idols, we lived in unchastity, we ate the dead bodies, and we spoke abominations, we disregarded every feeling of humanity, and the duties of hospitality and neighbourhood were neglected; we knew no law but that of the strong, when Allah raised among us a man, of whose birth, truthfulness, honesty, and purity we were aware; and he called to the Oneness of Allah and taught us not to associate anything with Him. He forbade us the worship of idols; and he enjoined us to speak the truth, to be faithful to our trusts, to be merciful and to regard the rights of the neighbours and kith and kin; he forbade us to speak evil of women, or to eat the substance of orphans; he ordered us to fly from the vices, and to abstain from evil; to offer prayers, to render alms, and to observe fast. We have believed in him, we have accepted his teachings and his injunctions to worship Allah and not to associate anything with Him, and we have allowed what He has allowed, and prohibited what He has prohibited. For this reason, our people have risen against us, have persecuted us in order to make us forsake the worship of Allah and return to the worship of idols and other abominations. They have tortured and injured us, until finding no safety among them, we have come to your country, and hope you will protect us from oppression.[10][11] Image File history File links Cquote1. ...

The Negus, seemingly impressed, consequently allowed the migrants to stay, sending back the emissaries of Quraish.^[9] It is also thought that the Negus may have converted to Islam.^[12] The Christian subjects of the Negus were displeased with his actions, accusing him of leaving Christianity, although the Negus managed to appease them in a way which, according to Ibn Ishaq, could be described as favourable towards Islam.^[9] Having established friendly relations with the Negus, it became possible for Muhammad to send another group of migrants, such that the number of Muslims living in Abyssinia totalled around one hundred.^[7] Image File history File links Cquote2. ... Ibn Ishaq (or ibn Ishaq), (d. ...

Journey to at-Ta'if

In early June 619, Muhammad set out from Mecca to travel to the town of at-Ta'if in order to convene with its chieftans, and mainly those of Banu Thaqif (such as Abd-Ya-Layl ibn Amr).^[13] The main dialogue during this visit is thought to have been the invitation by Muhammad for them to accept Islam, and Watt observes the plausibility of an additional discussion about wresting Ta'if trade routes from Meccan control.^[14] The reason for Muhammad directing his efforts towards at-Ta'if may have been due to the relative non-respsonsiveness of the people of Mecca to his message until then.^[2] This article is about the year 619; for the number, see 619 (number). ... Abd-Ya-Layl ibn Amr of the Banu Thaqif tribe was in the beginning one of chieftains of the city of Taif, a city hostile to Islam. ... William Montgomery Watt is a English Islamic scholar. ...

Modern day city of at-Ta'if, Saudi Arabia.

In rejection of his message, and fearing that there would be reprisals from Mecca for having hosted Muhammad, the groups involved in meeting with Muhammad began to incite townfolk to pelt him with stones.^[14] Having been beset and pursued out of at-Ta'if, Muhammad, who at one stage was bleeding profusely, sought refuge in a nearby orchard. It is here that he invoked Allah, seeking comfort and protection.^[15] Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1362x942, 120 KB) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1362x942, 120 KB) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Allāh is the Arabic language word referring to God, the Lord and, literally according to the Quran, to the God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob in the Abrahamic religions. ...

According to Islamic tradition, Muhammad on his way back to Mecca was met by the angel Gabriel and the angels of the mountains surrounding at-Ta'if. He was told by them that if he willed, at-Ta'if would be crushed between the mountains in revenge for his mistreatment. Muhammad rejected the proposition saying that he would pray in the hopes of preceding generations of at-Ta'if coming to accept Islamic monotheism.^[15][16] 12th-century icon of Archangel Gabriel from Novgorod. ...

al-`Aqaba pledges

In the summer of 620 during the pilgrimage season, six men travelling from Medina came into contact with Muhammad. Having been impressed by his message and character, and thinking that he could help bring resolution to the problems being faced in Medina, five of the six men returned to Mecca the following year bringing seven others. Following their acceptance of Islam and of Muhammad as the messenger of Allah, the twelve men pledged to obey him and to stay away from a number of sinful acts. This was known as the "First Pledge of al-`Aqaba."^[17] Events Medina is converted to Islam. ... Medina (Arabic: ‎ or المدينة ; also transliterated into English as Madinah) is a city in the Hejaz region of western Saudi Arabia. ...

Following the pledge, Muhammad decided to send a Muslim "ambassador", Musab bin Umair, to Medina in order to teach people about Islam and invite them to it.^[18] Converts to Islam came from nearly all Arab tribes present in Medina, such that by June of the subsequent year there were seventy-five Muslims coming to Mecca for pilgrimage and to meet Muhammad. Meeting him secretly by night, the group made what was known as the "Second Pledge of al-`Aqaba", or the "Pledge of War". ^[17] Conditions of the pledge, many of which similar to the first, included obedience to Muhammad, "enjoining good and forbidding evil" as well as responding to the call to arms when required.^[19] The Arabs (Arabic: عرب ) are an ethnic group found throughout the Middle East and North Africa. ...

Some western academics are noted to have questioned whether or not a second pledge had taken place, although Watt argues that there must have been several meetings between the pilgrims and Muhammad on which the basis of his move to Medina could be agreed upon.^[20]

Reformation of Medina

Prelude

The demography of Medina before Muslim migration consisted mainly of two pagan Arab tribes; the Aws and the Khazraj; and at least three Jewish tribes: Qaynuqa, Nadir, and Qurayza.^[2] Medinan society, for perhaps decades, had been scarred by fueds between the two main Arab tribes and their sub-clans. The Jewish tribes had at times formed their own alliances with either one of the Arab tribes. The oppressive policy of the Khazraj who at the time had assumed control over Medina, forced the Jewish tribes Nadir and Qurayza into alliance with the Aws who had been significantly weakened. The culmination of this was the Battle of Bu'ath in 617, in which the Khazraj and their allies, Qaynuqa, has been soundly defeated by the coalition of Aws and its supporters.^[21][22] AWS can mean: Abyss Web Server Ada Web Server Advanced Wireless Services Apple Workgroup Server Automatic Warning System for railway use. ... The Banu Khazraj (Arabic:?) was one of the tribes of Arabia during Muhammads era. ... The word Jew ( Hebrew: יהודי) is used in a wide number of ways, but generally refers to a follower of the Jewish faith, a child of a Jewish mother, or someone of Jewish descent with a connection to Jewish culture or ethnicity and often a combination of these attributes. ... ‹ The template below has been proposed for deletion. ... The Banu Nadir (Arabic: ‎) were one of the three main Jewish tribes living in Medina, now in Saudi Arabia, in the 7th century. ... The Banu Qurayza (Arabic بنو قريظة; alternate spellings include Quraiza, Qurayzah, Quraytha, and the archaic Koreiza) were a Jewish tribe who lived in northern Arabia during the 7th century, at the oasis of Yathrib (now known as Medina). ... The Battle of Buath was a large battle bettween the Jewish and Arab tribes of Medina. ... Events Sui Gong Di succeeds Sui Yang Di as emperor of China. ...

Although formal combat between the two clans had ended, hostilities between them continued even up until Muhammad's arrival in Medina. Muhammad had been invited by some Medinans, who had been impressed by his religious preaching and apparent trustworthiness, as an arbitrator to help reduce the prevailing factional discord.^[23] Muhammad's task would thus be to form a united community out of these heterogeneous elements, not only as a religious preacher, but as a political and diplomatic leader who could help resolve the ongoing disputes.^[2]

Constitution of Medina

By 622, Muhammad had migrated to Medina with a group of his followers, having escaped the forces of Quraish. They were given shelter by members of the indigenous community known as the Ansar. After having established the first Mosque in Medina and obtaining residence with Abu Ayyub al-Ansari,^[24] he then set about the establishment of a pact known as the Constitution of Medina. This document attempted to regulate the matters of governance of the city, as well as the extent and nature of inter-community relations, and signatories to it included the Muslims, the Ansar and the various Jewish tribes of Medina.^[25] Events Hijra - Muhammad and his followers withdraw from Mecca to Medina - year one of the Islamic calendar. ... For other uses see Hijra. ... Muhajir or Mohajir is a Arabic word meaning refugee or immigrant or emigrant. ... Quraish (Arabic: ‎ translit: ) is the Meccan tribe that the Islamic prophet Muhammad belonged to before he received the revelations of Islam. ... Ansar (Arabic: الأنصار, meaning aiders, or patrons) refer to a class of warriors who are renouned for there arsenal of weapons and the speed and mobility of there arabian horse. ... The Badshahi Masjid in Lahore, Pakistan with an iwan at center, three domes, and five visible minarets A mosque is a place of worship for followers of the Islamic faith. ... Abu Ayyub al-Ansari (587 - 668) - born Khalid ibn Zayd ibn Kulayb in Yathrib - hailed from the tribe of Banu Najjar and was a close companion (Arabic: الصحابه, sahaba) of the Prophet Muhammed. ... The Constitution of Medina is the earliest known written constitution. ...

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Constitution of Medina

Significant clauses of the constitution included the mutual assistance of each other if one signatory were to be attacked by a third party, the resolution that the Muslims would profess their religion and the Jews theirs, as well as the appointment of Muhammad as the leader of the state.^[26] It is argued however that Muhammad's authority had not extended over the entirity of Medina at this time, such that in reality he was only the religious leader of Medina, and his political influence would only become significant after the Battle of Badr in 624.^[27] Lewis opines that Muhammad's assumption of the role of statesman was a means through which the objectives of prophethood could be achieved.^[28] The constitution, although recently signed, was soon to be rendered obselete due to the rapidly changing conditions in Medina,^[2] with certain tribes having been accused of breaching the terms of agreement. Image File history File links Wikisource-logo. ... Wikisource – The Free Library – is a Wikimedia project to build a free, wiki library of source texts, along with translations into any language and other supporting materials. ... Combatants Muslims of Medina Quraish of Mecca Commanders Muhammad Hamza ibn Abd al-Muttalib Ali Amr ibn Hishām (aka Abū Jahl) Abu Sufyan Strength 305-350 <900-1000 Casualties 14 killed 50-70 killed 43-70 captured The Battle of Badr (Arabic غزوة بدر), fought March 17, 624 CE (17 Ramadan... Events Justus becomes Archbishop of Canterbury. ... Prof. ...

Impact

Watt observes that the signing of the constitution could be seen as indicating the formation of a united community, in ways similar to a federation of nomadic clans and tribes, as the signatories were bound together by solemn agreement. The community, however, now also had a religious basis. Extending the analogy, he argues that the functioning of the community resembled that of a tribe, such that it would not be incorrect to call the community a kind of "super-tribe".^[29] The signing of the constitution itself displayed a degree of diplomatic skill by Muhammad, as although he envisioned a society eventually based upon a religious outlook, practical consideration was needed to be inclusive instead of exclusive of the varying social elements.^[2] A map displaying todays federations. ... Kazakh nomads in the steppes of the Russian Empire, ca. ...

Both the Aws and Khazraj had progressively converted to Islam, although the latter had been more enthusiastic than the former: at the second pledge of al-`Aqaba, the numbers of Khazraj to Aws present was 62:3; and at the Battle of Badr, 175:63.^[30] Subsequently, the hostility between the Aws and Khazraj gradually diminished and became unheard of after Muhammad's death.^[21] The spirit of brotherhood as insisted by Muhammad amongst Muslims was the means through which a new society would be shaped.^[31]

The result was Muhammad's increasing influence in Medina, although he was most probably only considered a political force after the Battle of Badr, moreso after the Battle of Uhud where he was clearly in political ascendency.^[32] To attain complete control over Medina, Muhammad would have to exercise considerable political, military as well as religious skills over the coming years.^[23] Combatants Muslims Quraysh-led Coalition Commanders Muhammad Abu Sufyan Strength 1,000 3,000 Casualties 75 dead Unknown The Battle of Uhud was fought on 23 March, 625 CE, between a force from the small Muslim community of Medina, in what is now north-western Arabia, and a force from...

Events at Hudaybiyya

In March 628, Muhammad reportedly saw himself in a dream performing the Umrah (lesser pilgrimage), and so prepared to travel with his followers to Mecca in the hopes of fulfilling this vision. He set out with a group of around 1,400 pilgrims (in the traditional Ihram garb^[33]), although it was not soon until Mecca had discovered these arrangements. On hearing of the Muslims travelling to Mecca for pilgrimage, the Quraish sent out a force of 200 fighters in order to halt the approaching party. In no position to fight, Muhammad evaded the cavalry by taking a more difficult route, thereby reaching al-Hudaybiyya, just outside of Mecca.^[34] Events Khusro II of Persia overthrown Pippin of Landen becomes Mayor of the Palace Brahmagupta writes the Brahmasphutasiddhanta Births Deaths Empress Suiko of Japan Theodelinda, queen of the Lombards Categories: 628 ... The Umrah or Umra (Arabic: عمرة ) is a pilgrimage to Mecca performed by Muslims that can be undertaken at any time of the year. ...

It was at Hudaybiyya that a number of envoys went to and fro in order to negotiate with the Quraish. During the negotiations, Uthman bin al-Affan was chosen as an envoy to convene with the leaders in Mecca, on account of his high regard amongst the Quraish.^[35] On his entry into Mecca, rumours ignited that Uthman had subsequently been murdered by the Quraish. Muhammad responded by calling upon the pilgrims to make a pledge not to flee (or to stick with Muhammad, whatever decision he made) if the situation descended into war with Mecca. This pledge became known as the "Pledge of Good Pleasure" (Arabic: بيعة الرضوان , bay'at al-ridhwān) or the "Pledge under the Tree". ^[34] For other uses of the name, see Uthman (disambiguation). ... The Arabic language (Arabic: ‎ transliterated: ), or simply Arabic (Arabic: ‎ transliterated: ), is the largest member of the Semitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family (classification: South Central Semitic) and is closely related to Hebrew and Aramaic. ...

The incident was mentioned in the Qur'an 48:18 as follows^[34]: The Quran [1] (Arabic: , literally the recitation; also called The Noble Quran; also transliterated as Quran, Koran, and Al-Quran, Turkish Kuran), is the central religious text of Islam. ...

Allah's Good Pleasure was on the Believers when they swore Fealty to thee under the Tree: He knew what was in their hearts, and He sent down Tranquillity to them; and He rewarded them with a speedy Victory; (Yusuf Ali)

Image File history File links Cquote1. ... Abdullah Yusuf Ali (14 April 1872 - 10 December 1953) was an Islamic scholar who translated the Quran into English. ... Image File history File links Cquote2. ...

Treaty

Main article: Treaty of Hudaybiyya

Soon afterwards, with the rumour of Uthman's slaying proven untrue, negotiations continued and a treaty was eventually signed between the Muslims and Quraish. Conditions of the treaty included the Muslims' postponement of the lesser pilgrimage until the following year, a pact of mutual non-aggression between the parties, and a promise by Muhammad to return any member of Quraish (presumably a minor) fleeing from Mecca without the permission of their parent or guardian, even if they be Muslim.^[36] Following the signing of the treaty, Muhammad and the pilgrims sacrificed the animals they had brought for it, and proceeded to return to Medina.^[34] Treaty of Hudaybiyya (628) In the name of Allah. ...

The treaty was set to expire after 10 years, but was broken after only 10 months,^[34] due to a perceived violation of the treaty when a Meccan had allegedly murdered a Muslim. The reaction to this was the assembly of an army of ten thousand men by Muhammad to march unto Mecca, resulting in the Conquest of Mecca.^[37] Please wikify (format) this article as suggested in the Guide to layout and the Manual of Style. ...

Correspondance with other leaders

Another rendering of the seal used by Muhammad

There are instances according to Islamic tradition where Muhammad is thought to have sent letters to other heads of state during the Medinan phase of his life. Personalities, amongst others, included the Negus of Abyssinia, Heraclius (emperor of Byzantine), the Muqawqas of Egypt, the Chosroes of Persia. According to Forward, some academics have been sceptical about the authenticity of such embassies, although he argues that it is likely that Muhammad had assumed correspondence with leaders within the Arabian peninsula.^[1] A seal (pictured) was used by Muhammad on the letters that were sent, for recipient to be able to verify the source.^[5] Negus is the Amharic word for king. The term negus negust means king of kings, or Emperor. ... This article needs cleanup. ... Heraclius and his sons Heraclius Constantine and Heraclonas. ... The Byzantine Empire is the term conventionally used to describe the Roman Empire during the Middle Ages, centered at its capital in Constantinople. ... This article belongs in one or more categories. ... Khosrau, Khusrau, Khosru and also Khusraw (Kasrâ in Arabic; Chosroes or Chosroës in Greek) was the name of a mythical Persian leader, in the Avesta known as Kavi Haosravah, with the meaning with good reputation. A number of rulers of Persia and the Middle East were known by this name. ... For other uses of this term see: Persia (disambiguation) The Persian Empire is the name used to refer to a number of historic dynasties that have ruled the country of Persia (Iran). ...

Deputation to Abyssinia

The letter inviting the Negus to Islam had been sent by Amr bin Omayah ad-Damari, although it is not known if the letter had been sent with Ja'far on migration to Abyssinia or at a later date following the Treaty of Hudaibiyya. According to Dr. Hamidullah, the former may be more likely.^[5] The letter reads:

In the Name of Allah the Most Beneficent, the Most Merciful. From Muhammad the Messenger of Allah to Negus, king of Abyssinia. Image File history File links Cquote1. ... Peace be upon him who follows true guidance. Salutations, I entertain Allah's praise, there is no god but He, the Sovereign, the Holy, the Source of peace, the Giver of peace, the Guardian of faith, the Preserver of safety. I bear witness that Jesus, the son of Mary, is the spirit of Allah and His Word which He cast into Mary, the virgin, the good, the pure, so that she conceived Jesus. Allah created him from His spirit and His breathing as He created Adam by His Hand. I call you to Allah Alone with no associate and to His obedience and to follow me and to believe in that which came to me, for I am the Messenger of Allah I invite you and your men to Allah the Glorious, the All-Mighty. I hereby bear witness that I have communicated my message and advice. I invite you to listen and accept my advice. Peace be upon him who follows true guidance.[38][39]

Having received the letter, the Negus was purported to accept Islam in a reply he wrote to Muhammad. According to Islamic tradition, the Muslims in Medina prayed the funeral prayer in absentia for the Negus on his death.^[40] It is possible that a further letter was sent to the successor of the late Negus.^[5] Image File history File links Cquote2. ... Salatul Janazah is a prayer carried out for Muslims at Islamic funerals, after the wrapping of the body and before the procession. ...

Letter to Heraclius

A letter was sent from Muhammad to the emperor of Byzantium, Heraclius, through the Muslim envoy Dihyah bin Khalifah al-Kalbi. It reads:

Purported letter sent by Muhammad to Heraclius, emperor of Byzantium

In the name of Allah the Beneficent, the Merciful (This letter is) from Muhammad the slave of Allah and His Apostle to Heraclius the ruler of Byzantine. Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (1373x839, 636 KB) Summary I have scanned this image from a book (Dr. Majid Ali Khan, Muhammad: The final messanger, Islamic Book Service (New Dehli), ISBN:81-85738-25-4). ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (1373x839, 636 KB) Summary I have scanned this image from a book (Dr. Majid Ali Khan, Muhammad: The final messanger, Islamic Book Service (New Dehli), ISBN:81-85738-25-4). ... Image File history File links Cquote1. ... Peace be upon him, who follows the right path. Furthermore I invite you to Islam, and if you become a Muslim you will be safe, and Allah will double your reward, and if you reject this invitation of Islam you will be committing a sin by misguiding your Arisiyin (peasants). (And I recite to you Allah's Statement:) "Say (O Muhammad): 'O people of the scripture! Come to a word common to you and us that we worship none but Allah and that we associate nothing in worship with Him, and that none of us shall take others as Lords beside Allah.' Then, if they turn away, say: 'Bear witness that we are Muslims' (those who have surrendered to Allah)." (3:64) [41]

Abu Sufyan, currently an adversary to Muhammad but a signatory to the recent Treaty of Hudaybiyya, was trading in Syria when he was summoned to the court of Heraclius. Asked by Heraclius about the man claiming to be a prophet, Abu Sufyan responded, speaking favorably of Muhammad's character and lineage and outlining some directives of Islam. Heraclius was seemingly impressed by what he was told of Muhammad, and felt that Muhammad's claim to prophethood was valid.^[41][42] Despite this incident, it seems that Heraclius was more concerned with the current rift between the various Christian churches within his empire, and as a result did not convert to Islam.^[43] Image File history File links Cquote2. ... Abu Sufyan ibn Harb was the leader of the Banu Abd Shams clan of the Quraish tribe, and was the chieftain of the entire Quraish tribe, making him one of, if not the most powerful men in Mecca during the lifetime of Muhammad. ... Treaty of Hudaybiyya (628) In the name of Allah. ...

Letter to Muqawqas

There has been conflict amongst scholars about the authenticity of aspects concerning the purported letter sent by Muhammad to Muqawqas. Some scholars such as Nöldeke consider the currently preserved copy claimed to be the original to be a forgery, and Öhrnberg considers the whole narrative concerning the Muqawqas to be "devoid of any historical value".^[44] Muslim historians, in contrast, generally affirm the historicity of the reports. The purported text of the letter (sent by Hatib bin Abi Balta`a) according to Islamic tradition is as follows: Theodor Nöldeke (March 2, 1836 - 1930), German Semitic scholar, was born at Harburg, and studied at Göttingen, Vienna, Leiden and Berlin. ...

Purported letter sent by Muhammad to Muqawqas, preserved in the Topkapi Museum, Istanbul

In the Name of Allah, the Most Beneficent, the Most Merciful. From Muhammad slave of Allah and His Messenger to Muqawqas, vicegerent of Egypt. Topkapı Palace (Topkapı Sarayı in Turkish, literally the Cannongate Palace - named after a nearby gate), located in Istanbul (Constantinople), was the administrative center of the Ottoman Empire from 1465 to 1853. ... Istanbul (Turkish: see other names) is Turkeys most populous city, and its cultural, and economic centre. ... Image File history File links Cquote1. ... Peace be upon him who follows true guidance. Thereafter, I invite you to accept Islam. Therefore, if you want security, accept Islam. If you accept Islam, Allah, the Sublime, shall reward you doubly. But if you refuse to do so, you will bear the burden of the transgression of all the Copts. "Say (O Muhammad): 'O people of the scripture! Come to a word common to you and us that we worship none but Allah and that we associate nothing in worship with Him, and that none of us shall take others as Lords beside Allah.' Then, if they turn away, say: 'Bear witness that we are Muslims' (those who have surrendered to Allah)." (3:64) [45]

The Muqawqas responded by sending gifts to Muhammad, including two female slaves, Maria al-Qibtiyya and Sirin. Maria became the concubine of Muhammad,^[46] with some sources claiming that she was later freed and married. The Muqawqas is reported in Islamic tradition as having presided over the contents of the parchment and having it stored in an ivory casket, although he did not convert to Islam.^[47] Image File history File links Cquote2. ... Maria al-Qibtiyya (Arabic: مارية القبطية) (alternatively, especially in non-Arabic traditions, Maria Qupthiya), or Maria the Copt, was a Coptic Christian slave who was sent as a gift from Muqawqis, a Byzantine official, to the Islamic prophet Muhammad in 628 CE. According to most Islamic accounts, she was Muhammads wife. ...

Letter to Chosroes

The letter written by Muhammad addressing the Chosroes of Persia was carried by 'Abdullah bin Hudhafa as-Sahmi who, through the governor of Bahrain, delivered it to the Chosroes.^[48] It reads:

In the name of Allah, the beneficient, the Merciful. From Muhammad, the Messenger of God, to Kisra, the great King of Persia. Image File history File links Cquote1. ... Peace be upon him who follows the guidance, believes in Allah and His Prophet, bears witness that there is no God but Allah and that I am the Prophet of Allah for the entire humanity so that every man alive is warned of the awe of God. Embrace Islam that you may find peace; otherwise on you shall rest the sin of the Magis.[49]

On receival, the Chosroes reportedly tore up the letter in outrage.^[50] This reaction of enmity contrasts with the responses of the other leaders, and was supposedly due to Muhammad having placed his own name before that of the Chosroes.^[48] Image File history File links Cquote2. ...

Other personalities

Apart from the aforementioned personalities, there are other reported instances of correspondance. Mundhir bin Sawa, the governor of Bahrain was apparently an addressee, with a letter having been delivered to him through `Al-`Ala bin al-Hadrami. Some subjects of the governor reportedly coverted to Islam, whereas others did not.^[51] A similar letter was sent to Hauda bin Ali, the governor of Yamamah, who claimed that he would only convert if he were given a position of authority within Muhammad's government, a proposition which Muhammad was unwilling to accept.^[51] The current ruler of Damascus, Harith ibn Abi Shamir al-Ghassani, reportedly reacted less than favourably to Muhammad's correspondance, viewing it as an insult.^[51] Jaifer and `Abd al-Jalani, two brothers belonging to the ruling Azd tribe in Oman, converted to Islam in 630 on receiving the letter sent from Muhammad through Amr ibn al-Aas.^[52] Damascus by night, pictured from Jabal Qasioun; the green spots are minarets Damascus (Arabic: ‎ transliterated: Also commonly: الشام ash-Shām) is the capital and largest city of Syria. ... language|Arabic]]:الغساسنة) were [[Arab Christian|Arab it is assumed that the Ghassanids adopted the religion of Christianity from the native Aramaeans and Romans. ... The Azd or Al Azd, are an Arabian tribe. ... Events Muhammad captures Mecca (January). ...

See also

• Arabian tribes that interacted with Muhammad
• History of Islam
• Muhammad in Medina
• Sharia
• Ummah

There were several Tribes of Arabia during Muhammads era. ... The History of Islam involves the history of the Islamic faith as a religion and as a social institution. ... The period when Muhammad in Medina started with the Migration to Medina in 622 and ended with the Conquest of Mecca in 630. ... Sharia (Arabic: ‎ translit: ) refers to the body of Islamic law. ... Umma (Arabic: ) is an Arabic word meaning community or nation. ...

Notes

Sahih Bukhari is one of the Sunni six major Hadith collections (Hadith are oral traditions recounting events in the lives of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and his followers). ... Sahih Muslim is a collection of sayings and deeds of Prophet Muhammad (also known as the sunnah). ...

References

• Watt, M Montgomery (1974). Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman. United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198810784.
• al-Mubarakpuri, Saif-ur-Rahman (2002). al-Raheeq al-Makhtoom, "The Sealed Nectar". Islamic University of Medina. Riyadh: Darussalam publishers. ISBN 1591440718.
• Lewis, Bernard (1984). The Jews of Islam. US: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691054193.
• P.J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs (Ed.), Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Brill Academic Publishers. ISSN 1573-3912.
• Forward, Martin (1998). Muhammad: A Short Biography. Oxford: Oneworld. ISBN 1851681310.
• Rogerson, Barnaby (2003). The Prophet Muhammad: A Biography. UK: Little, Brown (TimeWarner books). ISBN 0316861758.
• Haykal, Muhammad Husayn (1993). The Life of Muhammad. Indianapolis: American Trust Publications. ISBN 0892591374.

Clifford Edmund Bosworth (born December 29, 1928, Sheffield, United Kingdom) is a British historian and orientalist, specializing in Arabic studies. ... The Encyclopaedia of Islam (EI) is a scholarly encyclopaedia covering all aspects of Islamic civilization and history. ...

Further reading

• Hamidullah, Muhammad (1985). Six originaux des lettres du Prophète de l'islam: étude paléographique et historique des lettres. Paris: Tougui. ISBN 273630005X.
• Watt, M Montgomery (1981). Muhammad at Medina. United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195773071.
• Al-Ismail, Tahia (1998). The Life of Muhammad: his life based on the earliest sources. Ta-Ha publishers Ltd, United Kingdom. ISBN 0907461646.

External links

• Muhammad Husayn Haykal: "The Life of Muhammad"; Online version
• Letters sent by Muhammad