A mycorrhiza (typically seen in the plural forms mycorrhizae or mycorrhizas, Greek for fungus roots) is the result of a mutualistic association between a fungus and a plant. This mutualism takes place at the root level, where individual hyphae extending from the mycelium of a fungus colonize the roots of a host plant, either intracellularly or extracellularly. Ant-aphid mutualism: the aphids are protected against predators by the ants who cultivate the aphids for their secretions of honeydew, a food source. ... Ant-aphid mutualism: the aphids are protected against predators by the ants who cultivate the aphids for their secretions of honeydew, a food source. ... Hyphae as seen under a log A hypha (plural hyphae) is a long, branching filament found primarily in fungi, but also in fungus-like bacteria such as Actinomyces and Streptomyces. ... Mycelium is the vegetative part of a fungus consisting of a mass of branching threadlike hyphae that exists below the ground or within another substrate. ... Divisions Chytridiomycota Zygomycota Glomeromycota Ascomycota Basidiomycota Deuteromycota Fungi (singular fungus) are a kingdom of eukaryotic organisms. ... Primary and secondary roots in a cotton plant In vascular plants, the root is that organ of a plant body that typically lies below the surface of the soil (compare with stem). ... Divisions Green algae Chlorophyta Charophyta Land plants (embryophytes) Non-vascular plants (bryophytes) Marchantiophyta - liverworts Anthocerotophyta - hornworts Bryophyta - mosses Vascular plants (tracheophytes) †Rhyniophyta - rhyniophytes †Zosterophyllophyta - zosterophylls Lycopodiophyta - clubmosses †Trimerophytophyta - trimerophytes Pteridophyta - ferns and horsetails Seed plants (spermatophytes) †Pteridospermatophyta - seed ferns Pinophyta - conifers Cycadophyta - cycads Ginkgophyta - ginkgo Gnetophyta - gnetae Magnoliophyta - flowering plants...

This mutualistic association provides the fungus with a renewable source of food through access to fixed carbon (sugars) from the plant photosynthate. These are translocated to the root tissues from their source location (usually leaves), and then to the fungal partners. In return, the plant gains the use of the mycelium's tremendous surface area to absorb mineral nutrients from the soil. It is believed that the mycelia of mycorrhizal networks have better mineral absorption capabilities compared to plant roots. An example of this is the manner in which phosphate ions are tightly bound to iron oxides in many soils. Plant roots are generally incapable of accessing these phosphorus sources (which can be large and are termed sinks), yet mycorrhizal mycelia can access these forms of phosphorus. The mechanisms of increased absorption are both physical—mycorrhizal mycelia are much smaller in diameter than the smallest root hair and thus are able to explore a greater volume of soil and have a much larger surface area for absorption—and chemical—the cell membrane chemistry of fungi is different from that of plants. Mycorrhizae are especially beneficial for the plant partner in nutrient poor soils. Ant-aphid mutualism: the aphids are protected against predators by the ants who cultivate the aphids for their secretions of honeydew, a food source. ... Above is a ball-and-stick model of the inorganic hydrogenphosphate anion (HPO42−). Colour coding: P (orange); O (red); H (white). ... ... Iron oxide pigment There are a number of iron oxides: Iron oxides Iron(II) oxide or ferrous oxide (FeO) The black-coloured powder in particular can cause explosions as it readily ignites. ...

Furthermore, mycorrhizal plants are often more resistant to diseases, such as those caused by microbial soil-borne pathogens, and are also more resistant to the effects of drought, perhaps due to the improved water uptake capability of the fungal hyphae. A pathogen or infectious agent is a biological agent that causes disease or illness to its host. ...

The cytoplasmic streaming of the mycorrhizal hypha is a mechanism that facilitates the transfer of nutrients from the soil, at relatively remote distances from the root, to the root at rates far exceeding those that would be possible by osmotic flow alone. This has an energy cost to the fungus. In return, the mycorrhizal fungus is rewarded by the "payment" of nutrients in the form of sugars, starches, proteins and lipids from the plant roots. These nutrients, in turn, flow to the whole mycelial network through cytoplasmic streaming. Cytoplasmic streaming is the flowing of cytoplasm in eukaryotic cells. ... Osmosis is the net movement of water molecules across a semipermeable membrane from a region of low solute potential to an area of high solute potential (or equivalently, from a region of high solvent potential to a region of low solvent potential). ... Magnification of typical sugar showing monoclinic hemihedral crystalline structure. ... Starch (CAS# 9005-25-8) is a complex carbohydrate which is insoluble in water; it is used by plants as a way to store excess glucose. ... A representation of the 3D structure of myoglobin, showing coloured alpha helices. ... Lipids are a class of hydrocarbon-containing organic compounds. ...

Mycorrhizas form a mutualistic relationship with the roots of most plant species (although only a small proportion of all species have been examined, 95% of all plant families are predominantly mycorrhizal). Plants grown in sterile soils and growth media often perform poorly without the addition of spores or hyphae of mycorrhizal fungi to colonise the plant roots and aid in the uptake of soil mineral nutrients. The absence of mycorrhizal fungi can also slow plant growth in early succession or on degraded landscapes. Ant-aphid mutualism: the aphids are protected against predators by the ants who cultivate the aphids for their secretions of honeydew, a food source. ... SOiL is a five-piece hard rock music group from Chicago, Illinois. ... This article is about a biological reproductive structure; for the video game, see Spore (video game). ...

Early evidence of mycorrhizal associations

The arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiotic relationship formed between plant roots and fungi is one of the most prevalent symbiotic associations found in plants. Some of the earliest fossil plants show evidence of mycorrhizas associated with them. Their structure has been highly conserved since they first colonized the soil about 400 million years ago. This date is important since it corresponds to the transition from aquatic to terrestrial life forms. It is hypothesized that this plant-fungi mutualistic partnership was vital in the colonization of land by plants.

Types of mycorrhizae

The two most common types of mycorrhizas are the ectomycorrhizas and the endomycorrhizas (more commonly known as arbuscular mycorrhizas). The two groups are differentiated by the fact that the hyphae of ectomycorrhizal fungi do not penetrate the cell wall of the plant's root cells, while the hyphae of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi penetrate the cell wall. An Arbuscular mycorrhiza (plural mycorrhizae or mycorrhizas) is a type of mycorrhiza in which the fungus penetrates the cortical cells of the roots of a vascular plant. ... A cell wall is a fairly rigid layer surrounding a cell located outside of the cell membrane that provides the cell with structural support and protection. ... Drawing of the structure of cork as it appeared under the microscope to Robert Hooke from Micrographia which is the origin of the word cell. Cells in culture, stained for keratin (red) and DNA (green). ...

Endomycorrhizae

Arbuscular mycorrhizas, or AM (formerly known as vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizas), are an example of a mycorrhiza that involves entry of the hyphae into the plant cell walls to produce structures that are either balloon-like (vesicles) or dichotomously-branching invaginations (arbuscules). The fungal hyphae do not in fact penetrate the protoplast (i.e. the interior of the cell), but invaginate the cell membrane. The structure of the arbuscules greatly increases the contact surface area between the hypha and the cell cytoplasm to facilitate the transfer of nutrients between them. An Arbuscular mycorrhiza (plural mycorrhizae or mycorrhizas) is a type of mycorrhiza in which the fungus penetrates the cortical cells of the roots of a vascular plant. ... A hypha (plural hyphae) is a long, branching filament that, with other hyphae, forms the feeding thallus of a fungus called the mycelium. ... Initially protoplast (in Greek: proton = first and platho = mould) referred to the first organized body of a species this meaning is similar to the non-biological definition, the first from from which all subsequent forms are derived. ... Illustration of a cell membrane The cell membrane, also called the plasma membrane or plasmalemma, is a semipermeable lipid layer surrounding the cytoplasm of all living cells. ... Organelles. ...

Arbuscular mycorrhizas are formed only by fungi in the division Glomeromycota, which are typically associated with the roots of herbaceous plants, but may also be associated with woody plants. Fossil evidence and DNA sequence analysis suggest that this mutualism appeared 400-460 million years ago, when the first plants were colonizing land. Arbuscular mycorrhizas were likely to have been very helpful at that time, protecting plants from adverse conditions such as lack of water and nutrients. In biology, the equivalent of a phylum in the plant or fungi kingdom is called a division. ... Orders Archaeosporales Diversisporales Paraglomerales Glomerales The division (phylum) Glomeromycota is a taxon within the kingdom Fungi that includes those species that form arbuscular mycorrhizae with plants. ...

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi are quite extraordinary organisms. First they have been asexual for many million years and secondly, individuals can contain many genetically different nuclei (a phenomenon called heterokaryosis) ^[1]. Heterokaryosis (from the Greek heteros, meaning other and karyon, meaning kernel) is a term used in mycology meaning to have two or more genetically different nuclei within the same mycelium of a fungus. ...

This type of association is found in 85% of all plant families in the wild, including many crop species such as the grains. The word grain has several meanings, most being descriptive of a small piece or particle. ...

Endomycorrhizal Wheat

Photograph of a wheat field taken by Tarquin. ... Photograph of a wheat field taken by Tarquin. ...

Ectomycorrhizae

Ectomycorrhizas, or EcM, typically form between the roots of woody plants and fungi belonging to the divisions Basidiomycota, Ascomycota, or Zygomycota. Classes Subdivision Teliomycotina    Urediniomycetes Subdivision Ustilaginomycotina    Ustilaginomycetes Subdivision Hymenomycotina    Homobasidiomycetes- mushrooms    Heterobasidiomycetes- jelly fungi The Division Basidiomycota is a large taxon within the Kingdom Fungi that includes those species that produce spores in a club-shaped structure called a basidium. ... Subphyla/Classes Archaeascomycetes Euascomycetes Hemiascomycetes or Pezizomycotina Laboulbeniomycetes Eurotiomycetes Lecanoromycetes Leotiomycetes Pezizomycetes Sordariomycetes Dothideomycetes (and many more) Saccharomycotina Saccharomycetes Taphrinomycotina Neolectomycetes Pneumocystidomycetes Schizosaccharomycetes Taphrinomycetes The Ascomycota, formerly known as the Ascomycetae, or Ascomycetes, are a Division of Fungi, whose members are commonly known as the Sac Fungi, which produce spores... Orders Dimargaritales Endogonales Entomophthorales Harpellales Kickxellales Microsporidia Mucorales Zoopagales Zygomycota, or zygote fungi, are a division of fungi. ...

These are external mycorrhizae that form a cover on root surfaces and between the root's cortical cells. A mycorrhiza (typically seen in the plural form mycorrhizae meaning fungus roots) is a distinct type of root symbiosis in which individual hyphae extending from the mycelium of a fungus colonize the roots of a host plant. ...

Besides the mantle formed by the mycorrhizae, most of the biomass of the fungus is found branching into the soil, with some extending to the apoplast, stopping short of the endodermis. To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require restructuring. ... Switchgrass, a hardy plant used in the biofuel industry in the United States Rice chaff. ... Endodermis is the bottom layer of skin. ...

Found in 10% of plant families, mostly the woody species, including the oak, pine, eucalyptus, dipterocarp, and olive families. Species See List of Quercus species The term oak can be used as part of the common name of any of several hundred species of trees and shrubs in the genus Quercus, and some related genera, notably Cyclobalanopsis and Lithocarpus. ... Subgenera Subgenus Strobus Subgenus Ducampopinus Subgenus Pinus See Pinus classification for complete taxonomy to species level. ... This article is about the plant genus. ... Binomial name Olea europaea L. 19th century illustration The Olive (Olea europaea) is a species of small tree in the family Oleaceae, native to coastal areas of the eastern Mediterranean region, from Lebanon and the maritime parts of Asia Minor and northern Iran at the south end of the Caspian...

Ectomycorrhizal Eucalyptus

Eucalyptus Tree Taken by fir0002 File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Eucalyptus Tree Taken by fir0002 File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ...

Other forms of mycorrhizae

An ericoid mycorrhizal fungus isolated from Woollsia pungens ^[2].

Arbuscular and ecto- mycorrhiza aside many plants belonging to the order Ericales form ericoid mycorrhiza, while some Ericales form arbutoid and monotropoid mycorrhiza. All orchids are mycoheterotrophic at some stage during their lifecycle and form orchid mycorrhiza with a range of basidiomycete fungi. Image File history File linksMetadata Ericoid_mycorrhizal_fungus. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Ericoid_mycorrhizal_fungus. ... Families See text. ... An ericoid mycorrhizal fungus isolated from Woollsia pungens (Midgley Ericoid mycorrhiza are a symbiotic relationship between fungi and the roots of plants from the order Ericales. ... Subfamilies Apostasioideae Cypripedioideae Epidendroideae Orchidoideae Vanilloideae For genera, see list of Orchidaceae genera. ... Orchid mycorrhiza are a symbiotic relationship between the roots of plants of the family Orchidaceae and a variety of fungi. ...

Research by Klironomos and Hart at the University of Guelph, Ontario has found that the mycorrhizal fungus Laccaria bicolor can lure springtails and kill them (probably with a toxin); the fungus utilises the nitrogen from the decaying springtails, and some of this nitrogen also becomes available to the plant that the fungus forms mycorrhizae on (in this study, the Eastern White Pine). Klironomos found that up to 25% of the plant nitrogen came from springtails or insects ^[3], ^[4]. The University of Guelph is a medium-sized university located in Guelph, Ontario, established in 1964. ... Motto: Ut Incepit Fidelis Sic Permanet (Latin: Loyal she began, loyal she remains) Official languages English (de facto) Flower White Trillium Tree Eastern White Pine Bird Common Loon Capital Toronto Largest city Toronto Lieutenant-Governor James K. Bartleman Premier Dalton McGuinty (Liberal) Parliamentary representation  - House seats  - Senate seats 106 24... Laccaria bicolor is an Ectomychorrhizal fungus used as a soil innoculant in agriculture and horticulture. ... Families [1] Suborder Arthropleona Superfamily Entomobryoidea Entomobryidae Isotomidae Oncopoduridae Paronellidae Tomoceridae Superfamily Poduroidea Brachystomellidae Hypogastruridae Neanuridae Odontellidae Onychiuridae Poduridae Suborder Symphypleona Dicyrtomidae Katiannidae Sminthuridae Sminthurididae Bourletiellidae Arrhopalitidae Springtails (Order Collembola) form the largest of the three orders of modern hexapods that are no longer considered to be insects (along with... Binomial name Pinus strobus L. Eastern White Pine (Pinus strobus) is a large pine native to eastern North America, occurring from Newfoundland west to Minnesota and southeasternmost Manitoba, and south along the Appalachian Mountains to the extreme north of Georgia. ...

See also

• Glomeromycota
• Basidiomycota
• Ascomycota

Orders Archaeosporales Diversisporales Paraglomerales Glomerales The division (phylum) Glomeromycota is a taxon within the kingdom Fungi that includes those species that form arbuscular mycorrhizae with plants. ... Classes Subdivision Teliomycotina    Urediniomycetes Subdivision Ustilaginomycotina    Ustilaginomycetes Subdivision Hymenomycotina    Homobasidiomycetes- mushrooms    Heterobasidiomycetes- jelly fungi The Division Basidiomycota is a large taxon within the Kingdom Fungi that includes those species that produce spores in a club-shaped structure called a basidium. ... Subphyla/Classes Archaeascomycetes Euascomycetes Hemiascomycetes or Pezizomycotina Laboulbeniomycetes Eurotiomycetes Lecanoromycetes Leotiomycetes Pezizomycetes Sordariomycetes Dothideomycetes (and many more) Saccharomycotina Saccharomycetes Taphrinomycotina Neolectomycetes Pneumocystidomycetes Schizosaccharomycetes Taphrinomycetes The Ascomycota, formerly known as the Ascomycetae, or Ascomycetes, are a Division of Fungi, whose members are commonly known as the Sac Fungi, which produce spores...

Notes

External links

• Mycorrhizas – a successful symbiosis Biosafety research into genetically modified barley