Nanomedicine is the medical application of nanotechnology. It covers areas such as nanoparticle drug delivery and possible future applications of molecular nanotechnology (MNT) and nanovaccine. Current problems for nanomedicine involve understanding the issues related to toxicity and environmental impact of nanoscale materials. Although nanotechnology is a relatively recent development in scientific research, the development of its central concepts happened over a longer period of time. ... Potential risks of nanotechnology can broadly be grouped into four areas: the risk of environmental damage from nanoparticles and nanomaterials the risk posed by molecular manufacturing (or advanced nanotechnology) societal risks health risks Nanoethics concerns the ethical and social issues associated with developments in nanotechnology, a science which encompass several... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... This is a list of organizations involved in nanotechnology. ... This is a list of references and appearances of Nanotechnology in works of fiction. ... This page aims to list all topics related to the field of nanotechnology. ... An example of a molecular self-assembly through hydrogen bonds reported by Meijer and coworkers in Angew. ... Molecular electronics (sometimes called moletronics) is a branch of applied physics which aims at using molecules as passive (e. ... Scanning probe microscopy (SPM) is a branch of microscopy that forms images of surfaces using a physical probe that scans the specimen. ... Nanolithography — or lithography at the nanometer scale — refers to the fabrication of nanometer-scale structures, meaning patterns with at least one lateral dimension between the size of an individual atom and approximately 100 nm. ... Molecular nanotechnology (MNT) is the concept of engineering functional mechanical systems at the molecular scale. ... Nanorobotics is the technology of creating machines or robots at or close to the scale of a nanometres (10-9 metres). ... Nanomaterials is the study of how materials behave when their dimensions are reduced to the nanoscale. ... The Icosahedral Fullerene C540 C60 and C-60 redirect here. ... 3D model of three types of single-walled carbon nanotubes. ... Nanotube membranes are films composed of open-ended nanotubes that are oriented perpendicularly to the surface of the film like the cells of a honeycomb. ... Fullerene chemistry is a field of organic chemistry devoted to the chemical properties of fullerenes [1] [2] [3]. Research in this field is driven by the need to functionalize fullerenes and tune their properties. ... Carbon nanotubes have many potential applications, here is a short list of some of the most important: // clothes: waterproof tear-resistant cloth fibers combat jackets: MIT is working on combat jackets that use carbon nanotubes as ultrastrong fibers and to monitor the condition of the wearer. ... Examples of fullerenes in popular culture are numerous. ... Timeline of carbon nanotubes: Inside a carbon nanotube 1952 Radushkevich and Lukyanovich publish a paper in the Russian Journal of Physical Chemistry showing hollow graphitic carbon fibers that are 50 nanometers in diameter. ... Eight allotropes of carbon: a) Diamond, b) Graphite, c) Lonsdaleite, d) C60 (Buckminsterfullerene or buckyball), e) C540, f) C70, g) Amorphous carbon, and h) single-walled carbon nanotube or buckytube. ... It has been suggested that nanopowder be merged into this article or section. ... A quantum dot is a semiconductor nanostructure that confines the motion of conduction band electrons, valence band holes, or excitons (bound pairs of conduction band electrons and valence band holes) in all three spatial directions. ... Colloidal gold is a suspension (or colloid) of sub-micrometre-sized particles of gold in a fluid, usually water. ... --210. ... A molecular assembler is a molecular machine capable of assembling other molecules given instructions, energy, and a supply of smaller building block molecules to work from. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with mechanochemistry. ... Nanorobotics is the technology of creating machines or robots at or close to the scale of a nanometres (10-9 metres). ... Grey goo is a hypothetical end-of-the-world scenario involving molecular nanotechnology in which out-of-control self-replicating robots consume all living matter on Earth while building more of themselves (a scenario known as ecophagy). ... K. Eric Drexler in 2001. ... Engines of Creation: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology Engines of Creation (ISBN 0-385-19973-2) is a seminal molecular nanotechnology book written by K. Eric Drexler in 1986. ... For the chemical substances known as medicines, see medication. ... Nanotechnology refers broadly to a field of applied science and technology whose unifying theme is the control of matter on the atomic and molecular scale, normally 1 to 100 nanometers, and the fabrication of devices within that size range. ... It has been suggested that nanopowder be merged into this article or section. ... Molecular nanotechnology (MNT) is the concept of engineering functional mechanical systems at the molecular scale. ... Nanovaccinology is the use of nanotechnology in vaccine development. ... Research on ultrafine particles has laid the foundation for the emerging field of nanotoxicology, with the goal of studying the biokinetics of engineered nanomaterials and their potential for causing adverse effects. ... Potential risks of nanotechnology can broadly be grouped into four areas: the risk of environmental damage from nanoparticles and nanomaterials the risk posed by molecular manufacturing (or advanced nanotechnology) societal risks health risks Nanoethics concerns the ethical and social issues associated with developments in nanotechnology, a science which encompass several... Nanomaterials is the study of how materials behave when their dimensions are reduced to the nanoscale. ...

Nanomedicine research is directly funded, with the US National Institutes of Health in 2005 funding a five-year plan to set up four nanomedicine centers. In April 2006, the journal Nature Materials estimated that 130 nanotech-based drugs and delivery systems were being developed worldwide. [1] National Institutes of Health Building 50 at NIH Clinical Center - Building 10 The National Institutes of Health (NIH) is an agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services and is the primary agency of the United States government responsible for biomedical research. ... January 2006 cover of Nature Materials Nature Materials is a monthly multi-disciplinary journal aimed at bringing together cutting-edge research across the entire spectrum of materials science. ...

Introduction

In the near future, advancement in nanomedicine will deliver a valuable set of research tools and clinically helpful devices. The National Nanotechnology Initiative expects new commercial applications in the pharmaceutical industry that will include advanced drug delivery systems, new therapies, and in vivo imaging. Farther down the line, neuro-electronic interfaces and cell repair machines could revolutionize medicine and the medical field, but now nanomedicine is becoming one of the biggest industries in the world. In 2004, nanomedicine sales reached 6.8 billion dollars, and with over 200 companies and 38 products worldwide, a minimum of 3.8 billion dollars in nanotechnology R&D is being invested every year. As the nanomedicine industry continues to grow, there is no doubt that it will have a significant impact on the economy. The most important innovations are taking place in drug delivery which involves developing nanoscale particles or molecules to improve bioavailability. Bioavailability refers to the presence of drug molecules where they are needed in the body and where they will do the most good. Drug delivery focuses on maximizing bioavailability both at specific places in the body and over a period of time. This will be achieved by molecular targeting by nanoengineered devices. It is all about targeting the molecules and delivering drugs with cell precision. Over 65 billion dollars is wasted every year because of poor bioavailability. In vivo imaging is another area where tools and devices are being developed. Using nanoparticle contrast agents, images such as ultrasound and MRI have a favorable distribution and improved contrast. The new methods of nanoengineered materials that are being developed might be effective in treating illnesses and diseases such as cancer. What nanoscientists will be able to achieve in future is beyond current imagination. This will be accomplished by self assemblied biocompatible nanodevices that will detect, evaluate, treat and report to the clinical doctor automatically. The National Nanotechnology Initiative is a American federal nanoscale science, engineering, and technology research and development program. ... In vivo (Latin for (with)in the living). ... In pharmacology, bioavailability is used to describe the fraction of an administered dose of unchanged drug that reaches the systemic circulation, one of the principal pharmacokinetic properties of drugs. ... It has been suggested that nanopowder be merged into this article or section. ... Radiocontrast agents (also simply contrast agents or contrast materials) are compounds used to improve the visibility of internal bodily structures in an X-ray image. ...

Drug Delivery

Drug delivery systems, lipid- or polymer-based nanoparticles, can be designed to improve the pharmacological and therapeutic properties of drugs. The strength of drug delivery systems is their ability to alter the pharmacokinetics and biodistribution of the drug. Nanoparticles have unusual properties that can be used to improve drug delivery. Where larger particles would have been cleared from the body, cells take up these nanoparticles because of their size. Complex drug delivery mechanisms are being developed, including the ability to get drugs through cell membranes and into cell cytoplasm. Efficiency is important because many diseases depend upon processes within the cell and can only be impeded by drugs that make their way into the cell. Triggered response is one way for drug molecules to be used more efficiently. Drugs are placed in the body and only activate on encountering a particular signal. For example, a drug with poor solubility will be replaced by a drug delivery system where both hydrophilic and hydrophobic environments exist, improving the solubility. Also, a drug may cause tissue damage, but with drug delivery, regulated drug release can eliminate the problem. If a drug is cleared too quickly from the body, this could force a patient to use high doses, but with drug delivery systems clearance can be reduced by altering the pharmacokinetics of the drug. Poor biodistribution is a problem that can affect normal tissues through widespread distribution, but the particulates from drug delivery systems lower the volume of distribution and reduce the effect on non-target tissue. Potential nanodrugs will work by very specific and well-understood mechanisms, one of the major impacts of nanotechnology and nanoscience will be in leading development of completely new drugs with more useful behavior and less side effects. Pharmacology (in Greek: pharmacon is drug, and logos is science) is the study of how chemical substances interfere with living systems. ... Pharmacokinetics (in Greek: pharmacon meaning drug, and kinetikos meaning putting in motion) is a branch of pharmacology dedicated to the determination of the fate of substances administered externally to a living organism. ... Biodistribution is a method of tracking where compounds of interest travel in an experimental animal or human subject. ... Cross section of cell with cytoplasm labeled at center right. ... Particulates, alternately referred to as Particulate Matter (PM) , aerosols or fine particles are tiny particles of solid or liquid suspended in the air. ...

Cancer

A schematic illustration showing how nanoparticles or other cancer drugs might be used to treat cancer.

Nanoparticles of cadmium selenide (quantum dots) glow when exposed to ultraviolet light. When injected, they seep into cancer tumors. The surgeon can see the glowing tumor, and use it as a guide for more accurate tumor removal. Image File history File links Size of this preview: 800 × 583 pixels Full resolution (960 × 699 pixel, file size: 98 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) Figure Caption: Molecular Imaging and Therapy for cancer treatment This illustration was made for the Opensource Handbook of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology Please acknowledge the Opensource... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 800 × 583 pixels Full resolution (960 × 699 pixel, file size: 98 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) Figure Caption: Molecular Imaging and Therapy for cancer treatment This illustration was made for the Opensource Handbook of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology Please acknowledge the Opensource... It has been suggested that nanopowder be merged into this article or section. ... Cadmium selenide (CdSe) is a solid, binary compound of cadmium and selenium. ... A quantum dot is a potential well that confines electrons in three dimensions to a region of the order of the electrons de Broglie wavelength in size, a few nanometers in a semiconductor. ... Cancer is a class of diseases or disorders characterized by uncontrolled division of cells and the ability of these to spread, either by direct growth into adjacent tissue through invasion, or by implantation into distant sites by metastasis (where cancer cells are transported through the bloodstream or lymphatic system). ... Tumor (American English) or tumour (British English) originally means swelling, and is sometimes still used with that meaning. ...

Sensor test chips containing thousands of nanowires, able to detect proteins and other biomarkers left behind by cancer cells, could enable the detection and diagnosis of cancer in the early stages from a few drops of a patient's blood.^[1]

Researchers at Rice University under Prof. Jennifer West, have demonstrated the use of 120 nm diameter nanoshells coated with gold to kill cancer tumors in mice. The nanoshells can be targeted to bond to cancerous cells by conjugating antibodies or peptides to the nanoshell surface. By irradiating the area of the tumor with an infrared laser, which passes through flesh without heating it, the gold is heated sufficiently to cause death to the cancer cells.^[2] Lovett Hall William Marsh Rice University (commonly called Rice University and opened in 1912 as The William Marsh Rice Institute for the Advancement of Letters, Science and Art) is a private, comprehensive research university located in Houston, Texas, USA, near the Museum District and adjacent to the Texas Medical Center. ... A nanoshell is a composed of a spherical core of a particular coumpond surrounded by a shell of a few nanometer of thickness. ... Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this exact name. ... Peptides are the family of molecules formed from the linking, in a defined order, of various amino acids. ...

One scientist, University of Michigan’s James Baker, believes he has discovered a highly efficient and successful way of delivering cancer-treatment drugs that is less harmful to the surrounding body. Baker has developed a nanotechnology that can locate and then eliminate cancerous cells. He looks at a molecule called a dendrimer. This molecule has over a hundred hooks on it that allow it to attach to cells in the body for a variety of purposes. Baker then attaches folic-acid to a few of the hooks (folic-acid, being a vitamin, is received by cells in the body). Cancer cells have more vitamin receptors than normal cells, so Baker's vitamin-laden dendrimer will be absorbed by the cancer cell. To the rest of the hooks on the dendrimer, Baker places anti-cancer drugs that will be absorbed with the dendrimer into the cancer cell, thereby delivering the cancer drug to the cancer cell and nowhere else (Bullis 2006).

Surgery

At Rice University, a flesh welder is used to fuse two pieces of chicken meat into a single piece. The two pieces of chicken are placed together touching. A greenish liquid containing gold-coated nanoshells is dribbled along the seam. An infrared laser is traced along the seam, causing the two sides to weld together. This could solve the difficulties and blood leaks caused when the surgeon tries to restitch the arteries he/she has cut during a kidney or heart transplant. The flesh welder could meld the artery into a perfect seal.

In vivo/ Therapy

Nanodevices could be observed at work inside the body using MRI, especially if their components were manufactured using mostly ¹³C atoms rather than the natural ¹²C isotope of carbon, since ¹³C has a nonzero nuclear magnetic moment. Medical nanodevices would first be injected into a human body, and would then go to work in a specific organ or tissue mass. The doctor will monitor the progress, and make certain that the nanodevices have gotten to the correct target treatment region. The doctor wants to be able to scan a section of the body, and actually see the nanodevices congregated neatly around their target (a tumor mass, etc.) so that he or she can be sure that the procedure was successful. Tracking movement can help determine how well drugs are being distributed or how substances are metabolized. It is difficult to track a small group of cells throughout the body so scientists used to dye the cells. These dyes needed to be excited by light of a certain wavelength in order for them to light up. While different color dyes absorb different frequencies of light, there was a need for as many light sources as cells. A way around this problem is with luminescent tags. These tags are quantum dots attached to proteins that penetrate cell walls. The dots can be random in size, can be made of bio-inert material, and they demonstrate the nanoscale property that color is size-dependent. As a result, sizes are selected so that the frequency of light used to make a group of quantum dots fluoresce is an even multiple of the frequency required to make another group incandesce. Then both groups can be lit with a single light source. A quantum dot is a potential well that confines electrons in three dimensions to a region of the order of the electrons de Broglie wavelength in size, a few nanometers in a semiconductor. ...

In photodynamic therapy, a particle is placed within the body and is illuminated with light from the outside. The light gets absorbed by the particle and if the particle is metal, energy from the light will heat the particle and surrounding tissue. Light may also be used to produce high energy oxygen molecules which will chemically react with and destroy most organic molecules that are next to them (like tumors). This therapy is appealing for many reasons. It does not leave a “toxic trail” of reactive molecules throughout the body (chemotherapy) because it is directed where only the light is shined and the particles exist. Photodynamic therapy has potential for a noninvasive procedure for dealing with diseases, growths, and tumors. Shown is close up of surgeons hands in an operating room with a beam of light traveling along fiber optics for photodynamic therapy. ...

Nanorobots

The somewhat speculative claims about the possibility of using nanorobots [2] [3] in medicine, advocates say, would totally change the world of medicine once it is realized. Nanomedicine [4] [5] would make use of these nanorobots, introduced into the body, to repair or detect damages and infections. According to Robert Freitas of the Institute for Molecular Manufacturing, a typical blood borne medical nanorobot would be between 0.5-3 micrometres in size, because that is the maximum size possible due to capillary passage requirement. Carbon would be the primary element used to build these nanorobots due to the inherent strength and other characteristics of some forms of carbon (diamond/fullerene composites), and nanorobots would be fabricated in desktop nanofactories [6] specialized for this purpose. Cancer could be treated very effectively, according to nanomedicine advocates. Nanorobots could counter the problem of identifying and isolating cancer cells as they could be introduced into the bloodstream. These nanorobots would search out cancer affected cells using certain molecular markers. Medical nanorobots would then destroy these cells, and only these cells. Nanomedicines could be a very helpful and hopeful therapy for patients, since current treatments like radiation therapy and chemotherapy often end up destroying more healthy cells than cancerous ones. From this point of view, it provides a non-depressed therapy for cancer patients. Nanorobots could also be useful in precision tissue- and cell-targeted drug delivery [7] [8], in performing nanosurgery [9], and in treatments for hypoxemia and respiratory illness[10] [11], dentistry [12] [13], bacteremic infections[14], physical trauma [15], gene therapy via chromosome replacement therapy [16] [17], and even biological aging [18]. Indefinite lifespan is often predicted to be made available by nanomedicine. [19] Nanorobotics is the technology of creating machines or robots at or close to the scale of a nanometres (10-9 metres). ... For the chemical substances known as medicines, see medication. ... Robert A. Freitas Jr. ... Human blood smear: a - erythrocytes; b - neutrophil; c - eosinophil; d - lymphocyte. ... Blood flows from digestive system heart to arteries, which narrow into arterioles, and then narrow further still into capillaries. ... For other uses, see Carbon (disambiguation). ... This article is about the mineral. ... The Icosahedral Fullerene C540 C60 and C-60 redirect here. ... Varian Clinac 2100C Linear Accelerator Radiation therapy (or radiotherapy) is the medical use of ionizing radiation as part of cancer treatment to control malignant cells (not to be confused with radiology, the use of radiation in medical imaging and diagnosis). ... Chemotherapy is the use of chemical substances to treat disease. ... Ageing or aging is the process of getting older. ... Indefinite lifespan is a term used in the life extension movement to refer to the longevity of humans (and other lifeforms) under conditions in which aging can be effectively and completely prevented and treated. ...

Neuro-electronic Interfaces

Neuro-electronic interfaces are a visionary goal dealing with the construction of nanodevices that will permit computers to be joined and linked to the nervous system. This idea requires the building of a molecular structure that will permit control and detection of nerve impulses by an external computer. The computers will be able to interpret, register, and respond to signals the body gives off when it feels sensations. The demand for such structures is huge because many diseases involve the decay of the nervous system (ALS and multiple sclerosis). Also, many injuries and accidents may impair the nervous system resulting in dysfunctional systems and paraplegia. If computers could control the nervous system through neuro-electronic interface, problems that impair the system could be controlled so that effects of diseases and injuries could be overcome. Two considerations must be made when selecting the power source for such applications. They are refuelable and nonrefuelable strategies. A refuelable strategy implies energy is refilled continuously or periodically with external sonic, chemical, tethered, or electrical sources. A nonrefuelable strategy implies that all power is drawn from internal energy storage which would stop when all energy is drained.

One limitation to this innovation is the fact that electrical interference is a possibility. Electric fields, electromagnetic pulses (EMP), and stray fields from other in vivo electrical devices can all cause interference. Also, thick insulators are required to prevent electron leakage, and if high conductivity of the in vivo medium occurs there is a risk of sudden power loss and “shorting out.” Finally, thick wires are also needed to conduct substantial power levels without overheating. Little practical progress has been made even though research is happening. The wiring of the structure is extremely difficult because they must be positioned precisely in the nervous system so that it is able to monitor and respond to nervous signals. The structures that will provide the interface must also be compatible with the body’s immune system so that they will remain unaffected in the body for a long time. In addition, the structures must also sense ionic currents and be able to cause currents to flow backward. While the potential for these structures is amazing, there is no timetable for when they will be available. The term electromagnetic pulse (EMP) has the following meanings: electromagnetic radiation from an explosion (especially a nuclear explosion) or an intensely fluctuating magnetic field caused by Compton-recoil electrons and photoelectrons from photons scattered in the materials of the electronic or explosive device or in a surrounding medium. ...

Cell repair machines

Using drugs and surgery, doctors can only encourage tissues to repair themselves. With molecular machines, there will be more direct repairs. Cell repair will utilize the same tasks that living systems already prove possible. Access to cells is possible because biologists can stick needles into cells without killing them. Thus, molecular machines are capable of entering the cell. Also, all specific biochemical interactions show that molecular systems can recognize other molecules by touch, build or rebuild every molecule in a cell, and can disassemble damaged molecules. Finally, cells that replicate prove that molecular systems can assemble every system found in a cell. Therefore, since nature has demonstrated the basic operations needed to perform molecular-level cell repair, in the future, nanomachine based systems will be built that are able to enter cells, sense differences from healthy ones and make modifications to the structure.

The possibilities of these cell repair machines are impressive. Comparable to the size of viruses or bacteria, their compact parts will allow them to be more complex. The early machines will be specialized. As they open and close cell membranes or travel through tissue and enter cells and viruses, machines will only be able to correct a single molecular disorder like DNA damage or enzyme deficiency. Later, cell repair machines will be programmed with more abilities with the help of advanced AI systems.

Nanocomputers will be needed to guide these machines. These computers will direct machines to examine, take apart, and rebuild damaged molecular structures. Repair machines will be able to repair whole cells by working structure by structure. Then by working cell by cell and tissue by tissue, whole organs can be repaired. Finally, by working organ by organ, health is restored to the body. Cells damaged to the point of inactivity can be repaired because of the ability of molecular machines to build cells from scratch. Therefore, cell repair machines will free medicine from reliance on self repair.

A new wave of technology and medicine is being created and its impact on the world is going to be monumental. From the possible applications such as drug delivery and in vivo imaging to the potential machines of the future, advancements in nanomedicine are being made every day. It will not be long for the 10 billion dollar industry to explode into a 100 billion or 1 trillion dollar industry, and drug delivery, in vivo imaging and therapy is just the beginning.

External links

• Nanomedicine
• The International Journal of Nanomedicine
• Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews Volume 56, Issue 11, Pages 1527-1692 (22 September 2004) Intelligent Therapeutics: Biomimetic Systems and Nanotechnology in Drug Delivery

• Nanomedicine website
• Foresight Institute
• Nanomedicine Art Gallery
• General review of medical nanorobotics (non-technical)
• General review of nanomedicine (technical)
• Nanomedicine: Nanotechnology, Biology and Medicine
• Forward Look Report on Nanomedicine published by the European Science Foundation
• Impact of Nanotechnology on Biomedical Sciences
• Nanomedicine Laboratory
• Michigan Nanotechnology Institute for Medicine and Biological Sciences
• Companies and institutions involved in Nanomedicine
• Institute for NanoBioTechnology at Johns Hopkins University
• Nanobiomagnetics

is the 265th day of the year (266th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2004 (MMIV) was a leap year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ...

See also

• Nanotechnology in fiction
• Top-down and bottom-up design
• Nanosensor
• Photodynamic Therapy
• Impalefection

This is a list of references and appearances of Nanotechnology in works of fiction. ... Top-down and bottom-up are strategies of information processing and knowledge ordering, mostly involving software, and by extension other humanistic and scientific system theories (see systemics). ... Nanosensors are a technology that may exist in the future. ... Shown is close up of surgeons hands in an operating room with a beam of light traveling along fiber optics for photodynamic therapy. ... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ...

References

• Reviews in the journal Nanomedicine
• National Geographic magazine June 2006
• Nanotechnology:The future in Medicine 2006 by Rahul Shetty M.D. ISBN 0-9781573-0-3
• Nanomedicine, Volume I: Basic Capabilities 1999 by Robert A. Freitas Jr. ISBN-10: 157059645X (hardcover) ISBN-10: 1570596808 (softcover) [20]
• Nanomedicine, Volume IIA: Biocompatibility 2003 by Robert A. Freitas Jr. ISBN-10: 1570597006 [21]
• Engines of Creation: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology 1986 by K. Eric Drexler ISBN-10: 0385199732
• Nanotechnology: A Gentle Introduction to the Next Big Idea 2003 by Daniel Ratner and Mark Ratner ISBN-10: 0131014005
• Langar, Robert, David A. LaVan, Terry McGuire. “Small-scale systems for in vivo drug delivery.” Nature Biotechnology October 2006: 1184-1191.
• Bock, Anne-Katrin, Anwyn Dullaart, Volker Wagner, Axel Zweck. “The emerging nanomedicine landscape.” Nature Biotechnology October 2003: 1211-1217.
• Freitas, Robert A., Jr., “What is Nanomedicine?” Nanomedicine: Nanotech. Biol. Med. 1(March 2005):2-9. [22][23]
• Allen, Theresa M, and Peter R. Cullis. “Drug Delivery Systems: Entering the Mainstream.” Science 303 (2004): 1818-1822.
• Bullis, Kevin (Mar/Apr 2006). "Nanomedicine". Technology Review 109 (1): 58-59. Retrieved on 12/10/06. 
• (4/19/2004) "Nanoshells destroy tumors in mice". Chemical & Engineering News 82 (16): 35. Retrieved on 12/19/06.