This article forms part of the series Chemical warfare
(A subset of Weapons of mass destruction)
Lethal agents
Blood agents
Cyanogen chloride (CK)
Hydrogen cyanide (AC)
Blister agents
Lewisite (L)
Sulfur mustard gas (HD, H, HT, HL, HQ)
Nitrogen mustard gas (HN1, HN2, HN3)
Nerve agents
G-Agents
Tabun (GA), Sarin (GB) Soman (GD), Cyclosarin (GF)
GV
V-Agents
VE, VG, VM, VX
Novichok agents
Pulmonary agents
Chlorine
Chloropicrin (PS)
Phosgene (CG)
Diphosgene (DP)
"Non-lethal" agents
Incapacitating agents
Agent 15 (BZ)
Kolokol-1
Riot control agents
Pepper spray (OC)
CS gas
CN gas (mace)
CR gas This box: view • talk • edit

Nerve Agents (also known as nerve gases, though these chemicals are liquid at room temperature) are a class of phosphorus-containing organic chemicals (organophosphates) that disrupt the mechanism by which nerves transfer messages to organs. The disruption is caused by blocking acetylcholinesterase, an enzyme that normally relaxes the activity of acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter. Band The Nerve Agents were a unique horror themed Hardcore band from the U.S.A. formed by Timmy Stardust. ... Image File history File links WMD-chemical. ... Chemical warfare is warfare (and associated military operations) using the toxic properties of chemical substances to kill, injure or incapacitate an enemy. ... For the Xzibit album, see Weapons of Mass Destruction (album). ... A blood agent (also called a cyanogen agent) is a compound that prevents the normal transfer of oxygen from the blood to the body tissues, resulting in chemical asphyxiation. ... Cyanogen chloride, also known as CK, is a highly toxic blood agent first proposed for use in warfare by the French. ... R-phrases , , , , . S-phrases , , , , , , , , . Flash point −17. ... Blister agents are named for their ability to cause large, painful water blisters on the bodies of those affected. ... Lewisite is a chemical compound from a chemical family called arsines. ... The sulfur mustards, of which mustard gas is a member, are a class of related cytotoxic, vesicant chemical warfare agents with the ability to form large blisters on exposed skin. ... The nitrogen mustards are cytotoxic chemotherapy agents similar to mustard gas. ... Tabun or GA (Ethyl N,N-dimethylphosphoramidocyanidate) is an extremely toxic substance that is one of the worlds most dangerous military weapons. ... For other uses, see Sarin (disambiguation). ... Boiling point 198 °C (388 °F) Freezing/melting point −42 °C (−44 °F) Vapor pressure 0. ... Cyclosarin or GF (Cyclohexyl methylphosphonofluoridate) is an extremely toxic substance that is one of the worlds most dangerous weapons of war. ... Skeletal formula of GV Ball-and-stick model of GV GV (P-[2-(dimethylamino)ethyl]-N,N-dimethylphosphonamidic fluoride) is an organophosphate nerve agent. ... VE (S-(Diethylamino)ethyl O-ethyl ethylphosphonothioate) is a V-series nerve agent closely related to the better-known VX nerve gas. ... VG (also called Amiton or Tetram) is a V-series nerve agent closely related to the better-known VX nerve agent. ... VM (Phosphonothioic acid, methyl-, S-(2-(diethylamino)ethyl) O-ethyl ester) is a V-series nerve agent closely related to the better-known VX nerve agent. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Novichok (Russian новичок: Newcomer) is a series of nerve agents that were developed by the Soviet Union in the 1980s and 1990s and allegedly the most deadly nerve agents ever made. ... Categories: Chemical weapons | Stub ... General Name, symbol, number chlorine, Cl, 17 Chemical series halogens Group, period, block 17, 3, p Appearance yellowish green Standard atomic weight 35. ... Chloropicrin is a slightly oily, colorless or faintly yellow liquid of the formula CCl3NO2. ... Phosgene is a highly toxic chemical compound with the formula COCl2. ... Diphosgene (ClCO2CCl3) Diphosgene (Trichloromethyl chloroformate, ClCO2CCl3) is a chemical originally developed for chemical warfare, a few months after the first use of phosgene. ... The term incapacitating agent is defined by the U.S. Department of Defense as An agent that produces temporary physiological or mental effects, or both, which will render individuals incapable of concerted effort in the performance of their assigned duties. ... Diagram of a BZ molecule 3-quinuclidinyl benzilate (QNB), empirical formula C21H23NO3, full chemical name 1-azabicyclo[2. ... KOLOKOL-1 is an opiate-derived incapacitating agent. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Pepper spray (also known as OC spray (from Oleoresin Capsicum), OC gas, capsicum spray, or oleoresin capsicum) is a lachrymatory agent (a chemical compound that irritates the eyes to cause tears, pain, and even temporary blindness) that is used in riot control, crowd control and personal self-defense, including defense... Related Compounds Related compounds SDBS Supplementary data page Structure and properties n, εr, etc. ... Not to be confused with hydrogen cyanide, HCN. CN, or chloroacetophenone, is a substance used as a riot control agent. ... CR gas or dibenzoxazepine, chemically dibenz[b,f][1,4]oxazepine, is an incapacitating agent and a lachrymatory agent. ... General Name, symbol, number phosphorus, P, 15 Chemical series nonmetals Group, period, block 15, 3, p Appearance waxy white/ red/ black/ colorless Standard atomic weight 30. ... Organic chemistry is a specific discipline within chemistry which involves the scientific study of the structure, properties, composition, reactions, and preparation (by synthesis or by other means) of chemical compounds consisting primarily of carbon and hydrogen, which may contain any number of other elements, including nitrogen, oxygen, halogens as well... An organophosphate (sometimes abbreviated OP) is the general name for esters of phosphoric acid and is one of the organophosphorus compounds. ... In biochemistry, cholinesterase is a term which refers to one of the two enzymes (EC 3. ... Ribbon diagram of the enzyme TIM, surrounded by the space-filling model of the protein. ... The chemical compound acetylcholine, often abbreviated as ACh, was the first neurotransmitter to be identified. ... Chemical structure of D-aspartic acid, a common amino acid neurotransmitter. ...

As chemical weapons, they are classified as weapons of mass destruction by the United Nations according to UN Resolution 687, and their production and stockpiling was outlawed by the Chemical Weapons Convention of 1993; the Chemical Weapons Convention officially took effect on April 29, 1997. ^[1] Poisoning by a nerve agent leads to contraction of pupils, profuse salivation, convulsions, involuntary urination and defecation, and eventual death by asphyxiation as control is lost over respiratory muscles. Some nerve agents are readily vaporized or aerosolized and the primary portal of entry into the body is the respiratory system. Nerve agents can also be absorbed through the skin, requiring that those likely to be subjected to such agents wear a full body suit in addition to a respirator. Dressing the wounded during a gas attack by Austin O. Spare, 1918. ... Weapons of Mass Destruction is also the name of rapper Xzibits 2004 album. ... UN and U.N. redirect here. ... United Nations Security Council Resolution 687 was adopted at the 2981st meeting on April 3, 1991, to welcome the restoration of the independence of Kuwait. ... Chemical Weapons Convention Opened for signature January 13, 1993 in Paris Entered into force April 29, 1997 Conditions for entry into force Ratification by 50 states and the convening of a Preparatory Commission Parties 181 (as of Oct. ... Year 1993 (MCMXCIII) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display full 1993 Gregorian calendar). ... is the 119th day of the year (120th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... For the band, see 1997 (band). ... It has been suggested that gas mask be merged into this article or section. ...

Biological effects

As their name suggests, nerve agents attack the nervous system of the human body. All such agents function the same way: by interrupting the breakdown of the neurotransmitters that signal muscles to contract, preventing them from relaxing. The Human Nervous System. ... Neurotransmitters are chemicals that are used to relay, amplify and modulate electrical signals between a presynaptic and a postsynaptic neuron. ...

Initial symptoms following exposure to sarin (and other nerve agents) are a runny nose, tightness in the chest and constriction of the pupils. Soon after, the victim will then have difficulty breathing, and will experience nausea and drooling. As the victim continues to lose control of his or her bodily functions, he or she will involuntarily salivate, lacrimate, urinate, defecate, experience gastrointestinal pain, and emesis (vomiting). This phase is followed by twitching and jerking, and ultimately the victim will become comatose and suffocate as a consequence of convulsive spasms. For other uses, see Sarin (disambiguation). ...

The effects of nerve agents are very long lasting and cumulative (increased successive exposures), and survivors of nerve agent poisoning almost invariably suffer chronic neurological damage.^{[dubious – discuss]}

Mechanism of action

When a normally functioning motor nerve is stimulated it releases the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, which transmits the impulse to a muscle or organ. Once the impulse is sent, the enzyme acetylcholine esterase immediately breaks down the acetylcholine in order to allow the muscle or organ to relax. Motor nerves allow the brain to stimulate muscle contraction. ... Chemical structure of D-aspartic acid, a common amino acid neurotransmitter. ... The chemical compound acetylcholine, often abbreviated as ACh, was the first neurotransmitter to be identified. ... In biochemistry, cholinesterase is a term which refers to one of the two enzymes (EC 3. ...

Nerve agents disrupt the nervous system by inhibiting the enzyme acetylcholine esterase by forming a covalent bond with the site of the enzyme where acetylcholine normally undergoes hydrolysis (breaks down). The result is that acetylcholine builds up and continues to act so that any nerve impulses are continually transmitted, and muscle contractions do not stop. Ribbon diagram of the enzyme TIM, surrounded by the space-filling model of the protein. ... Acetylcholinesterase In biochemistry, cholinesterase is a term which refers to one of the two enzymes: Acetylcholinesterase (EC 3. ... Covalent redirects here. ... The chemical compound acetylcholine, often abbreviated as ACh, was the first neurotransmitter to be identified. ... Hydrolysis is a chemical reaction or process in which a chemical compound is broken down by reaction with water. ...

This same action also occurs at the gland and organ levels, resulting in uncontrolled drooling, tearing of the eyes (lacrimation), and excess production of mucous from the nose (rhinorrhea). Tears trickling down the cheeks Lacrimation is the bodys process of producing tears, which are a liquid to clean and lubricate the eyes. ... Rhinorrhea, commonly known as a runny nose, is a symptom of the common cold and allergies (hay fever). ...

Antidotes

Atropine and related anticholinergic drugs act as antidotes to nerve agent poisoning because they block acetylcholine receptors, but they are poisonous in their own right. (Some synthetic anticholinergics, such as biperiden may counteract the central symptoms of nerve agent poisoning better than atropine, since they pass the blood-brain barrier better than atropine.) While these drugs will save the life of a person affected with nerve agents, that person may be incapacitated briefly or for an extended period of time, depending on the amount of exposure. The endpoint of atropine administration is the clearing of bronchial secretions. Atropine for field use by military personnel is often loaded in an autoinjector, for ease of use in stressful conditions (See Mark I NAAK). Atropine is a tropane alkaloid extracted from the deadly nightshade (Atropa belladonna) and other plants of the family Solanaceae. ... An anticholinergic agent is a member of a class of pharmaceutical compounds which serve to reduce the effects mediated by acetylcholine in the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system. ... // General Remarks and Chemistry Biperiden is an antiparkinsonian agent of the anticholinergic type. ... Atropine is a tropane alkaloid extracted from the deadly nightshade (Atropa belladonna) and other plants of the family Solanaceae. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... The Mark I NAAK, or MARK I Kit, is United States military nomenclature for the Nerve Agent Antidote Kit. It is a dual-chamber auto-injector: Two anti-nerve agent drugs -- atropine sulfate and pralidoxime chloride -- each in injectible form, constitute the kit. ...

Pralidoxime chloride, also known as 2-PAM chloride, is also used as an antidote. Rather than counteracting the initial effects of the nerve agent on the nervous system like atropine, pralidoxime chloride actually re-activates the poisoned enzyme (acetylcholinesterase) by "scavenging" the phosphoryl rest attached on the functional hydroxyl group of the enzyme. Though safer to use, it takes a longer time to have an effect. // Overview Structure of the molecule pralidoxime Pralidoxime belongs to a family of compounds, called oximes that bind to organophosphate inactivated acetylcholinesterase. ... Atropine is a tropane alkaloid extracted from the deadly nightshade (Atropa belladonna) and other plants of the family Solanaceae. ...

Recent scientific breakthroughs have seen antidotes being produced in the milk of genetically modified goats.^[1]

Classes

There are two main classes of nerve agents. The members of the two classes share similar properties, and are given both a common name (such as sarin), and a two-character NATO identifier (such as GB). This article is about the military alliance. ...

G-Series

The G-series is thus named because German scientists first synthesized them. All of the compounds in this class were discovered and synthesized during or soon after World War II, led by Dr. Gerhard Schrader (later under the employment of I.G. Farben). Dr. Gerhard Schrader (25 Feb. ... IG Farben (short for Interessen-Gemeinschaft Farbenindustrie AG) was a German conglomerate of companies formed in 1925 and even earlier during World War I. IG Farben held nearly a total monopoly on the chemical production, later during the time of Nazi Germany. ...

This series is the first and oldest family of nerve agents. The first nerve agent ever synthesised was GA (tabun) in 1936. GB (sarin) was discovered next in 1938, followed by GD (soman) in 1944 and finally the more obscure GF (cyclosarin) in 1949. GB was the only G agent that was fielded by the USA as a munition, specifically in rockets, aerial bombs, howitzer rounds, and gun rounds^[2]. Tabun or GA (Ethyl N,N-dimethylphosphoramidocyanidate) is an extremely toxic substance that is one of the worlds most dangerous military weapons. ... 1936 (MCMXXXVI) was a leap year starting on Wednesday (link will take you to calendar). ... For other uses, see Sarin (disambiguation). ... Year 1938 (MCMXXXVIII) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Boiling point 198 °C (388 °F) Freezing/melting point −42 °C (−44 °F) Vapor pressure 0. ... Year 1944 (MCMXLIV) was a leap year starting on Saturday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Cyclosarin or GF (Cyclohexyl methylphosphonofluoridate) is an extremely toxic substance that is one of the worlds most dangerous weapons of war. ... Year 1949 (MCMXLIX) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ...

V-Series

Dr. Ranajit Ghosh, a chemist at the Plant Protection Laboratories of the British firm Imperial Chemical Industries was investigating a class of organophosphate compounds (organophosphate esters of substituted aminoethanethiols). Like the earlier investigator of organophosphate, Dr. Schrader, Dr. Ghosh found that they were quite effective pesticides. In 1954, ICI put one of them on the market under the trade name Amiton. It was subsequently withdrawn, as it was too toxic for safe use. The toxicity did not go unnoticed, and some of the more toxic materials had, in fact been seen to the British facility at Porton Down for evaluation. After the evaluation was complete, several members of this class of compounds would become a new group of nerve agents, the V agents (depending on who you talk to, the V stands for Victory, Venomous, or Viscous). The best known of these is probably VX, with the Russian V-gas coming a close second (Amiton is largely forgotten as VG). This class of compounds is also sometimes known as Tammelin's esters, after Lars-Erik Tammelin of the Swedish Institute of Defense Research. Dr. Tammelin was also conducting research on this class of compounds in 1952, but for obvious reasons he did not publicize his work widely.

The V-series is the second family of nerve agents (the V apparently standing for "venomous"), and also contains four members: VE, VG, VM, VX. The most studied agent in this family, VX, was invented in the 1950s at Porton Down in the United Kingdom. The other agents in this series have not been studied extensively, and information about them is limited. It is known, however, that the V-series agents are about 10 times more toxic than the G-agent sarin (GB). VE (S-(Diethylamino)ethyl O-ethyl ethylphosphonothioate) is a V-series nerve agent closely related to the better-known VX nerve gas. ... VG (also called Amiton or Tetram) is a V-series nerve agent closely related to the better-known VX nerve agent. ... VM (Phosphonothioic acid, methyl-, S-(2-(diethylamino)ethyl) O-ethyl ester) is a V-series nerve agent closely related to the better-known VX nerve agent. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Year 1950 (MCML) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Defence Science and Technology Laboratory, Porton Down, or often known more simply as Porton Down, is a United Kingdom government facility for military research, including CBRN defence. ... For other uses, see Sarin (disambiguation). ...

All of the V-agents are persistent agents, meaning that these agents do not degrade or wash away easily, and can therefore remain on clothes and other surfaces for long periods. In use, this allows the V-agents to be used to blanket terrain to guide or curtail the movement of enemy ground forces. The consistency of these agents is similar to oil; as a result, the contact hazard for V-agents is primarily - but not exclusively - dermal. VX was the only V-series agent that was fielded by the USA as a munition, consisting of rockets, artillery shells, and landmines^[2]. A shell is a projectile, which, as opposed to a bullet, is not solid but contains an explosive or other filling. ...

Novichok agents

Main article: Novichok agent

The Novichok (Russian for "newcomer") agents are a recently developed series of organophosphate compounds developed in the Soviet Union. The advantage to using new agents is that they have never been previously encountered. As a result: Novichok (Russian новичок: Newcomer) is a series of nerve agents that were developed by the Soviet Union in the 1980s and 1990s and allegedly the most deadly nerve agents ever made. ...

• potentially, no specific treaties banning their possession or use exist
• existing detection and warning devices cannot detect these agents on the battlefield
• existing protective equipment (eg gasmasks) will not protect troops from being poisoned

Insecticides

A number of insecticides, the phenothiazines, organophosphates such as dichlorvos, malathion and parathion, are nerve agents. The metabolism of insects is sufficiently different from mammals that these compounds have little effect on humans and other mammals at proper doses; but there is considerable concern about the effects of long-term exposure to these chemicals by farm workers and animals alike. At high enough doses, however, acute toxicity and death can occur through the same mechanism as other nerve agents. Organophosphate pesticide poisoning is a major cause of disability in many developing countries, and is often the preferred method of suicide. BMJ Phenothiazines are the largest of the 5 main classes of antipsychotic drugs. ... Phenothiazines are the largest of the 5 main classes of antipsychotic drugs. ... An organophosphate (sometimes abbreviated OP) is the general name for esters of phosphoric acid and is one of the organophosphorus compounds. ... Dichlorvos (2,2-dichlorovinyl dimethyl phosphate) is an insecticide. ... Malathion is a organophosphate parasympathomimetic which binds irreversibly to cholinesterase. ... // Properties and uses Parathion, or diethyl parathion, is a very potent insecticide and acaricide. ... Orders Subclass Apterygota Archaeognatha (bristletails) Thysanura (silverfish) Subclass Pterygota Infraclass Paleoptera (Probably paraphyletic) Ephemeroptera (mayflies) Odonata (dragonflies and damselflies) Infraclass Neoptera Superorder Exopterygota Grylloblattodea (ice-crawlers) Mantophasmatodea (gladiators) Plecoptera (stoneflies) Embioptera (webspinners) Zoraptera (angel insects) Dermaptera (earwigs) Orthoptera (grasshoppers, etc) Phasmatodea (stick insects) Blattodea (cockroaches) Isoptera (termites) Mantodea (mantids) Psocoptera... Subclasses & Infraclasses Subclass †Allotheria* Subclass Prototheria Subclass Theria Infraclass †Trituberculata Infraclass Metatheria Infraclass Eutheria Mammals (class Mammalia) are warm-blooded, vertebrate animals characterized by the presence of sweat glands, including those that produce milk, and by the presence of: hair, three middle ear bones used in hearing, and a neocortex... In medicine, an acute disease is a disease with either or both of: a rapid onset; a short course (as opposed to a chronic course). ... Pesticide poisonings, where chemicals intended to control a pest affect non-target organisms such as humans, wildlife, or bees. ...

Lately, concern has also been expressed that commercial pilots, flight attendants, and frequent fliers are being poisoned by the organophosphate jet engine oil leaking into the aircraft air conditioning system. [2]

History

The discovery of nerve agents

This first class of nerve agents, the so-called G-Series, was accidentally discovered in Germany on December 23, 1936 by a research team headed by Dr. Gerhard Schrader. Since 1934, Schrader had been in charge of a laboratory in Leverkusen to develop new types of insecticides for IG Farben. While working toward his goal of improved insecticide, Schrader experimented with numerous fluorine-containing compounds, eventually leading to the preparation of tabun. is the 357th day of the year (358th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1936 (MCMXXXVI) was a leap year starting on Wednesday (link will take you to calendar). ... Dr. Gerhard Schrader (25 Feb. ... Year 1934 (MCMXXXIV) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display full 1934 calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Leverkusen is a city in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. ... It has been suggested that ovicide be merged into this article or section. ... IG Farben (short for Interessen-Gemeinschaft Farbenindustrie AG) was a German conglomerate of companies formed in 1925 and even earlier during World War I. IG Farben held nearly a total monopoly on the chemical production, later during the time of Nazi Germany. ... Distinguished from fluorene and fluorone. ... Tabun or GA (Ethyl N,N-dimethylphosphoramidocyanidate) is an extremely toxic substance that is one of the worlds most dangerous military weapons. ...

In experiments, tabun was extremely potent against insects: as little as 5 ppm of tabun killed all the leaf lice he used in his initial experiment. In January 1937, Schrader observed the effects of nerve agents on human beings first-hand when a drop of tabun spilled onto a lab bench. Within minutes he and his laboratory assistant began to experience miosis (constriction of the pupils of the eyes), dizziness, and severe shortness of breath. It took them three weeks to recover fully. Parts per million (ppm) is a measure of concentration that is used where low levels of concentration are significant. ... Year 1937 (MCMXXXVII) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Miosis should not be confused with meiosis, the cellular division process involved in sexual reproduction. ...

In 1935 the Nazi leadership had passed a decree that required all inventions of possible military significance to be reported to the Ministry of War, so in May of 1937 Schrader sent a sample of tabun to the chemical warfare (CW) section of the Army Weapons Office in Berlin-Spandau. Dr. Schrader was summoned to the Wehrmacht chemical lab in Berlin to give a demonstration, after which Schrader's patent application and all related research was classified. Colonel Rüdiger, head of the CW section, ordered the construction of new laboratories for the further investigation of tabun and other organophosphate compounds, and Schrader soon moved to a new laboratory at Wuppertal-Elberfeld in the Ruhr valley to continue his research in secret throughout World War II. 1935 (MCMXXXV) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar). ... Nazism in history Nazi ideology Nazism and race Outside Germany Related subjects Lists Politics Portal         Nazism or National Socialism (German: Nationalsozialismus), refers primarily to the ideology and practices of the Nazi Party (National Socialist German Workers Party, German: Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei or NSDAP) under Adolf Hitler. ... This articles deals with the British ministry, see defence minister for other countries. ... Year 1937 (MCMXXXVII) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Chemical warfare is warfare (and associated military operations) using the toxic properties of chemical substances to kill, injure or incapacitate an enemy. ... Spandau is the westernmost borough (Bezirk) of Berlin, situated at the confluence of the Havel and Spree rivers and along the western bank of the Havel. ... Combatants Allied powers: China France Great Britain Soviet Union United States and others Axis powers: Germany Italy Japan and others Commanders Chiang Kai-shek Charles de Gaulle Winston Churchill Joseph Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Adolf Hitler Benito Mussolini Hideki Tōjō Casualties Military dead: 17,000,000 Civilian dead: 33,000...

Three of the most widely known agents, sarin (GB), soman (GD), and tabun (GA) were also developed during this period for use as chemical warfare agents, but were not used in combat. Cyclosarin (GF) was developed somewhat later, in 1949, by the same team. The prefix "G" was used in the names of all the chemicals because they were of German origin^[3]. For other uses, see Sarin (disambiguation). ... Boiling point 198 °C (388 °F) Freezing/melting point −42 °C (−44 °F) Vapor pressure 0. ... Tabun or GA (Ethyl N,N-dimethylphosphoramidocyanidate) is an extremely toxic substance that is one of the worlds most dangerous weapons of war. ... Chemical warfare is warfare (and associated military operations) using the toxic properties of chemical substances to kill, injure or incapacitate an enemy. ... Cyclosarin or GF (Cyclohexyl methylphosphonofluoridate) is an extremely toxic substance that is one of the worlds most dangerous weapons of war. ... Year 1949 (MCMXLIX) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ...

The Nazi mass production of tabun

In 1939, a pilot plant for tabun production was set up at Munster-Lager, on Luneberg heath near the German Army proving grounds at Raubkammer. In January 1940, construction began on a secret plant, code named "Hochwerk" (High factory), for the production of tabun at Dyherrnfurth an der Oder (now Brzeg Dolny in Poland), on the Oder River 40 km (24.9 miles) from Breslau (now Wrocław) in Silesia. Year 1939 (MCMXXXIX) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... Year 1940 (MCMXL) was a leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full 1940 calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Brzeg Dolny (German: Dyhernfurt) is a town in the Lower Silesian Voivodship of southern Poland. ... The Oder (known in Czech, Slovak and Polish as Odra) is a river in Central Europe. ... Wrocław. ... Motto: Miasto spotkaÅ„ (the meeting place) Coordinates: , Country Poland Voivodeship Lower Silesian Powiat city county Gmina WrocÅ‚aw Established 10th century City Rights 1262 Government  - Mayor RafaÅ‚ Dutkiewicz Area  - City 292. ... Silesia (English pronunciation [], Czech: ; German: ; Latin: ; Polish: ; Silesian: Åšlůnsk) is a historical region in central Europe, located along the upper and middle Oder River, upper Vistula River, and along the Sudetes, Carpathian (Silesian Beskids) mountain range. ...

The plant was large, covering an area of 2.4 by 0.8 km (1.5 by 0.5 miles), and was completely self-contained, synthesizing all intermediates as well as the final product, tabun. The factory even had an underground plant for filling munitions, which were then stored at Krappitz (now Krapowice) in Upper Silesia. The plant was operated by Anorgana GmbH, a subsidiary of IG Farben, as were all other chemical weapon agent production plants in Germany at the time. IG Farben (short for Interessen-Gemeinschaft Farbenindustrie AG) was a German conglomerate of companies formed in 1925 and even earlier during World War I. IG Farben held nearly a total monopoly on the chemical production, later during the time of Nazi Germany. ... Early detection of chemical agents Sociopolitical climate of chemical warfare While the study of chemicals and their military uses was widespread in China, the use of toxic materials has historically been viewed with mixed emotions and some disdain in the West (especially when the enemy were doing it). ...

Because of the plant's deep secrecy and the difficult nature of the production process, it took from January 1940 until June 1942 for the plant to become fully operational. Many of tabun's chemical precursors were so corrosive that reaction chambers not lined with quartz or silver soon became useless. Tabun itself was so hazardous that the final processes had to be performed while enclosed in double glass-lined chambers with a stream of pressurized air circulating between the walls. Year 1940 (MCMXL) was a leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full 1940 calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1942 (MCMXLII) was a common year starting on Thursday (the link will display the full 1942 calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ...

3,000 German nationals were employed at Hochwerk, all equipped with respirators and clothing constructed of a poly-layered rubber/cloth/rubber sandwich that was destroyed after the tenth wearing. Despite all precautions, there were over 300 accidents before production even began, and at least 10 workers died during the 2.5 years of operation. Some incidents cited in A Higher Form of Killing: The Secret History of Chemical and Biological Warfare are as follows: It has been suggested that gas mask be merged into this article or section. ... Clothing protects the vulnerable nude human body from the extremes of weather, other features of our environment, and for safety reasons. ...

• Four pipe fitters had liquid tabun drain onto them; they died before their rubber suits could be removed.
• A worker had 2 liters of tabun pour down the neck of his rubber suit; he died within 2 minutes.
• Seven workers were hit in the face with a stream of tabun of such force that the liquid was forced behind their respirators; only two survived despite heroic resuscitation measures.

The plant produced between 10,000 and 30,000 tons of tabun before its capture by the Soviet Army ^[3]. For other meanings of CPR, see CPR (disambiguation). ...

Nerve agents in Nazi Germany

In mid-1939, sarin was invented, and the formula for the agent was passed to the Chemical Warfare section of the German Army Weapons Office, which ordered that it be brought into mass production for wartime use. A number of pilot plants were built, and a high-production facility was under construction (but was not finished) by the end of World War II. Estimates for total sarin production by Nazi Germany range from 500 kg to 10 tons. Year 1939 (MCMXXXIX) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... For other uses, see Sarin (disambiguation). ... Chemical warfare is warfare (and associated military operations) using the toxic properties of chemical substances to kill, injure or incapacitate an enemy. ... Combatants Allied powers: China France Great Britain Soviet Union United States and others Axis powers: Germany Italy Japan and others Commanders Chiang Kai-shek Charles de Gaulle Winston Churchill Joseph Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Adolf Hitler Benito Mussolini Hideki Tōjō Casualties Military dead: 17,000,000 Civilian dead: 33,000...

During that time, German intelligence believed that the Allies also knew of these compounds, assuming that because these compounds were not discussed in the Allies' scientific journals information about them was being suppressed. Though sarin, tabun and soman were incorporated into artillery shells, the German government ultimately decided not to use nerve agents against Allied targets. The Allies didn't learn of these agents until shells filled with them were captured towards the end of the war. Intelligence (abbreviated or ) is the process and the result of gathering information and analyzing it to answer questions or obtain advance warnings needed to plan for the future. ... Look up ally in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... For other uses, see Sarin (disambiguation). ... Tabun or GA (Ethyl N,N-dimethylphosphoramidocyanidate) is an extremely toxic substance that is one of the worlds most dangerous weapons of war. ... Boiling point 198 °C (388 °F) Freezing/melting point −42 °C (−44 °F) Vapor pressure 0. ... For other uses, see Artillery (disambiguation). ...

This is detailed in Joseph Borkin's book The Crime and Punishment of IG Farben:

Speer, who was strongly opposed to the introduction of tabun, flew Otto Ambros, I.G.'s authority on poison gas as well as synthetic rubber, to the meeting. Hitler asked Ambros, "What is the other side doing about poison gas?" Ambros explained that the enemy, because of its greater access to ethylene, probably had a greater capacity to produce mustard gas than Germany did. Hitler interrupted to explain that he was not referring to traditional poison gases: "I understand that the countries with petroleum are in a position to make more [mustard gas], but Germany has a special gas, tabun. In this we have a monopoly in Germany." He specifically wanted to know whether the enemy had access to such a gas and what it was doing in this area. To Hitler's disappointment Ambros replied, "I have justified reasons to assume that tabun, too, is known abroad. I know that tabun was publicized as early as 1902, that Sarin was patented, and that these substances appeared in patents. (...) Ambros was informing Hitler of an extraordinary fact about one of Germany's most secret weapons. The essential nature of tabun and sarin had already been disclosed in the technical journals as far back as 1902, and I.G. had patented both products in 1937 and 1938. Ambros then warned Hitler that if Germany used tabun, it must face the possibility that the Allies could produce this gas in much larger quantities. Upon receiving this discouraging report, Hitler abruptly left the meeting. The nerve gases would not be used, for the time being at least, although they would continue to be produced and tested. For the son of Albert Speer, also an architect, see Albert Speer (the younger). ... Tabun or GA (Ethyl N,N-dimethylphosphoramidocyanidate) is an extremely toxic substance that is one of the worlds most dangerous weapons of war. ... IG Farben (short for Interessen-Gemeinschaft Farbenindustrie AG) was a German conglomerate of companies formed in 1925 and even earlier during World War I. IG Farben held nearly a total monopoly on the chemical production, later during the time of Nazi Germany. ... Ethylene (or IUPAC name ethene) is the chemical compound with the formula C2H4. ... Airborne exposure limit 0. ... Year 1902 (MCMII) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Tuesday [1] of the 13-day-slower Julian calendar). ... IG Farben (short for Interessen-Gemeinschaft Farbenindustrie AG) was a German conglomerate of companies formed in 1925 and even earlier during World War I. IG Farben held nearly a total monopoly on the chemical production, later during the time of Nazi Germany. ... For other uses, see Patent (disambiguation). ... Year 1937 (MCMXXXVII) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1938 (MCMXXXVIII) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ...

– Joseph Borkin, The Crime and Punishment of IG Farben

The secret gets out

After World War II, the Allies recovered German artillery shells containing the three German nerve agents of the day, prompting further research into nerve agents by the former Allies. In 1952, researchers in Porton Down, England invented the VX nerve agent, inspired by the commercial pesticide Amiton, later reclassified as VG. The UK soon unilaterally abandoned the chemical weapons and chemical weapons research. In 1958 the British government traded their VX technology with the United States of America in exchange for information on thermonuclear weapons; by 1961 the US was producing large amounts of VX, and performed its own nerve agent research. The four agents (VE, VG, VM, VX) are collectively known as the "V-Series" class of nerve agents. Year 1952 (MCMLII) was a leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Defence Science and Technology Laboratory, Porton Down, or often known more simply as Porton Down, is a United Kingdom government facility for military research, including CBRN defence. ... For other uses, see England (disambiguation). ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Skeletal formula of VG Ball-and-stick model of VG VG (O,O-Diethyl-S-[2-(diethylamino)ethyl] phosphorothioate) (also called Amiton or Tetram) is a V-series nerve agent chemically similar to the better-known VX nerve agent. ... VG (also called Amiton or Tetram) is a V-series nerve agent closely related to the better-known VX nerve agent. ... Jan. ... The mushroom cloud of the atomic bombing of Nagasaki, Japan, in 1945 lifted nuclear fallout some 18 km (60,000 feet) above the epicenter. ... Year 1961 (MCMLXI) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ...

Since World War II

Since World War II, the only large scale use of chemical weapons, including nerve agents, was Iraq's chemical war against Iran (Iran-Iraq war of 1981-1988); the Kurdish village of Halabja was exposed to chemical weapons, reportedly including tabun. Nerve agents were not used by Iraq in the Gulf War, though a number of U.S. and UK personnel were exposed to them when the Khamisiyah chemical depot was destroyed. This and the widespread use of anticholinergic drugs as a protective treatment against nerve gas attack has been proposed as a possible cause of Gulf war syndrome. Combatants  Iran Patriotic Union of Kurdistan Iraq Peoples Mujahedin of Iran Commanders Ruhollah Khomeini Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani Ali Shamkhani Mostafa Chamran â€  Saddam Hussein Ali Hassan al-Majid Strength 305,000 soldiers 500,000 Pasdaran and Basij militia 900 tanks 1,000 armored vehicles 3,000 artillery pieces 470 aircraft... Victims of the gas attack by Iraqi forces in 1988 Halabja (Arabic: , Kurdish: Helepçe) is a Kurdish town in Iraq about 150 miles northeast of Baghdad and 8-10 miles from the Iranian border. ... Tabun or GA (Ethyl N,N-dimethylphosphoramidocyanidate) is an extremely toxic substance that is one of the worlds most dangerous military weapons. ... For other uses, see Iraq war (disambiguation). ... Gulf War syndrome (GWS) or Gulf War illness (GWI) is the name given to an illness with symptoms including increases in the rate of immune system disorders and birth defects, reported by combat veterans of the 1991 Persian Gulf War. ...

One of the most widely publicised uses of nerve agents was the 1995 terrorist attack in which operatives of the group Aum Shinrikyo released sarin into the Tokyo subway system (see Sarin gas attack on the Tokyo subway). Aum Shinrikyo, now known as Aleph, is a Japanese religious group founded by Shoko Asahara. ... For other uses, see Sarin (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Tokyo (disambiguation). ... A rapid transit, underground, subway, tube, elevated, or metro(politan) system is a railway — usually in an urban area — with a high capacity and frequency of service, and grade separation from other traffic. ... A wanted poster in Japan. ...

Ocean disposal of chemical weapons

In 1972, The United States Congress banned the practice of disposing chemical weapons into the ocean. However 32,000 tons of nerve and mustard agents had already been dumped into the ocean waters off of the United States by the U.S. Army. According to a 1998 report created by William Brankowitz, a deputy project manager in the U.S. Army Chemical Materials Agency, the Army created at least 26 chemical weapons dumpsites in the ocean off of at least 11 states on both the west and east coasts. Additionally due to poor records, currently they only know the rough whereabouts of half of them.

It is unknown how these dumps of chemical weapons have affected the ocean ecology—it may be responsible for some of the decline in fish populations over the past decades, but no evidence has yet proved a causal relationship between dumping and fish population decline. The steel containers they are contained within face a variable rate of decay and no one is really certain where or how deep they were dumped. If a nerve agent leaks into the ocean, it can last up to six weeks, during which time it will kill every susceptible organism it touches before it breaks down into its nonlethal chemical components.

Popular culture

As a weapon of fear and terror, nerve agents are quickly becoming a staple in the plots of television, cinema, and video games. In most implementations of this plot, a shadowy terrorist organization obtains a quantity of nerve agent and threatens to release it in a population center.

A fictional nerve agent, ZV, is an integral part of the story line for John Lange's (a pseudonym of Michael Crichton) 1972 novel Binary. The effects of this agent were the same as the V-series agents and the book mentions these other agents although it does not mention other existing binary nerve agents such as the G-series or VX. Michael Crichton, pronounced [1], (born October 23, 1942) is an American author, film producer, film director, and television producer. ... Binary is a techno-thriller novel written by Michael Crichton in 1972. ...

In Mobile Suit Zeta Gundam, a fictional nerve agent called G3 is used against space colonists by the Earth Federation's Titans organization, setting off a chain of events culminating in the destruction of said group. Zeta Gundam redirects here. ... This page is a candidate for speedy deletion, because: it is patent nonsense. ...

Nerve agents are among the armaments of the future Colonial Marines in the 1986 film Aliens, in which the character Vasquez suggests the use of fictional "CN-20" against an alien hive. Aliens is a 1986 science fiction/action/horror film starring Sigourney Weaver, Michael Biehn, Lance Henriksen, Carrie Henn, Bill Paxton and Paul Reiser. ...

In the 1996 action movie, The Rock, a retired US Marine Brigadier General blackmails the government by threatening to attack San Francisco with rockets armed with VX gas. The film contained numerous inaccuracies, not the least of which including the description (and visual effects) of how VX affects a person: "your muscles freeze, you can't breathe, you spasm so hard you break your own back, spit your guts out--but that's after your skin melts off." Unlike the movie, atropine carried by actual U.S. military personnel is in the form of a sprung "auto-injector" which is applied to the thigh (not a long needle jabbed into the heart), and it is always followed by another injector containing 2-PAM Chloride. Also, and perhaps more glaringly erroneous (though theatrically horrific), VX does not melt skin. The introduction to this article provides insufficient context for those unfamiliar with the subject matter. ... The Rock is an action movie released on Friday, June 7, 1996 that takes place on Alcatraz Island. ... United States Marine Corps Emblem The United States Marine Corps (USMC) is the second smallest of the five branches of the United States armed forces, with 170,000 active and 40,000 reserve Marines as of 2002. ... A Brigadier General, or one-star general, is the lowest rank of general officer in the United States and some other countries, ranking just above Colonel and just below Major General. ... This page is a candidate for speedy deletion. ... The VX nerve agent is the most well-known of the V-series of nerve agents. ... Atropine is a tropane alkaloid extracted from the deadly nightshade (Atropa belladonna) and other plants of the family Solanaceae. ... Structure of the molecule pralidoxime Pralidoxime belongs to a family of compounds, called oximes that bind to organophosphate inactivated acetylcholinesterase. ...

In the 2002 movie XXX, a terrorist group called Anarchy-99 produces a fictitious binary nerve agent called "Silent Night," which decomposed and became harmless when passed through water. XXX (also written xXx), pronounced Triple X, is a 2002 action movie starring Vin Diesel. ...

In the movie Saw II, sarin is the nerve agent that the Jigsaw Killer uses as part of his game. However, his brief description of sarin's effects is inaccurate, as is much of the film's representation of how it works: it is highly improbable that the characters exposed to the gas would remain unaffected as long as they did. In addition, as sarin is an irreversible cholinesterase inhibitor, its effects are permanent; no antidote, even if it were to exist, would be effective unless administered immediately following exposure. Saw II is a 2005 horror film. ... The Jigsaw Killer is a fictional character in the Saw film series. ...

This plot device was adopted by video game designers as well. For example, Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six 3: Raven Shield featured terrorists that attempted to poison the food supply with VX nerve agent. Also, it was the new deadly threat in Syphon Filter: Dark Mirror, where the nerve gas, Project Dark Mirror, was said to blend with oxygen, making it more lethal. Computer and video games redirects here. ...

Before long, nerve agents began to appear on television. For example, VX was featured in the British television series Spooks as part of a simulated attack on the center of London, and recently, on season 5 of the primetime FOX series, 24, Russian separatists manage to use a fictional, vaporised variant of VX called "Sentox VX-1" on several targets in Los Angeles. For the music band, see The Spooks. ... Season Five, also known as Day 5 of the television series 24 premiered on January 15, 2006 and aired its season finale on May 22, 2006. ... For other uses, see 24 (disambiguation). ...

The Doctor Who story The Mind of Evil involves the hijacking of a nerve gas missile destined to be destroyed, and in the later story Terror of the Zygons a Scottish village is drugged with a nerve gas agent. Sarin was also featured in a later series of Spooks. This article is about the television series. ... The Mind of Evil is a serial in the British science fiction television series Doctor Who, which was first broadcast in six weekly parts from January 30 to March 6, 1971. ... Also known as Nerve agents, it is the term used for a type of chemical warfare substance that interferes with the transmission of nerve impulses. ... Terror of the Zygons is a serial in the British science fiction television series Doctor Who, which was first broadcast in four weekly parts from August 30 to September 20, 1975 // Synopsis The Fourth Doctor is summoned to Earth by a emergency signalling device he left with the Brigadier who... Also known as Nerve agents, it is the term used for a type of chemical warfare substance that interferes with the transmission of nerve impulses. ...

Author Greg Iles uses nerve agents sarin and soman in the plot for his World War II thriller Black Cross. Greg Iles (born 1960) is an American bestselling novelist. ... For other uses, see Sarin (disambiguation). ... Boiling point 198 °C (388 °F) Freezing/melting point −42 °C (−44 °F) Vapor pressure 0. ... Combatants Allied powers: China France Great Britain Soviet Union United States and others Axis powers: Germany Italy Japan and others Commanders Chiang Kai-shek Charles de Gaulle Winston Churchill Joseph Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Adolf Hitler Benito Mussolini Hideki Tōjō Casualties Military dead: 17,000,000 Civilian dead: 33,000...

The South African post-grunge band Seether was first known as "Saron Gas". For other uses, see Seether (disambiguation). ...

The Canadian industrial band Skinny Puppy wrote a song called "VX Gas Attack" (from the album VIVISectVI) which deals lyrically with the Iraqi VX bomb attack on Iran in 1988. Skinny Puppy is a prominent industrial band, formed in Vancouver, BC, Canada in 1982. ...

In the Gulf War biography Jarhead, the protagonist, Anthony Swofford, is given an atropine autoinjector to counter VX gas. Jarhead cover Jarhead is a Gulf War memoir by author Anthony Swofford. ...

In the horror sci-fi film 28 Weeks Later Doyle has to cover his face to stop himself breathing in nerve gas while trying to jump start a car. 28 Weeks Later is a 2007 British post-apocalyptic science fiction horror film, and sequel to the 2002 film 28 Days Later. ...

In the book World War Z, the Russian government drops VX Gas on hordes of refugees to reveal any carrying the zombie virus. World War Z (abbreviated WWZ) is a novel by Max Brooks which chronicles the fictional titular Zombie World War. It is a follow-up to his previous book, The Zombie Survival Guide. ... The VX nerve agent is the most well-known of the V-series of nerve agents. ...

In the Steven Spielberg film Close Encounters of the Third Kind nerve gas is used as an excuse for the evacuation of the UFO landing site. Steven Allan Spielberg (born December 18, 1946)[1] is an American film director and producer. ... This article is about the film; for the definition of the UFO related phenomenon, see Close encounter. ...

In the episode I Spy Apocalypse of the second series of spooks an EERIE exercise uses the gas as a test to evaluate the performance of the team under pressure. The gas is never released but the team are sealed on the grid and so believe that it has wiped out London .

Footnotes

References

• Borkin, Joseph (1978). The Crime and Punishment of IG Farben. Nw York: Free Press. 1978. ISBN 0-02-904630-0, available for download in Australia (as it is out-of-print) see this link.
• Clarke, Robin (1969). We all fall down: the prospects of biological and chemical warfare. Penguin. ISBN 0-14-021121-7. 
• E-Medicine. (June 29, 2004). CBRNE - Nerve Agents, V-series: Ve, Vg, Vm, Vx. Retrieved Oct. 23, 2004.
• E-Medicine. (June 30, 2004). CBRNE - Nerve Agents, G-series: Tabun, Sarin, Soman. Retrieved Oct. 23, 2004.
• Mitretek Systems. (May 2004). Short History of the Development of Nerve Gases. Retrieved Oct. 23, 2004.
• Paxman, J.; Harris, R. (2002). A Higher Form of Killing: The Secret History of Chemical and Biological Warfare (2002 Rando edition). Random House Press. ISBN 0-8129-6653-8.
• United States Senate, 103d Congress, 2d Session. (May 25, 1994). The Riegle Report. Retrieved Nov. 6, 2004.
• Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons - Nerve Agents [3]
• History of fluorophosphates as related to the development of nerve agents in Germany, Great Britain and the U.S.A.
• C. H. Gunderson, C. R. Lehmann, F. R. Sidell, B. Jabbari (1992). "Nerve agents: a review". Neurology 42: 946-950. 
• Buckley NA, Roberts D, Eddleston M. Overcoming apathy in research on organophosphate poisoning. BMJ. 2004 Nov 20;329(7476):1231-3. Review. PMID 15550429

External links

• Nervegas: America's Fifteen-year Struggle for Modern Chemical Weapons Army Chemical Review
• History Note: The CWS Effort to Obtain German Chemical Weapons for Retaliation Against Japan CBIAC Newsletter
• Goats' Milk Used in Production of Anti-nerve Gas Agents