Inflammation is the first response of the immune system to infection or irritation and may be referred to as the innate cascade. Inflammation is characterized by the following quintet: redness (rubor), heat (calor), swelling (tumor), pain (dolor) and dysfunction of the organs involved (functio laesa). The first four characteristics have been known since ancient times and are attributed to Celsus; functio laesa was added to the definition of inflammation by Rudolf Virchow in 1858. The immune system is the system of specialised cells and organs that protect an organism from outside biological influences. ... An infection is the detrimental colonization of a host organism by a foreign species. ... The immune system is the system of specialised cells and organs that protect an organism from outside biological influences. ... Aulus Cornelius Celsus (25 BC—50 AD) was a Roman encyclopedist and possibly, although not likely, a physician. ... Dr. R.L.K. Virchow Rudolf Ludwig Karl Virchow (October 13, 1821, in Schivelbein, Pomerania – September 5, 1902, in Berlin) was a German doctor, pathologist, prehistorian, biologist, and politician. ...

Characteristics

The redness and heat are caused by the increased blood supply to the affected area. Blood vessels are vasodilated upstream of an infection while capillary permeability to the affected tissue is increased, resulting in a loss of blood plasma. Vasoconstriction downstream of the infection further increases edema or swelling. The swelling distends the tissues, compresses nerve endings, and thus causes pain. The white blood cells or leucocytes take on an important role in inflammation; they extravasate from the capillaries into tissue, and carry on as phagocytes picking up bacteria and cellular debris. They may also aid by walling off an infection and preventing its spread. Red blood cells (erythrocytes) are present in the blood and help carry oxygen to the rest of the cells in the body Blood is a circulating tissue composed of fluid plasma and cells (red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets). ... The arterial system The blood vessels are part of the circulatory system and function to transport blood throughout the body. ... Blood plasma is the liquid component of blood, in which the blood cells are suspended. ... Edema (BE: oedema, formerly known as dropsy) is swelling of any organ or tissue due to accumulation of excess fluid. ... Bold text Headline text TAT HE IS STUPID DONT LISTEN TO HIM, HES A GOOF BALL WHO WILL END UP PUMPING YOUR GAS WHEN YOUR OLDER Nerves are part of the peripheral nervous system. ... White blood cells (also called leukocytes or immune cells) are a component of blood. ... Capillaries are the smallest of a bodys blood vessels, measuring 5-10 μm. ... A phagocyte is a cell that ingests (and destroys) foreign matter, such as microorganisms or debris via a process known as phagocytosis, in which these cells ingest and kill offending cells by cellular digestion. ... Phyla/Divisions Actinobacteria Aquificae Bacteroidetes/Chlorobi Chlamydiae/Verrucomicrobia Chloroflexi Chrysiogenetes Cyanobacteria Deferribacteres Deinococcus-Thermus Dictyoglomi Fibrobacteres/Acidobacteria Firmicutes Fusobacteria Gemmatimonadetes Nitrospirae Omnibacteria Planctomycetes Proteobacteria Spirochaetes Thermodesulfobacteria Thermomicrobia Thermotogae Bacteria (singular, bacterium) are a major group of living organisms. ... Cells in culture, stained for keratin (red) and DNA (green) The cell is the structural and functional unit of all living organisms, sometimes called the building blocks of life. ...

If inflammation of the affected site persists, released cytokines IL-1 and TNF will activate endothelial cells to upregulate receptors VCAM-1, ICAM-1, E-selectin, and L-selectin for various immune cells. Receptor upregulation increases extravasation of neutrophils, monocytes, activated T-helper and T-cytotoxic, and memory T and B cells to the infected site. Cytokines are small protein molecules that are the core of communication between immune system cells, and even between immune system cells and cells belonging to other tissue types. ... Interleukin-1 (IL-1) is secreted by the macrophages, monocytes and dendritic cells. ... In medicine, tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα, cachexin or cachectin) is an important cytokine involved in systemic inflammation and the acute phase response. ... Neutrophil granulocytes (commonly referred to as neutrophils) are a class of white blood cells and are part of the immune system. ... A monocyte is a leukocyte, part of the human bodys immune system that protect agains blood-borne pathogens and move quickly to sites of infection in the tissues. ... A T helper cell (or TH cell), is a T cell (a type of white blood cell or leukocyte) that express T antigen receptors (also known as the TcR) that have an affinity with Class II MHC molecules. ... A cytotoxic (or TC) T cell is a T cell (a type of white blood cell) which has on its surface antigen receptors that can bind to fragments of antigens displayed by the Class I MHC molecules of virus infected somatic cells and tumor cells. ... Memory B cells are B cells that although activated by the immune system, they are stored inside the circulatory system for later use, for long periods of time, possibly a whole lifetime. ...

Leukocytes and cytokines

Various leukocytes are involved in the initiation and maintenance of inflammation. These cells can be further stimulated to maintain inflammation through the action of adaptive cascade through lymphocytes: T cells, B cells, and antibodies. These inflammation cells are: White Blood Cells is also the name of a White Stripes album. ... A lymphocyte is a type of white blood cell involved in the human bodys immune system. ... T cells are a subset of lymphocytes that play a large role in the immune response. ... B cells are lymphocytes that play a large role in the humoral immune response (as opposed to the cell-mediated immune response). ... Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this exact name. ...

• Mast cells which release histamine and prostaglandin in response to activation of stretch receptors. This is especially important in cases of trauma.
• Macrophages which release TNF-α, IL-1 in response to activation of toll-like receptors.

A mast cell (or mastocyte) is a resident cell of connective tissue that contains many granules rich in histamine and heparin. ... Histamine is a biogenic amine chemical involved in local immune responses as well as regulating physiological function in the gut and acting as a neurotransmitter. ... A prostaglandin is any member of a group of lipid compounds that are derived from fatty acids and have important functions in the animal body. ... Trauma can represent: A serious and often body-altering physical injury, such as the removal of a limb. ... Macrophages (Greek: big eaters) are cells found in tissues that are responsible for phagocytosis of pathogens, dead cells and cellular debris. ... Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are type I transmembrane proteins that serve as a key part of the innate immune system. ...

Outcomes

The outcome in a particular circumstance will be determined by the tissue in which the injury has occurred, and the injurious agent that is causing it.

There are three possible results to inflammation:

• Resolution would be the complete reconstitution of damaged tissue, it does not usually occur in the body.
• Connective tissue scarring. Some 24 hours after inflammation first occurred the healing response will commence, this response involves the formation of connective tissue to bridge the gap caused by injury, and the process of angiogenesis which is the formation of new blood vessels, to provide nutrients to the newly formed tissue. Often healing can not occur completely and a scar will form; for example after laceration to the skin, a connective tissue scar results which does not contain any specialized structures such as hair or sweat glands.
• Ongoing or chronic inflammation. If the injurious agent continues, chronic inflammation will ensue. This is marked by inflammation lasting many days, months or even years. It is characterized by a dominating presence of macrophages in the injured tissue, which extravasate via the same methods discussed above (ICAM-1 VCAM-1). These cells are powerful defensive agents of the body, but the toxins they release (including reactive oxygen species) are injurious to our own tissues as well as invading agents. This is why chronic inflammation is almost always accompanied by tissue destruction. Finally, abscess formation can ensue in chronic inflammation (abscess being a collection of pus).

Angiogenesis is the physiological process involving the formation of new blood vessels from pre-existing vessels. ... Red blood cells (erythrocytes) are present in the blood and help carry oxygen to the rest of the cells in the body Blood is a circulating tissue composed of fluid plasma and cells (red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets). ... Nutrients and the body A nutrient is any element or compound necessary for or contributing to an organisms metabolism, growth, or other functioning. ... Scar after recent surgery on the left forearm A scar results from the biologic process of wound repair in the skin and other tissues of the body. ... A human female with brown hair. ... Sweating (also called perspiration or sometimes transpiration) is the loss of a watery fluid, consisting mainly of sodium chloride and urea in solution, that is secreted by the sweat glands in the skin of mammals. ... Reactive oxygen species (ROS) include oxygen ions, free radicals and peroxides both inorganic and organic. ... An abscess is a collection of pus collected in a cavity formed by the tissue on the basis of an infectious process (usually caused by bacteria or parasites) or other foreign materials (e. ... Pus is a whitish-yellow or yellow substance that can be found in regions of bacterial infection, including superficial infections, such as pimples. ...

Systemic inflammation

Sepsis

When inflammation overwhelms the whole organism, systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) is diagnosed. When it is due to infection, the term sepsis is applied. Vasodilation and organ dysfunction are serious problems that may lead to death. In medicine, systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) is an inflammatory state of the whole body (the system). It is characterized by: fast heart rate (tachycardia, heart rate >90 beats per minute) low blood pressure (systolic <90 mmHg or MAP <65 mmHg) low or high body temperature (<36 or >38°C... Sepsis (in Greek Σήψις, putrefaction) is a serious medical condition caused by a severe infection leading to a systemic inflammatory response. ... The blood vessels are part of the circulatory system and function to transport blood throughout the body. ...

Low-grade

With the discovery of interleukins, another concept of systemic inflammation developed. Although the processes involved are identical, this form of inflammation is not confined to a particular tissue but involves the endothelium (lining of blood vessels) and many other organ systems. The role of systemic inflammation as a cause and/or result of insulin resistance and atherosclerosis is the subject of intense research. It has little direct bearing on clinical care. Interleukins are a group of cytokines that are expressed by white blood cells (leukocytes, hence the -leukin) as a means of communication (inter-). The function of the immune system depends in a large part on interleukins, and rare deficiencies of a number of them have been described, all featuring autoimmune... The endothelium is the layer of thin, flat cells that lines the interior surface of blood vessels, forming an interface between circulating blood in the lumen and the rest of the vessel wall. ... In medicine, insulin resistance denotes a decompensation of glucose homeostasis where the tissues appear to be less responsive to insulin. ...